Research Methods in Psychology Chapter 2 Smart Book

Identify a statement that best illustrates the law of parsimony at work.

A scientist chooses the simplest explanation for extinction of penguins from many complex explanations.

Identify a true statement about a theory and its predictive power.

A theory should predict phenomena beyond those for which it was originally designed.

Identify an example of a functional explanation.

A vehicle is used to transport items or persons from one location to another.

Which of the following examples best describes a law?

An empirically verified relationship between temperature of a gas and its pressure

Identify the option that best exemplifies a scientific theory.

An explanation for rapid tree growth that uses well-published botanical facts to understand the phenomenon.

Identify a true statement about the role of theory in science.

At the highest level, theories represent a particular way to understand the phenomena with which they deal.

Match the components of Bernard Forscher's allegory (in the left column) to their meanings (in the right column). Bricks Edifices

Bricks - Facts/observations Edifices - Theories

True or false: The last step of the hypothetico-deductive method is to modify a theory's assumptions in order to accommodate new evidence.

This is true. The last step of the hypothetico-deductive method is to modify a theory's assumptions in order to accommodate new evidence.

True or false: A disconfirmational strategy follows the form that if A is true (the theory is correct), then B will not be true (a certain outcome will not occur); thus, if B is true (the outcome does happen), then A is false (the theory is erroneous).

True

True or false: Scientific hypotheses must be posed in a form that allows them to be rejected.

True

True or false: The history of science in general, and psychology in particular, is littered with theories that were crushed under their own weight of complexity.

True. The history of science in general, and psychology in particular, is littered with theories that were crushed under their own weight of complexity.

Identify a role that a theory is expected to play in science.

Understanding

How are hypotheses different from theories?

Unlike theories, hypotheses are not well substantiated.

A theory can be excused for failing to _____.

account for erroneous data

To be of any value, a theory must _____.

account for most of the existing data within its domain

Strong inference is a valid procedure when _____.

alternative theories specify outcomes with sufficient precision to discriminate them

A mechanistic explanation is similar to a functional explanation in that both _____.

are possible types of explanations that can be provided by a scientific theory

Adequately testing a theory requires _____.

both confirmational and disconfirmational strategies

A(n) ___ ___ is a set of program statements that define the variables to be considered and the ways in which their values will change over the course of time or trials.

computational / model

A(n) __ __ is a set of program statements that define the variables to be considered and the ways in which their values will change over the course of time or trials.

computer model

Andrea, a scientist, formulates a theory on genetic mutation. In order to test her theory, she sets out to find evidence that supports her theory. This is an example of a _____.

confirmational strategy

The strategy of looking for confirmation of a theory's predictions is called a(n) __ __

confirmational strategy

The fall of the Hull-Spence theory of learning endangered the relevance of experiments that _____.

demonstrated no clear functional relationship among simple variables

According to Platt, the trap of committing to a theory long past its expiration date can be avoided by _____.

developing several alternative explanations for a phenomenon and eliminating some of them based on experimentation

The way of testing a theory in which a positive result will disconfirm (rather than confirm) a prediction is called a __ __

disconfirmational strategy

Helen, a scientist, formulates a theory on the process of evolution. To strengthen her theory, she actively searches for evidence that disproves her theory. This is an example of a _____.

disconfirmational theory

In the context of the use of strong inference, according to Kuhn, _____.

old theories are supported even after they have been proven to be invalid

According to the definition of theory provided by the U.S. Academy of Science, a theory is an explanation of some aspect of the natural world. This means that _____.

only observable phenomena fall within the scientific realm of theory

While testing a fresh untested theory, it is prudent to first _____.

pursue a confirmational strategy

A(n) __ __ defines the relationships between its variables and constants in a set of mathematical formulas.

quantitative theory

A descriptive theory differs from an analogical theory in that a descriptive theory _____.

simply seeks to describe the phenomenon of interest

The __ __ process requires that experiments be made successively to eliminate alternative after alternative till only one plausible alternative remains.

strong inference

If a theory specifies outcomes under particular conditions, and if these outcomes do not occur, then the theory is rejected or revised. This proves that the theory possesses the characteristic of _____.

testability

A theory is similar to a hypothesis in that both are _____.

testable

Strong inference can work only if _____.

the alternative explanations generate well-defined predictions

On the basis of Bernard Forscher's results on experimentation, _____ provides one rationale for selecting just those observations that will contribute most to progress in understanding.

theory

Sam, a scientist, observes the growth rate of microbes and successfully attributes nuclear fission as the reason behind this phenomenon. Also, on the basis of this finding, he correctly predicts the outcomes of new observations. This means that the theory he is devising is _____.

well-substantiated

True or false: Analogical theories are the highest level of analysis as they represent new ways of explaining a phenomenon.

This is false. Fundamental theories represent the highest level of analysis as they represent new ways of explaining a phenomenon.

Smith, a linguist, is provided five different theories about how languages evolved over time. He studies these theories and chooses the simplest theory to be the most effective. In this context, Smith has adhered to the _____.

law of parsimony

In the context of a theory's ability to predict, which of the following is suggested by the Rescorla-Wagner model of classical conditioning?

Further pairings of the compound CS with the unconditioned stimulus would cause the conditioned response to weaken.

An explanation that describes physical components and the chain of cause and effect to explain how something works is known as a(n) __ __

mechanistic explanation

A _____ represents an application of a general theory to a specific situation.

model

A(n) __ is a specific implementation of a more general theoretical perspective.

model

Which of the following is true of Noam Chomsky's theory of language acquisition?

It specifies verbally the important variables that contribute to language acquisition.

A(n) __ usually has a more limited domain than a theory.

model

Identify a field of science in which rigorous theory-building has been most successful.

Physics

A(n) ___ refers to a specific implementation of a more general theoretical view.

model

Arrange the following steps of the hypothetico-deductive method used by Clark Hull in the right order.

1. Adopt assumptions about processes involved in learning. 2. Deprive predictions. 3. Submit predictions to experimental testing. 4. Modify, if necessary, assumptions in the light of new evidence.

Arrange the following theories in an increasing order with regard to their levels of analysis. (Place the highest level theory at the top.)

1. Fundamental theories 2. Analogical theories 3. Descriptive theories

Mechanistic explanations

They tell how a system works without necessarily telling why it does or what it does.

In the order of their occurrence, rank the steps that a child follows to acquire language as stated by Noam Chomsky in his theory of language acquisition. (Place the step that occurs first at the top.)

1. The child acquires language by analyzing the language that he or she hears. 2. The language heard by the child is processed, and the rules of language are extracted. 3. The child formulates hypotheses about how language works and tests those hypotheses against reality.

Identify a true statement about theories in psychology.

They usually take the form of a set of verbal statements that describe their basic assumptions.

The problem with the Hull-Spence hypothetico-deductive method or approach to theory development can be overcome by ensuring that _____.

more than a simple hypothesis awaits the development of an adequate observational base

Identify the criterion that a theory fulfills when the explanation for a phenomenon provided by the theory offers good grounds for believing that the phenomenon would occur under the specified conditions.

Explanatory relevance

True or false: A functional explanation describes the mechanism and the chain of cause of effect through which conditions act on the mechanism to produce its behavior.

False (A functional explanation describes an attribute of something in terms of its function.)

Generality of theory

It applies in a variety of circumstances to predict a specific set of phenomena.

Predictive abilities of theory

It predicts the characteristics of as yet unobserved phenomena.

According to Bernard Forscher, what is the result of experimentation conducted without the guidance of theory?

It produces a significant amount of irrelevant information.

Identify the type of explanation that explains how something works rather than describing why a specific attribute of a mechanism exists.

Mechanistic explanation

Identify an example of a qualitative theory in psychology.

Naom Chomsky's theory of language acquisition

Identify an example of a quantitative theory in psychology.

Norman Anderson's information integration theory

Identify the theory that states that a problem should be stated in the simplest possible terms and explained with the fewest postulates possible.

Ockham's Razor

Identify a correct guideline for employing a computer model to deal with theories in psychology.

State precisely what variables are involved.

Identify a subject that fits the law of parsimony.

The modern theory of memory

Identify the correct statement about the field of psychology in the context of the strong inference process.

Theories in the field of psychology are loosely stated verbalizations limiting the use of the strong inferences process.

Functional explanations

They refer to the purpose or goal of a given attribute or system without describing how those purposes or goals are achieved.

An analogical theory differs from a fundamental theory in that an analogical theory _____.

draws parallels between known systems and the phenomenon of interest

If someone were to suggest that the rough sleep you had last night was caused by the color of your socks, you would probably reject this theory on the grounds that it lacks _____.

explanatory relevance

A qualitative theory tends to be _____.

expressed in verbal terms

A ceiling fan is used to induce evaporative cooling in a room. This is an example of a(n) _____.

functional explanation

A(n) __ __ describes an attribute of something in terms of its function.

functional explanation

Employing a computer model for theories in psychology will _____.

help in revealing inconsistencies or unspoken assumptions in the model

The potential of a theory to provide ideas for new research is known as the __ __ of the theory.

heuristic value

According to the U.S. National Academy of Sciences, a(n) ____ is tentative explanation for an observation, phenomenon, or scientific problem that can be tested by further investigation

hypothesis

The development of the Hull-Spence theory followed the _____.

hypothetico-deductive method

The method of theory development that consisted of adopting specific assumptions about the processes involved in learning, deriving predictions, submitting these predictions to experimental test, and then modifying one or more assumptions in the light of new evidence is known as the _____.

hypothetico-deductive method

Rigorous theory-building is quite difficult in psychology because the field ______.

involves highly complex interacting systems that cannot be broken down into simpler systems for study

A law is different from a theory in that a law _____.

is not normally subject to disconfirmation

The heuristic value of a theory _____.

is often independent of its validity

An important defect of the confirmational strategy is that _____.

it entails that no number of confirmations can ensure that the theory is right

The main reason the Hull-Spence theory of learning collapsed was that _____.

it had become too complex involving too many variables

A theory is testable if _____.

it is capable of failing some empirical test

A theory that has been substantially verified is sometimes called a(n)

law

Boyd, a physicist, derives a principle of heat transfer that links the amount of heat traveling through a surface and the distance the heat travels. Assuming that he verifies the derived principle using empirical verification, this principle would most likely be an example of a _____.

law

If there are two competing theories concerning a behavior, the one that explains the behavior in the simplest terms is preferred under the _____.

law of parsimony