Research Methods Chapter 3

Qualitative research

A category of research activity characterized by a narrative analysis of information collected in the study; can include case studies, observational research, interview research.

Quantitative research

A category of research in which results are presented as numbers, typically in the form of descriptive and inferential statistics.

Operational definitions

A definition of a concept or variable in terms of precisely described operations, measures, or procedures.

parsimonious

A dog's escape behavior could be the result of trial-and-error learning or it could be an example of sophisticated reasoning and planning by the dog. The first explanation is more ___________ than the second.

qualitative

A general category of research that de-emphasizes the importance of statistical analysis is known as ___________ research.

operational definition

A good ___________ will describe a construct in terms of a specific and easily measurable behavior.

Research team

A group of researchers (professors and students) working on the same research problem.

Construct

A hypothetical factor (e.g., hunger) that cannot be observed directly but is inferred from certain behaviors (e.g., eating) and assumed to follow from certain circumstances (e.g., 24 hours without food).

Creative thinking (in science)

A process of making an innovative connection between seemingly unrelated ideas or events.

Empirical question (originally from Chapter 1)

A question that can be answered by making objective observations.

falsification

A researcher is trying to design a study to rule out the possibility that a rat needs its sense of smell to learn a maze. This is an example of what Popper called a ___________ strategy.

a. Scientific fraud is not committed in this case, especially since the goal is replication (see option d. below also). b. Not a conceptual replication because nothing was done to extend the study. c. CORRECT ANSWER - A direct replication involves replicating exactly the study procedures and attempting to sample in the same way as the original study. d. Questionable Research Practices (QRP's) are practices that breach ethical behavior of researchers; the goal is to replicate the study, not to portray the study as new research

A researcher uses the same sampling procedure and exact study procedures of a previous study in an attempt to replicate the results of the original study. What has the researcher done? a. Committed scientific fraud b. Conducted a conceptual replication c. Conducted a direct replication d. Engaged in questionable research practices (QRP's)

Theory

A set of statements that summarizes and organizes existing information about a phenomenon, provides an explanation for it, and serves as a basis for making predictions to be tested empirically.

experimental; mundane

According to Aronson, it is generally true that an experiment with __________ realism has more value to science than a study with __________ realism.

a. important source of ideas, probably a close second b. CORRECT ANSWER - the result of an answer to the "what's next?" question c. close, and somewhat related to alternative b. d. also important, but not as common as the other three alternatives

According to the text, the most common source of ideas for new research in psychology is a. some everyday observation that generates curiosity b. unanswered questions from a study recently completed c. deduction from theory d. serendipity

extension

After reading about a study on language development that compared two- and three-year olds, a researcher decides to repeat the study, but add a third group—four-year olds. That is, the study includes both replication and _________.

a. part of the standard definition b. CORRECT ANSWER - this is the common misconception about theory c. part of the standard definition d. part of the standard definition

All of the following are true about theories except a. they organize and summarize existing knowledge about a topic b. they are tentative until the facts prove them true c. they provide possible explanations for the phenomenon under study d. they lead to testable hypotheses through the process of deduction

Conceptual replication

An attempted reproduction of a study's results in which parts of the procedures of a prior study are purposely changed in order to test predictions similar to those in the original study.

Direct replication

An attempted reproduction of a study's results testing the same type of sample and using the exact procedures and statistical analyses as the original study.

Hypothesis

An educated guess about a relationship between variables that is then tested empirically.

(Experimental) Confederate

An individual who appears to be a subject in an experiment but is in fact a part of the experiment and in the employ of the experimenter.

a. not relevant b. not relevant c. CORRECT ANSWER - he returned to find the effects of a jammed pellet dispenser d. what he did after making the serendipitous discovery might have been creative

Chapter 1's description of how Skinner first produced an extinction curve is a good example of a. a parsimonious explanation b. falsification as a strategy c. a serendipitous finding d. scientific creativity

Parsimonious

Describing a theory that includes the minimum number of constructs and assumptions in order to explain and predict some phenomenon adequately.

Pilot study

During the initial stages of research, it is common for some data to be collected; problems spotted in this trial stage enable the researcher to refine the procedures and prevent the full‐scale study from being flawed methodologically.

a. non-lab studies can easily have experimental realism b. applied research can easily have experimental realism c. whether it seems like real-life is not relevant to the issue of experimental realism d. CORRECT ANSWER - it's best if participants are involved in the procedure

For drawing conclusions about human behavior, Aronson argued that experimental realism was more critical than mundane realism. What does it mean to say that a study is high in experimental realism? a. it is a tightly controlled experiment, occurring in a laboratory setting b. it involves basic research (the distinction reflects Aronson's preference for basic over applied research) c. it means that even if the study takes place in a lab, to the participants it seems like an everyday real-life situation d. it means that participants become involved in the study and behave naturally

deduction

Hypotheses are derived from theory through the logical process of ____________.

Manipulation check

In debriefing, a procedure to determine if subjects were aware of a deception experiment's true purpose; also a procedure that determines if systematic manipulations have the intended effect on participants.

pilot study

Jack has developed an elaborate procedure for a study on cognitive mapping. Before starting the experiment, he collects data on a few people to determine if his procedure is appropriate and understandable to participants. That is, Jack has conducted a _____________.

experimental realism

Milgram's study had plenty of it

serendipity

Near the end of Chapter 1, you learned how Skinner produced his first extinction curves when the food magazine accidentally broke; this event illustrates the phenomenon of ____________.

Converging operations

Occurs when the results of several studies, each employing slightly different operational definitions, nonetheless converge on the same general conclusion.

a. one disconfirming experiment won't eliminate a theory b. CORRECT ANSWER - notice that the theory isn't discarded just on the basis of one disconfirmation c. worth checking out, but not necessarily the problem d. the experiment might raise questions about the theory if it was run properly

On the basis of some theory, a prediction about the outcome of an experiment is made. The experiment does not come out as expected. What is most likely to be concluded? a. the theory has been disproven and should be discarded b. the experiment does not support the theory c. the experiment was not done properly d. the experiment tells us nothing about the theory

a. if anything, Pfungst was demonstrating disproof (falsification) b. CORRECT ANSWER -perceptual learning is more parsimonious than assuming the horse capable of high level cognition c. this was a systematic, planned study d. this happens when someone erroneously thinks they have "proven" a theory

Pfungst demonstrated that Clever Hans, rather than performing complex math, was reading and responding to visual cues. That is, Pfungst a. showed that theories can never be proven true b. provided a more parsimonious explanation of the horse's behavior c. provided an example of a serendipitous finding d. committed the fallacy of affirming the consequent

a. CORRECT ANSWER - the higher mental ability (math skill) was ruled out (falsified) b. not relevant c. parsimony comes into play when Pfungst proposed an simpler explanation for the horse's apparent skill d. not relevant

Pfungst demonstrated that when Clever Hans's questioner did not know the answer to a math problem, Hans didn't know it either. This demonstration is an example of a. falsification b. productivity c. parsimony d. serendipity

Operationism

Philosophy of science approach, proposed by Bridgman, holding that all scientific concepts should be defined in terms of a set of operations to be performed.

Deduction

Reasoning from the general to the specific; in science, used when deriving research hypotheses from theories.

Induction

Reasoning from the specific to the general; in science, when the results of research studies are used to support or refute a theory.

Falsification

Research strategy, advocated by Popper, that emphasizes putting theories to the test by trying to disprove or falsify them.

Field research

Research that occurs in any location other than a scientific laboratory.

Laboratory research

Research that occurs within the controlled confines of the scientific laboratory.

Basic research

Research with the goal of describing, predicting, and explaining fundamental principles of behavior.

Applied research

Research with the goal of trying to solve an immediate real‐life problem.

Programs of research

Series of interrelated studies in which the outcome of one study leads naturally to another.

a. both basic and applied research are highly likely to include statistical analyses b. CORRECT ANSWER - there might be some summary statistics in a qualitative study, but for the most part, the results will be reported as a narrative analysis c. field research, unless it is qualitative research, will be likely to use statistical analysis d. both basic and applied research are highly likely to include statistical analyses

Statistical analyses are least likely to be found in a. applied research b. qualitative research c. field research d. basic research

Mundane realism

The degree to which an experiment mirrors real‐life experiences; considered less important than experimental realism.

Experimental realism

The depth to which participants become involved in the experiment; considered more important than mundane realism.

construct

The perception of inconsistency leads to a state of "cognitive dissonance," according to Festinger. The term "cognitive dissonance" is an example of a _________.

Serendipity

The process of making an accidental discovery; finding X when searching for Y.

Replication

The repetition of an experiment; exact replications are rare, occurring primarily when the results of a prior study are suspected to be erroneous.

productivity

The theory of cognitive dissonance, proposed in the 1950s, is still leading to predictions that result in research. That is, on the criterion of _________ of the theory has been a very good one.

a. CORRECT ANSWER - studies using different operational definitions of hunger in a maze study was the example used in the chapter b. different researchers often use different operational definitions c. might be true, but not what is meant by converging operations d. not relevant

What is meant by the concept of "converging operations?" a. it refers to studies using different operational definitions that yield similar results b. it refers to the combined results of several studies using identical operational definitions c. over the years, consensus emerges in different labs about the one true operational definition of a construct d. it refers to the process by which ideas for applied research derive from the findings of basic research

a. there is a great deal of creativity in science b. the opposite is true c. creativity includes the invention of apparatus, but also includes the development of methodology, control procedures, ideas for testing theory, etc. d. CORRECT ANSWER - "chance favors the prepared mind"

Which of the following is true about creative thinking in science? a. scientists are "objective," unlike artists, so there is very little creativity in science b. creativity is most likely to occur when the scientists doesn't know very much about the research topic in question c. in science, creativity is limited to the invention of apparatus (i.e., technological advances) d. creative thinking in science requires some level of knowledge about a subject being investigated

a. the opposite is true b. ethical issues occur in all psychological research c. CORRECT ANSWER - the Sternberg research on cognitive functioning of children infected with intestinal parasites is a good example d. field research can easily be quantitative

Which of the following is true about field research? a. it can involve applied research, but it is more likely to involve basic research b. unlike laboratory research, ethics is seldom a problem in field research c. it can produce results that improve the lives of those being studied d. because of the lack of control, field research is always qualitative research

a. CORRECT ANSWER - the lab study controlled for "type of men in the study" and strengthened the overall conclusion about romantic love b. it is not an example of qualitative research c. Bushman and Anderson's explanations for the outcome are reasonably parsimonious d. in the lab study, high on mundane; in the field study, high on both

Which of the following is true about the Bushman and Anderson's (2009) studies on violent media exposure and helping behavior? a. good example of the how a finding is strengthened if it happens both in the lab and in the field b. good illustration of the strengths of qualitative research c. its shortcomings are a good example of the need for parsimonious explanations d. high on mundane realism; low on experimental realism

a. Aronson's research evolved through testing dissonance theory b. CORRECT ANSWER - Darley and Latané's research derived from media reports of the killing of Kitty Genovese c. this study was in response to a claim of mental ability in a horse d. this research was an attempt to study home-finding in rats

Which of the following research projects developed after researchers made some everyday observations of human behavior? a. Aronson's research showing that cognitive dissonance is strongest when one of the cognitions relates to the self concept b. Darley and Latané's study of helping behavior and the bystander effect c. the investigation of the alleged abilities of Clever Hans d. Small's maze learning research

a. CORRECT ANSWER - note that there is no mention of the theory being "proven" b. affirming the consequent occurs when the experiment succeeds, and the researcher erroneously concludes that the theory has been shown to be true c. non-support can say a lot about a theory (e.g., lead to modifications) d. not good - if this happens, the theory cannot be falsified and is therefore useless

Which of the following true about the relationship between theory building and data collection? a. when studies come out as expected, inductive support for the theory is gained b. if an experiment fails, discarding the experiment is an example of affirming the consequent c. when a hypothesis is not supported, virtually nothing has been learned about the theory d. a good theory will be inclusive enough to explain every possible research outcome

Productivity

With reference to theory, the amount of research generated to test a theory; theories that lead to a great deal of research are considered productive.

creative

___________ thinking occurs in science when a researcher sees a connection between two seemingly unrelated ideas.

parsimonious

adequate explanation with fewest assumptions

applied research

designed for problem solving

hypothesis

educated guess about a study's outcome

induction

from specific findings to broad conclusions

replication

increases confidence in the validity of a study

construct

inferred from behavior

experimental confederate

seems to be a subject in the study, but is not

theory

summarizes existing knowledge

falsification

to show that Clever Hans couldn't do math