Research methods final

By convention, it has been determined that alpha levels should be set no larger than ____.

.05

​What is the most relevant question you should ask when reading an introduction?

Are the conclusions supported by the results?

faithful subject role

These participants attempt to follow instructions to the letter and avoid acting on any suspicions they have about the purpose of the study. Two types of participants take on this role: those who want to help science and know they should not allow their suspicions to enter into their responses, and those who are simply apathetic and do not give the study much thought. These are the participants we really want in our study.

negativistic subject role

These participants have identified the hypothesis of the study and are trying to act contrary to the investigator's hypothesis. Clearly, we do not want participants in our study to adopt this role.

good subject role

These participants have identified the hypothesis of the study and are trying to produce responses that support the investi- gator's hypothesis. As good as this may sound, we do not want partici- pants to adopt the good subject role because then we do not know if the results of the study extend to individuals who did not adopt such a role.

How will participants change their normal behavior if they respond to demand characteristics by adopting "the good subject role?"

They will attempt to produce the data that they think you want.

​The ethical guidelines for nonhuman subjects include that all individuals who are using animals in research have received training in ____.

animal handling and care

Variables

are characteristics or conditions that change or have different val- ues for different individuals. For example, the weather, the economy, and your state of health can change from day to day. Also, two people can be dif- ferent in terms of personality, intelligence, age, gender, self-esteem, height, weight, and so on.

constructs

are hypothetical attributes or mechanisms that help explain and predict behavior in a theory.

Methods of acquiring knowledge

are ways in which a person can know things or discover answers to questions.

​A researcher plans to evaluate a new reading program by measuring students' reading skill before and after the program begins. If all the students have high reading skills scores before the program begins, then the measurement procedure has a sensitivity problem known as a ____.

ceiling effect

​A study examining the relationship between humor and memory compares memory performance scores for one group presented with humorous sentences and a second group presented with nonhumorous sentences. The participants presented with the humorous sentences are all males. The participants presented with the nonhumorous sentences are all females. In this study, gender (male/female) is best characterized as a(n) ____ variable.

confounding *not extraneous*

​A measurement procedure is valid if it ____.

measures what you intend it to measure

Using observations of a small number of humans to make a statement about human behavior in general is an example of ____ reasoning.

deductive

subjects

nonhuman

​One category of data is obtained by measuring two different variables for each individual in a single group of participants. What statistics are most commonly used for data in this category?

not descriptive statistics i think its correlations and chi-square tests

reactivity

occurs when participants modify their natural behavior in re- sponse to the fact that they are participating in a research study or the knowl- edge that they are being measured.

experimenter bias

occurs when the measurements obtained in a study are in- fluenced by the experimenter's expectations or personal beliefs regarding the outcome of the study.

validity

of a measurement procedure is the degree to which the measure- ment process measures the variable that it claims to measure.

reliability

of a measurement procedure is the stability or consistency of the measurement. If the same individuals are measured under the same conditions, a reliable measurement procedure produces identical (or nearly identical) measurements.

empirical method

or empiricism, uses observation or direct sensory experience to obtain knowledge.

rational method

or rationalism, seeks answers by the use of logical reasoning.

replication

or repetition of observation, allows verification of the findings. Note that only public observations can be repeated, and thus only public observations are verifiable.

​A teacher separates the students in his class into high, medium, and low reading skill groups. What scale of measurement is being used to create the groups?

ordinal

​A problem with a longitudinal design is that the results may be distorted by ____.

participant attrition

A research proposal is a ____.​

plan for a new study

What would the scatter plot show for data that produce a Pearson correlation of r = +.88?

points clustered close to a line that slopes up to the right

​Dr. Cummings conducts an experiment on memory using participants above the age of 65. All people above the age of 65 would make up the ____.

population

The textbook describes a study by Menzies & Lane (2012) in which the Student Risk Screening Scale (SRSS) was administered to a group of students and then the students were monitored for self-control, academic performance, and discipline referrals. The purpose of this study was to establish ____ validity for the test.

predictive

​You develop a new measure of honesty and you find that people who score high on your measure show more honest behavior than people who score low. You have demonstrated ____.

predictive validity

​The purpose of an operational definition is to ____.

provide a definition and a method for measuring a hypothetical construct

behavioral measures

provide researchers with a vast number of options, making it possible to select the behavior(s) that seems to be best for defin- ing and measuring the construct. For example, the construct "mental alertness" could be operationally defined by behaviors such as reaction time, reading comprehension, logical reasoning ability, or ability to focus attention. Depending on the specific purpose of a research study, one of these measures probably is more appropriate than the others. In clinical sit- uations in which a researcher works with individual clients, a single con- struct such as depression may reveal itself as a separate, unique behavioral problem for each client. In this case, the clinician can construct a separate, unique behavioral definition of depression that is appropriate for each patient.

The method section of an APA-style research report ____.​

provides enough detail for replication

​Determining a person's reaction time (in milliseconds) would involve measurement on a(n) ____ scale of measurement.

ratio

​Participants who know that they are being observed may modify their behavior. This problem is known as ____.

reactivity

demand characteristic

refers to any of the potential cues or features of a study that (1) suggest to the participants what the purpose and hypothe- sis is, and (2) influence the participants to respond or behave in a certain way.

​Measurement that includes a large error component will have very low ____.

reliability

construct validity

requires that the scores obtained from a measurement procedure behave exactly the same as the variable itself. Construct validity is based on many research studies that use the same measurement procedure and grows gradually as each new study contributes more evidence.

​Dr. Garza conducts an experiment on memory using participants above the age of 65. Because she cannot include all people above the age of 65, she will selects what is known as a ____.

sample

Why is random assignment used in between-subjects experimental designs?​

to eliminate systematic differences between the groups

deduction or deductive reasoning

uses a general statement as the basis for reaching a conclusion about specific examples.

In the materials subsection of an APA-style methods section, you tell the reader ____.​

what questionnaires were used in the study

In an experiment examining the effects of size of plate on amount of food eaten, one group of participants is measured after eating food on 12 inch plates. A week later, the same group of participants is measured after eating food on 10 inch plates. This is an example of a ____ design.​

within-subjects

Research results indicate that the more time individuals spend watching educational television programs as preschool children, the higher their high school grades will be. This is an example of a ____ relationship between variables.

​coincidental

​When students apply to graduate school, they usually are required to submit GRE scores along with their applications. College officials know that there is a good relationship between scores on the GRE and success in graduate school. In this situation, success in graduate school is best characterized as the ____ variable.

​criterion

premise statements

describe facts or assumptions that are presumed to be true.

The introduction section of a research article typically ____.

describes the relevant prior research, overall purpose and rationale of the research

​In a chemistry class, a group of students try mixing two chemicals together to see what will happen. These students are using the ____ method to gather information.

empirical

In an experiment, the purpose for manipulating the independent variable is to help ____.

establish the direction of the relationship and help eliminate the third variable problem.

chapter 1 summary

As you have seen so far, the scientific method is not the only way to know the answers or find the answers to questions. The methods of tenacity, intu- ition, authority, rationalism, and empiricism are different ways of acquiring knowledge. Table 1.1 provides a summary of these five methods. We should point out that different people can use different methods to answer the same question and can arrive at different, or sometimes the same, answers. For example, if you wanted to know the weight of one of your classmates, you might have her step on a scale (empirical method), simply ask how much she weighs (method of authority), or compare her physical size to your own and calculate an estimated weight relative to how much you weigh (rational method). At this point, you should review the learning objectives presented at the begin- ning of each section and be sure that you have mastered each objective. Most students enroll in a research methodology course because it is re- quired. We hope, however, that you now see that understanding research meth- odology can be useful. For example, perhaps at some point in your future, you will conduct a study. In addition, understanding research methodology will help you understand and evaluate journal articles and descriptions of research. Furthermore, with so many research findings bombarding us daily, you will be able to make more informed decisions about those findings and how they may affect your life. Finally, the type of thinking that a scientist does can be used anywhere and at any time. Although this textbook is devoted to discussing the scientific method, there are other ways of finding answers to questions. The methods of tenacity,intuition, authority, rationalism, and empiricism are different ways of acquiring knowledge. Each method has its strengths and limitations. The scientific method combines the various methods to achieve a more valid way of answering questions. The scientific method is empirical, public, and objective. The scientific method consists of five steps: (1) observation of behavior or other phenomena; (2) formation of a tentative answer or explanation, called a hypothesis; (3) use of the hypothesis to generate a testable prediction; (4) eval- uation of the prediction by making systematic, planned observations; and (5) use of the observations to support, refute, or refine the original hypothesis. The distinction between qualitative and quantitative research is based on the kind of data that they produce. Qualitative studies tend to produce narrative reports whereas quantitative studies produce numerical data that are eval- uated using statistical methods. In this book, we focus on quantitative research. The research process is the way the scientific method is used to answer a particular question. The ten steps of the research process provide a frame- work for the remainder of this book.

Chapter 2 summary

At this point, you should review the learning objectives presented at the begin- ning of each section and be sure that you have mastered each objective. Beginning the research process can seem intimidating, but keeping a few points in mind will make the task a little easier. First, pick a topic in which you have some real personal interest to help yourself stay motivated throughout the research process. Second, do your homework on your topic; collect and famil- iarize yourself with the background information in your area. Third, keep an open mind in settling on a research topic; let your background reading lead you to a specific idea. Fourth, after doing the background reading, focus spe- cifically on one research question. Finally, break down the planning and con- ducting of your research into manageable steps, and take them one at a time. All research begins with a topic area, and, fortunately, there are many places from which topics can come. Feel free to get topics for research from your own personal interests, your own casual observations, practical prob- lems, and reports of others' observations and theories. Once you settle on a general topic area, become familiar with the current research in that area. To find research journal articles in psychology, we rec- ommend PsycINFO because this database provides extensive coverage of psy- chology literature. Consult your librarian to determine the appropriate data- bases for other academic disciplines. Based on their titles and abstracts, discard articles that are not directly relevant. As you read selected articles, you will "find" a new research idea. The next step in the research process is to trans- form your research idea into a hypothesis.

parallel-forms reliability

If alternative versions of the measur- ing instrument are used for the two measurements, the reliability measure is called

basic research

Research studies intended to answer theoretical questions or gather knowledge simply for the sake of new knowledge are classified as basic research.

Which example illustrates the proper way to cite a source with two authors in a research report when the authors' names appear as the subject of the sentence?​

Smith & Jones, 2005

interval and ratio scales

The categories on interval and ratio scales are organized sequentially, and all categories are the same size. Thus, the scale of measurement consists of a series of equal intervals like the inches on a ruler. Other common examples of inter- val or ratio scales are the measures of time in seconds, weight in pounds, and temperature in degrees Fahrenheit. Notice that in each case, one interval (one inch, one second, one pound, one degree) is the same size, no matter where it is located on the scale.

apprehensive subject role

These participants are overly concerned that their performance in the study will be used to evaluate their abilities or personal characteristics. They try to place themselves in a desirable light by responding in a socially desirable fashion instead of truthfully. Again, we do not want participants to adopt this role because they are not providing truthful responses.

nominal scale

The categories that make up a nominal scale simply represent qualitative (not quantitative) differences in the variable measured. The categories have differ- ent names but are not related to each other in any systematic way. For example, if you were measuring academic majors for a group of college students, the cat- egories would be art, chemistry, English, history, psychology, and so on. Each student would be placed in a category according to his major. Measurements from a nominal scale allow us to determine whether two individuals are differ- ent, but they do not permit any quantitative comparison. For example, if one individual is an art major and another is an English major, we can say that the two individuals have different majors, but we cannot determine the direction of the difference (is art "more than" English?), and we cannot determine the magnitude of the difference. Other examples of nominal scales include classi- fying people by race, gender, or occupation.

ordinal scale

The categories that make up an ordinal scale have different names and are or- ganized sequentially. Often, an ordinal scale consists of a series of ranks (first, second, third, and so on) like the order of finish in a horse race. Occasionally, the categories are identified by verbal labels such as small, medium, and large drink sizes at a fast-food restaurant. In either case, the fact that the categories form an ordered sequence means that there is a directional relationship be- tween categories. With measurements from an ordinal scale, we can determine whether two individuals are different, and we can determine the direction of difference. However, ordinal measurements do not allow us to determine the magnitude of the difference between two individuals. For example, if Billy is placed in the low reading group and Tim is placed in the high reading group, we know that Tim is a better reader, but we do not know how much better. Other examples of ordinal scales include socioeconomic class (upper, mid- dle, lower) and T-shirt sizes (small, medium, large). In addition, ordinal scales are often used to measure variables for which it is difficult to assign numerical scores. For example, people can rank order their food preferences but might have trouble explaining how much they prefer steak to hamburger

desynchrony

The lack of agreement between two measures

​If people score high on one measure and score low on another measure, there is ____

a negative relationship between the two measures

method of authority

a person relies on information or answers from an expert in the subject area.

​If people score low on one measure and also score low on another measure, there is ____

a positive relationship between the two measures

​The specific treatment conditions that are used in an experiment are called the ____.

levels of the independent variable

scientific method

is a method of acquiring knowledge that uses observa- tions to develop a hypothesis, and then uses the hypothesis to make logical predictions that can be empirically tested by making additional, systematic observations. Typically, the new observations lead to a new hypothesis, and the cycle continues.

participants

human

double-blind

if both the researcher and the participants are unaware of the predicted outcome.

single-blind

if the researcher does not know the predicted outcome.

method of tenacity

information is accepted as true because it has al- ways been believed or because superstition supports it.

method of intuition

information is accepted on the basis of a hunch or "gut feeling."

Which is the correct order of the sections of a research report?​

introduction, method, results, and discussion

physiological measures

involve brain imaging techniques such as positron emission tomography (PET) scanning and magnetic resonance imag- ing (MRI). These techniques allow researchers to monitor activity levels in spe- cific areas of the brain during different kinds of activity. For example, research- ers studying attention have found specific areas of the brain where activity increases as the complexity of a task increases and more attention is required (Posner & Badgaiyan, 1998). Other research has used brain imaging to deter- mine which areas of the brain are involved in different kinds of memory tasks (Wager & Smith, 2003) or in the processing of information about pain (Wager et al., 2004). One advantage of physiological measures is that they are extremely objec- tive. The equipment provides accurate, reliable, and well-defined measure- ments that are not dependent on subjective interpretation by either the re- searcher or the participant. One disadvantage of such measures is that they typically require equipment that may be expensive or unavailable. In addition, the presence of monitoring devices creates an unnatural situation that may cause participants to react differently than they would under normal circum- stances.

induction or inductive reasoning

involves using a relatively small set of spe- cific observations as the basis for forming a general statement about a larger set of possible observations.

secondary source

is a description or summary of another person's work. A secondary source is written by someone who did not participate in the research or observations being discussed.

primary source

is a firsthand report of observations or research results written by the individual(s) who actually conducted the research and made the observations.

artifact

is a nonnatural feature accidentally introduced into something be- ing observed. In the context of a research study, an artifact is an external fac- tor that may influence or distort the measurements. For example, a doctor who startles you with an ice-cold stethoscope is probably not going to get accurate observations of your heartbeat. An artifact can threaten the validity of the measurements because you are not really measuring what you intended, and it can be a threat to reliability. Although there are many potential artifacts, two deserve special mention: experimenter bias and participant reactivity.

operational definition

is a procedure for indirectly measuring and defin- ing a variable that cannot be observed or measured directly. An operational definition specifies a measurement procedure (a set of operations) for measur- ing an external, observable behavior, and uses the resulting measurements as a definition and a measurement of the hypothetical construct.

argument

is a set of premise statements that are logically combined to yield a conclusion.

theory

is a set of statements about the mecha- nisms underlying a particular behavior. Theories help organize and unify dif- ferent observations of the behavior and its relationship with other variables. A good theory generates predictions about the behavior.

hypothesis

is a statement that describes or ex- plains a relationship between or among variables. A hypothesis is not a final answer but rather a proposal to be tested and evaluated. For example, a re- searcher might hypothesize that there is a relationship between personality characteristics and cigarette smoking. Or another researcher might hypothe- size that a dark and dreary environment causes winter depression.

spseudoscience

is a system of ideas often presented as science but actually lacking some of the key components that are essential to scientific research. Theories such as aromatherapy, astrology, and intelligent design are examples of pseudoscience that are unsupported by empirical evi- dence. Pseudoscience is common among popular-psychology gurus who write self-help books and appear on TV talk shows presenting novel systems to solve your romantic relationship problems, end your episodes of depression, or help bring a normal life to your autistic child.

method of faith

is a variant of the method of authority in which people have unquestioning trust in the authority figure and, therefore, accept infor- mation from the authority without doubt or challenge.

face validity

is an unscientific form of validity demonstrated when a measure- ment procedure superficially appears to measure what it claims to measure.

Laboratory

is any setting that is obviously devoted to the discipline of sci- ence. It can be any room or any space that the subject or participant perceives as artificial.

qualitative research

is based on making observations that are summarized and interpreted in a narrative report.

quantitative research

is based on measuring variables for individual partici- pants to obtain scores, usually numerical values, that are submitted to statis- tical analysis for summary and interpretation.

convergent validity

is demonstrated by a strong relationship between the scores obtained from two (or more) different methods of measuring the same construct.

divergent validity

is demonstrated by showing little or no relationship be- tween the measurements of two different constructs.

predictive validity

is demonstrated when scores obtained from a measure accurately predict behavior according to a theory.

concurrent validity

is demonstrated when scores obtained from a new measure are directly related to scores obtained from an established measure of the same variable.

test-retest reliability

is established by comparing the scores obtained from two successive measurements of the same individuals and calculating a cor- relation between the two sets of scores.

applied research

is intended to answer practical questions or solve practical problems.

split-half reliability

is obtained by splitting the items on a questionnaire or test in half, computing a separate score for each half, and then calculating the degree of consistency between the two scores for a group of participants.

testable hypothesis

is one for which all of the variables, events, and individ- uals can be defined and observed.

refutable hypothesis

is one that can be demonstrated to be false. That is, it is possible for the outcome to be different from the prediction.

ceiling effect

is the clustering of scores at the high end of a measurement scale, allowing little or no possibility of increases in value.

floor effect

is the clustering of scores at the low end of a measurement scale, allowing little or no possibility of decreases in value.

inter-rater reliability

is the degree of agreement between two observers who simultaneously record measurements of the behaviors.

​Using an anonymous questionnaire to determine how many times students send or receive text messages during class is an example of using what modality of measurement?

self report

​A researcher develops a 20-question test to measure anxiety and administers it to a group of participants. To evaluate the reliability of the test, the researcher computes a score for the first 10 questions and a score for the last 10 questions for each participant and then computes the correlation between the two scores. What is the researcher measuring?

split-half reliability

​Establishing the reliability of a measurement procedure by using the procedure to measure the same individuals on two separate occasions and comparing the two sets of scores is known as ____ reliability.

test retest