Research Methods Psychology Exam 1
Identify and Minimize Risks in Milgram
(a) participants' severe negative reactions occurred after this point and (b) most participants who administered the 150-V shock continued all the way to the 450-V maximum. Thus the researcher was able to compare his results directly with Milgram's at every point up to the 150-V shock and also was able to estimate how many of his participants would have continued to the maximum—but without subjecting them to the severe stress that Milgram did. (The results, by the way, were that these contemporary participants were just as obedient as Milgram's were.)
objective
(adj) factual, related to reality or physical objects; not influenced by emotions, unbiased
BF Skinner
(behaviorist 1920s)-rejected introspection: studied consequences of behavior (operant conditioning): "pigeons rewarded w/ pellets for desired effect" ( If a player touches his crucifix and then gets a hit, he may decide the gesture was responsible for his good fortune and touch his crucifix the next time he comes to the plate. )
John Watson
(behaviorist in 1920s) - denied introspection "can observe people's behavior as they respond to different situations" - Little Albert: condition response
qualtative
(starts from end of quantative) make careful observations, identify patterns in what is seen, determine principles behind observation -problem:what do you want to communicate -hypothesis:why do you use certain way of describing something -procedure:observe evidence seeking correctness of hypothesis
correlational approach
*is x significantly related w/y? -indivdual difference -large sample vs. clinical case studies -direction and magnitude -cannot make casual reference (3 possibilities)
Hypothesis Prediction
- A tentative question waiting for evidence to support or refute it - A statement that makes an assertion concerning what will occur in a particular research investigation
What are the components of an Empirical Journal Article?
- Abstract - Introduction - Method - Results - Discussion - References
informed consent
A written agreement to participate in a study, who has been informed of all the risks that participation may entail.
validity
Ability of a test to measure what it is supposed to measure and to predict what it is supposed to predict
reliability
Ability of a test to yield very similar scores for the same individual over repeated testings
Define the main parts of a research article:
Abstract, Introduction, Method, Results, Discussion- Abstract- always written last summarizes everything you did and found. Introduction- a summary of others research related to our ideas and a formal statement of your research problem, Methods- a description of everything done in study a recipe, Results, - defined to statistics no discussion yet, Discussion- you thought on what all of this means 1st sentence is important
internal validity
Addresses the relationship between the concept being measured and the process for measuring it
Construct Validity
Adequacy of the operational definition of variables
reduction
Adopt experimental designs that use the fewest animal subjects possible.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Repeated Measures Design
Advantages -Fewer participants -Extremely sensitive to statistical differences -Conditions are identical because person is own control group Disadvantages -Order effect (how experimental material is presented like 1st,2nd,3rd) -Practice effect (learning how to do it over and over) -Fatigue effect (get bored of doing it over and over) -Carryover effect (carried over from one experimental condition like in a within-subject design.)
What are Confounds?
Alternative explanations for an outcome.
consent form
Although the process of obtaining informed consent often involves having participants read and sign a consent form
what are the three sets of guidelines in place for research scientists, educators, and practitioners?
American Psychological Association, Ethical Principles of Psychologist, Code of Conduct
Single-Blind Experiment
An arrangement in which participants remain unaware of whether they are in the experimental group or the control group
informed consent
An ethical principle that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate.
What was the Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment?
An experiment done to observe the natural course of syphilis among illiterate black males who were not informed that they had the disease and were not treated for it even when medicine (penicilin) became available Participants were given free medical exams, free meals, and free burial insurance
experiment
An experiment is a study in which the researcher manipulates the independent variable
double blind procedure
An experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies
Debriefing
An explanation of the purposes of a study following data collection
theory
An explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events.
What is meant by manipulation of the independent variable?
An independent variable that is manipulated to achieve a particular effect or tested to determine if it is the cause of the effect.
Validity
An indication of accuracy of measurement
case study
An observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.
Inferential Statistics
Analyses of data that allows us to test hypothesizes and make an inference as to how likely a sample score is to occur in a population
what act in the united states protects animal's well-being? What type of environment?
Animal Welfare Act: Also provides guidelines for animals in pet shops
Organismic Variable
Any characteristic of the research participant
Variables
Any condition that can change and that might affect the outcome of the experiment.
confounding variables
Any difference between the experimental and control conditions, except for the independent variable.
Interobserver reliability
Assess whether 2 or more observers find similar results when observing/recording same behavior at same time —Measured by correlation coefficient: —-correlation of r=1.00 indicates perfect agreement —-generally correlation of 0.70 or higher is acceptable
Define hypothesis? Why is a hypothesis important in research?
Attempts to state specific Independent variable-Dependent variable relations within a selected portion of a larger, more comprehensive research area or theory.
What are some research data bases for finding research?
- PsychInfo - Psychologists' Home Web Page - Google Scholar
What are the pitfalls of relying on experience rather than research?
- We do not take a comparison group into account. - Research asks the question "Compared to what?" - Confounds
What are the responsibilities of the IRB?
-review all research efforts involving human subjects -develop policies -provide education/training -maintain records in accordance w/ regulations (usually kept 3 years after termination of project)
What are the criteria for IRB review?
-risk -risk vs. benefit -informed consent -safety and privacy -subject selection -additional considerations
random assignment
-rules out all systematic diference between the lvls of the IV related to preexisting systematic difference, can control extraneous variables
Probability Sampling Methods
-simple random sampling -systematic random sampling -stratified random sampling -cluster sampling
what does an experiment show?
-since theories cannot be logically proven they are always tentative -can support or confirm -same for disproof, single study is not disproof
Best ways to gather sources
1) Library- International Encyclopedia of Communication or Encyclopedia of Communication Theory 2) Scholarly Journal database 3)Books: - Communication Yearbook- edited collection of lit reviews - Handbooks- focus on one context and provide extensive reviews, theories, methods, etc. 4) Online
What are the four scales of measurement?
1) Nominal 2) Ordinal 3) Interval 4) Ratio
APA Ethical Standards
1) Resolving Ethical Issues 2) Competence 3) Human Relations 4) Privacy and Confidentiality 5) Advertising and Other Public Statements 6) Record Keeping and Fees 7) Education and Training 8) Research and Publication 9) Assessment 10) Therapy
Causal inferences said to possess high degrees of external validity must apply to:
1) a target population of the study 2) the universe of other populations (across time and space)
Causal inferences said to possess high degrees of internal validity:
1) cause precedes the effect in time 2) the cause and effect are related 3) there are no other plausible explanations
What are the 7 steps of the research method?
1) identify a problem 2) define constructs 3) select subjects 4) collect data 5) organize and reduce data 6) interpret results 7) communicate
Characteristics of a hypothesis
1) must be a synthetic statement- can either be true or false 2) must be testable 3) should be parsimonious 4) should be fruitful
What are the 6 traits of science?
1) public 2) objective 3) quantitative 4) qualitative 5) systematic 6) subject to revision
What is the criteria for evaluating theories?
1) represents the data 2) should generalize across species, tasks, conditions, etc. 3) no contradictions 4) all components are testable 5) all predictions are accurate 6) should have use 7) should be parsimonious
Potential problems of a case study:
1) single subject 2) does subject represent entire pop. 3) can you observe at all times 4) all historical data found? 5) can't use A-B-A-B 6) low internal validity and external varies
What are the 7 basic characteristics of a research project?
1) truthful 2) objective 3) relevant 4) clear 5) well-organized 6) complete 7) presentable and neat
Anatomy of Research Article
1. Abstract (Includes the hypothesis, procedure, and the broad pattern of results) (you right this last) 2. Introduction (talks about problem, past research, formal hypo) 3. Method (design, participants, procedure, equipment/test material)(needed for replication) 4. Results (descrip. in narrative & STAT lang. with tables/graphs) 5. Discussion (review research from past perspectives, include suggestions, present weaknesses)
Threats to reliability and validity
1. Measuring device cannot make fine distinctions 2. Measuring device cannot capture how people differ 3. Researcher attempts to measure something irrelevant or unknown to research participant 4. Complexity of human behavior is always a threat
why is it hard to decide if the milgram experiment is ethical?
1. Milgram knew that participants were experiencing stress/anxiety and did nothing about it 2. because the study provided good information on obedience to authority and power
Tuskegee Study Details
1. Recruited approximately 400 Black men who had syphilis and approximately 200 who did not have syphilis. 2. Researchers told them they were being treated for "bad blood." Participants were not given treatment for syphilis. 3. Secretly prevented them from joining the Army (where they'd have healthcare and education benefits). 4. Didn't treat participants with penicillin when it was found to be an effective treatment (1943). 5. Offered a "generous burial fee" (Morling, 2014, p. 92) to families, allowing for an autopsy.
Alternatives of deception
1. Role-Playing -Asks participants how they would respond to a certain situation or to predict how others would respond -Not considered a satisfactory alternative to deception 2.Simulation Studies -Variation on role-playing that involves simulation of a real- world situation -Has a high degree of involvement from participants 3. Honest Experiments -Participants are made aware of the purpose of the research (e.g., speed dating studies; study skills improvement program)
empirical journal article: discussion
1. summarizes the study's research question and methods and indicates how well the data supported the hypothesis 2. authors discuss the significance of the study and its contributions 3. authors may discuss alternative explanations for their data and pose interesting questions raised by the research
scientific approach
1. systematic empiricism 2. empirical questions 3. public knowledge
characteristics of scientific method
1. systematic empiricism 2. public verifiability 3. hypothesis testing 4/ examines only empirical questions 5. conclusions are always tentative
four scientific cycles
1. theory-data cycle 2. basic-applied research cycle 3. peer-review cycle 4. journal-to-journalism cycle
Respect of persons
1. treating individuals as capable of making decisions 2. protecting those who are not capable of making their own decisions.
Milgram ethical problems
1. use of deception 2. no informed consent 3. possible harm to subjects (psychological distress) 4. subjects not told of their right to withdraw 5. subjects could have suffered inflicted insight
Typical steps in conducting research:
1.Get an idea 2.Formulate testable hypothesis 3.Literature review 4.Conduct pilot research 5.Conduct research 6.Analyze results 7.Interpret results 8.Prepare an article or presentation
Hypothesis
A prediction of how the independent variable will influence the dependent variable; how will treatment effect the measurement
Parametric
4 assumptions; interval and ratio; t-test
how long did the Tuskegee experiment last?
40 years
APA Ethic Codes
5 General Principles 1.Beneficence 2. Responsibility 3. Integrity 4. Justice 5. Respect for the rights and dignity of others 10 Ethical Standards Address Specific Issues Concerning: -Conduct of psychologists in -Teaching -Research -Therapy -Counseling -Testing -Other professional roles and responsibilities
percent of participants that followed experiments demands: Milgram:
65%
what ethical standard does the book focus on in the APA and what are these specific standards?
8: IRB, Informed consent, Deception, Debriefing, research misconduct (data falsification/fabrication)
Normal Distribution
A bell curve; a plot of how frequent data are that is perfectly symmetrical, with most scores clustering in the middle and only a few scores at the extremes
Variable
A characteristic that changes or "varies", such as age, gender, weight, intelligence, anxiety, and extraversion
Chapters in Edited Books
A collection of chapters on a common topic in which each chapter is written by a different contributor. The scientist is summarizing a body of research and explaining the theory behind it. Can be a good place to find summary of a set of research a particular psychologist has done. Not peer-reviewed as rigorously.
institutional review board (IRB)
A committee organized by a university or other research institution that approves, monitors, and reviews all research that involves human subjects. Its main purpose is to ensure compliance with ethics standards.
what is the institutional review board (IRB)?
A committee responsible for interpreting ethical principles and ensuring that research using human participants is ethical.
Abstract
A concise summary of the article, about 120 words long. It briefly describes the study's hypotheses, method and major results. The abstract can help you quickly decide whether each article describes what kind of research you are looking for.
Inter-Rater Reliability
A consideration when there is more than one observer of an event; are observers seeing events the same way?
placebo group
A control group of participants who believe they are receiving treatment, but who are only receiving a placebo.
Operational Definition
A description or set of criteria for defining a variable or condition with objectivity
Experiment
A formal trial undertaken to confirm or disconfirm a hypothesis about CAUSE and EFFECT
histogram
A graph of vertical bars representing the frequency distribution of a set of data.
Experimental Group
A group consisting of those participants who will receive the treatment or whatever is predicted to change behavior
population
A group of individuals that belong to the same species and live in the same area
Control Group
A group of research participants who are treated in exactly the same manner as the experimental group, except they do not receive the independent variable or treatment
What is a Comparison Group?
A group that enables us to compare what would happen both with and without the thing we are interested in.
Face Validiy
A measure is said to have face validity if the measurement looks and feels like it will capture the construct we want to measure. Ex. Personal Report of Communication Apprehension
split-half reliability
A measure of reliability in which a test is split into two parts and an individual's scores on both halves are compared.
correlation
A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other.
Effect Size
A measure of the strength of the relationship between two variables or the extent of an experimental effect
manipulation check
A measure used to determine whether the manipulation of the independent variable has had its intended effect on a subject
Correlational Studies
A non-experimental study designed to measure the degree of relationship between two or more events, measures or variables
Describe the case study for this chapter
A nurse, Emily, wants to do a research project regarding variables related to cervical cancer. She already collects information from patients with cervical cancer as part of her job, which is why she decided to just make this her research project
What is a case study and what are the negatives?
A particular instance of something used or analyzed to illustrate a principle; negatives: very time consuming and difficult to do properly
operant conditioning
A type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher. (positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, punishment, extinction) -baseball player rubs his crucifix for good luck every time he hits a homerun: reinforcer
classical conditioning
A type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events -During this phase of the processes, the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) results in an unconditioned response (UCR). For example, presenting food (the UCS) naturally and automatically triggers a salivation response (the UCR)
Observational Studies
Non-experimental; uses data that already exists; looks for relationships between two unrelated data sets; low internal validity and usually at least moderate external validity
Volunteer sampling
Nonrandom sampling method where participants self-select into the sample
Discussion
Summarizes the study's research question and methods and indicates how well the data supported the hypothesis. The discuss the study's significance. May discuss alternative explanations for their data and discuss questions raised during their research.
What is the Bias Blind Spot?
The belief that we are unlikely to fall prey to cognitive biases. Most of us think we are less biased than others. The Bias Blind Spot leads us to conclude that "I'm the objective one here" and "you are the biased one." This bias makes us trust our faulty reasoning all the more.
Statistics
The collection, analysis, interpretation, and presentation of numeric data
Face Validity "does it LOOK good"
The content of the measure appears to reflect the construct being measured
Content validity
The content of the measure is linked to the universe of content that defines the construct
Summarize Milgrams' obedience experiment; Why are the results so very disturbing? -
The deceived people to believe they were shocking another person as part of a learning experience, they found many people willing to electrocute people because they were told to do so, we learned most of us are capable of doing harm to someone if they are told to do so by an authority figure
content validity
The degree to which the content of a test is representative of the domain it's supposed to cover.
Population
The entire group a researcher is interested in
independent variable
The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.
construct validity
The extent to which there is evidence that a test measures a particular hypothetical construct.
Introduction
The first section of regular text, and the first paragraphs typically explain the topic of the study. Middle paragraphs layout the theoretical and empirical background for the research. Final paragraph states the specific research questions, goals or hypotheses for the current study.
Replication
The repetition of a study to confirm the results; it is essential to the scientific process
Describe how one would increase power in an experiment.
The number of participants tested is related to the power of our statistical test. Power is the probability that a statistical test will be significant (i.e., the experimental hypothesis is accepted when it is true)
Frequency
The number of times a particular score occurs in a set of data
dependent variable
The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.
dependent variable
The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable. aka criterion variable
p-value
The probability level which forms basis for deciding if results are statistically significant (not due to chance).
Ethics
The rules governing the conduct of a person or group in general or in a specific situation- or more simply, standards of right or wrong
psychology
The science of behavior and mental processes -it explains why we cannot rely on intuition and common sense
psychology
The scientific study of behavior and mental processes
Median
The score that separates the lower half of scores from the upper half
What is the Present/present Bias?
The tendency to rely only on evidence that is present, instances in which both a treatment and a desired outcome are present, and ignore evidence that is absent, instances in which a treatment is absent or the desired outcome is absent, when evaluating the support for a conclusion.
Social Desirability
The tendency toward favorable self-presentation, which could lead to inaccurate self-reports
thelonious monk
Thelonious Sphere Monk(October 10, 1917[3] - February 17, 1982) was an American jazz pianist and composer. Monk had a unique improvisational style and made numerous contributions to the standard jazz repertoire, including "'Round Midnight", "Blue Monk", "Straight, No Chaser" "Ruby, My Dear", "In Walked Bud", and "Well, You Needn't". Monk is the second most-recorded jazz composer after Duke Ellington, which is particularly remarkable as Ellington composed more than 1,000 pieces, whereas Monk wrote about 70.
How do theories organize and explain aspects of behavior
Theories summarize existing research with one explanation and then make predictions of other unobserved behavior
empirical questions
These are questions about the way the world actually is and, therefore, can be answered by systematically observing it
informed consent
This means that researchers obtain and document people's agreement to participate in a study after having informed them of everything that might reasonably be expected to affect their decision
law of effect
Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely
Stanford Prison Report
Twenty-one participants (selected from a pool of 75 newspaper respondents) participated in the study for $15 per day. Participants were randomly assigned to the "prisoner" or "guard" role.
correlations does not imply causation 1. directionality problem
Two variables, X and Y, can be statistically related because X causes Y or because Y causes X. Consider, for example, a study showing that whether or not people exercise is statistically related to how happy they are—such that people who exercise are happier on average than people who do not.
correlations does not imply causation third-variable problem
Two variables, X and Y, can be statistically related not because X causes Y, or because Y causes X, but because some third variable, Z, causes both X and Y
my procedure, results
Two-part exam False Feedback given after first exam Participants told whether they performed better than the average (Positive Feedback), or worse (Negative Feedback) Second exam taken after Feedback The main effect for Gender was significant such that mean test performance for Women was significantly higher than mean test performance for Men the main effect for feedback was not significant for positive and negative feedback The Gender X Feedback interaction approached significance,
Belmont Report
U.S. Federal guidelines of seeking justice, including the importance of conducting research in a way that distributes risks and benefits fairly across different groups at the societal level
expedited review
Under limited conditions, one IRB member may approve research proposals. There must be minimal risk.
Respect for persons
Treat people as autonomous agents. People are free to make up their own minds concerning participation (or nonparticipation) in research; Informed consent; No coercion or undue influence (extreme incentives); Culture and local circumstances should be considered; Protection of vulnerable populations.
empirically supported treatments
Treatments that have been shown to work
Population Validity
Can you generalize from the sample tested to the population of interest?
Ecological Validity
Can you generalize from the test setting to other settings, tasks, etc?
mutually exclusive
Cannot identify in more than one category
Clinical Method
Careful and systematical observations and recordings of behavior, without interfering with the behavior in their normal social environment
Research Participant Bias
Changes in the behavior of research participants caused by the unintended influence of their own expectations
data fabrication
Changing (or inventing) data to fit predictions
Results
Describes the quantitative and qualitative results of the study, including the statistical tests the authors used to analyze the data. Provides tables and figures to summarize key results.
Naturalistic Observation:
Description of naturally occurring even without intervention-no interaction w/ subjects
What is the difference between descriptive and inferential research?
Descriptive research:Descriptive statistics provide a concise summary of data. You can summarize data numerically or graphically. For example, the manager of a fast food restaurant tracks the wait times for customers during the lunch hour for a week and summarizes the data. Inferential research Inferential statistics use a random sample of data taken from a population to describe and make inferences about the population. Inferential statistics are valuable when it is not convenient or possible to examine each member of an entire population. For example, it is impractical to measure the diameter of each nail that is manufactured in a mill, but you can measure the diameters of a representative random sample of nails and use that information to make generalizations about the diameters of all the nails produced.
Case Study
Detailed description of a particular individual based on careful observation or formal psychological testing
Survey Research
Detailed information gathered from large sample (compared to case where its smaller samples) -To ensure representativeness, researcher can: —Survey a large sample —Survey a random sample: —-Every person in that population has same chance of being sampled
Case Study
Detailed observation of 1 individual, sometimes compared to small group of other individuals -Disadvantage —Don't allow causal statements, one thing isn't causing something else
iceberg theory
Freud's theory that the conscious was only a very small part of the mind and did not account for most of the psychological factors that affect behavior. Instead most of the psychological factors that effect behavior are found in the unconscious. There is also a a preconscious level.
The Belmont Report
From a 1976 commission that was organized to discuss basic ethical principles for research.
What does survey research look for?
Gathers info about subject's beliefs and attitudes
Law
General statement that can handle all relevant circumstances; determines levels of certainty
65%
How many people inflicted the maximum shock value?
Scientific Method
How scientists conduct research; consists of five basic processes: observe, predict, test, interpret, and communicate
What is the difference between a Hypothesis, theory and law?
Hypothesis: an educated guess based on observation; can be rejected or supported, can be dis proven, but can't be proven 100% true. Theory: summarizes a hypothesis or group of hypotheses that have been supported with repeated testing. Theories can be disproven, but a theory is valid as long as there is no evidence to dispute it. The simplified definition- an accepted hypothesis. Law- an observation that has been well established and is usually fundamental in nature; terms of mathematics; definite.
Describe how an IRB works; Give example of exempt research and minimal risk research
IRB reviews all research protocol and asses risk and benefits, exempt is naturalistic observation, minimal risk is no greater than daily life
The dependent variable was compliance
IV: The closeness of the learner (the person receiving shocks), compliance decreased the nearer the learner was perceived to be. IV: Gender differences: Did not seem to affect compliance much (but women report higher distress). IV: Status of the authority: the lower perceived status, the less compliance. IV: Conformity: What other subjects did affected compliance (If others complied, the chance was greater that the subject complied).
Inferential Statistics
Identifies cause-effect relationships in data and evaluates ability to generalize to a population; two types
main effect
In a factorial design, the overall effect of one independent variable on the dependent variable, averaging over the levels of the other independent variable.
Define internal validity and external validity.
Internal validity:The concept of internal validity revolves around the question of whether your IV actually caused any change that you observe in your DV.If you use adequate control techniques, your experiment should be free from confounding and you can, indeed, conclude that your IV caused the change in your DV. External validity:A type of evaluation of your experiment that asks whether your experimental results apply to populations and situations that are different form those of your experiment.
Interval data
Interval data are based on numeric scales in which we know the order and the exact difference between the values. Organized into even divisions or intervals, and intervals are of equal size.
Scientific Thinking
Involves the cognitive skills required to generate, test, and revise theories
What is the difference between an Irrelevant and a Relevant variable?
Irrelevant variables will not influence the dependent variable, while the relevant variable is the variable of concern and may influence the dependent variable
Internal Validity
Issue of control; can you rule out influence of factors that are not being studied?
Zimbardo hypothesis
It was hypothesized that those participants who were assigned the role of a guard would behave in a way that was consistent to the role and those who were assigned as a prisoner would behave in that role.
Levels of measurement in communication research
Discrete and continuous
Biased Sample
Disproportionately includes or excludes subgroups
What makes a non-emperimental method non-experimental?
Not possible or ethical to manipulate the independent variable; involves observing and measuring things as they are
Full- Length Books
Not usual for psychologists, but if they are written, they are written for a general audience or university libraries.
OHRP
Office for Human Research Protections - Standard research guidelines for U.S - U.S dept of Health and Human Services
Follow Through in Milgrams
One criticism of Milgram's study is that although he did not know ahead of time that his participants would have such severe negative reactions, he certainly knew after he had tested the first several participants and should have made adjustments at that point
formal operation
One of Piaget's stages; includes the ability to use abstract thinking
What is the main example used to demonstrate why comparison groups are so important in research?
Dr. Benjamin Rush draining blood from people's wrists or ankles as "bleeding" as a cure for illness.
Conclusion Validity
Draws reasonable conclusions based upon an analysis of the data
What is the experimental method and how does it differ from the nonexperimental method
E. requires we enumerate the population, and that we randomly assign people to random control groups
informed consent
Each participant should learn about the project, procedures, risks, and benefits, and should decide independently whether to participate based on that knowledge.
Two types of Inferential Statistics
Parametric and nonparametric
Goal is to Match People on a...
Participant Characteristic -Matched to either the dependent measure or a variable that is strongly related to the dependent variable
Milgram's Obedience Studies
Participants (teachers) were instructed to give increasingly higher voltage shocks to the "learner" (actually a confederate) when a mistake was made in a learning task.
Repeated Measures Design "all conditions"
Participants are in all conditions
Independent Groups Design "only one"
Participants participate in only one group
Pearson r: the Correlation Coefficient "strength of relationship"
Pearson's r indicates: -Strength of relationship -Direction of relationship -Values of r range from 0.00 to ±1.00 -Can be described visually using scatterplots -can use for interval/ratio scores when testing significance
stratified random sampling
Population divided into subgroups (strata) and random samples taken from each strata
What are the goals of science?
Law and theory
When is deception allowed in an experiment?
Providing a complete explanation or description of the project may influence the participants' responses. It is arguable that deception may be justified in some cases if our results are to be unbiased or uncontaminated by knowledge of the experiment and the expectancies that such knowledge may bring.
Name three major journals in the General area of Psychology
Psychological bulletin, science and review
Basic research
Pure Research. Conducted primarily for the sake of achieving a more detailed and accurate understanding of human behavior, without necessarily trying to address any particular practical problem.
components of experiment
Question, hypothesis, independent variable, dependent variable, extraneous variable
Surveys
Questionnaires and interviews that ask people directly about their experiences, attitudes, or opinions
Ordinal (order)
Rank ordering numeric values limited 2-, 3-, and 4-star restaurants Ranking TV programs by popularity Intervals between items is unknown
Two basic approaches for acquiring knowledge
Rationalism and Empiricism
Deduction
Reasoning using theory to predict data —Theory—>Predict Data —General —> Specific Problem with purely deceptive approach: does not allow for falsifiability (or improving) on theories.
effect size
Refers to the strength of association between variables -Pearson r is one indicator of effect size -Advantage of reporting effect size is that it provides a scale of values that is consistent across all types of studies
External validity (generalizability)
Refers to whether the results of a study can be generalized to other situations and other people, controlled by: random sampling, situational control, and cause/effect relationships.
my hypo
Regardless of Negative or Positive Feedback, women's Test Performance would not be affected while men would show an increase in Test Performance with Positive Feedback and a decrease in Test Performance with Negative Feedback.
Correlations
Relationships between variables; do not imply causality
3 types of response sets:
Response acquiescence: tendency to agree or answer yes to every question asked. Response deviation: tendency to disagree (include reverse coded items in your survey) Social desirability:responding in socially desirable manner (do you consume alcohol daily?) Solution may be forced-choice responses: participants choose between 2 alternative of = social desirability
Control variables
held constant
positive association
high scores in one variable are associated with high scores in the other variable; line of best fit on a scatter plot of data has a positive slope
negative (inverse) association
high scores in one variable are associated with low scores in the other variable; line of best fit on a scatter plot of data has a negative slope
How do we deal with special populations such as children or prisoners concerning autonomy
hildren we need parental consent and the child's assent, an incentive must be trivial they also must be granted the same autonomy
humanistic psychology
historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth and potential of healthy people-current can nurture or limit our growth and potential- denied focus on meaning of early childhood memories on learning of conditioned response -holistic: study of personality; personal values and goals, and influenece on behavior
abscissa
horizontal axis
edward tolman
how rats learn maze; cognitive maps- path engraved in mind
What type of correlation coefficient should you use when calculating split-half reliability
how well does one item score correlate with the total score, if it correlates well than it is a good item
construct validity
how well something is measured
construct validity
how well the researchers measured or manipulated their variables, interrogation of operationalization in the study
external validity
how well the results of a study generalize to, or represent, people and contexts besides those of the study itself
Abraham Maslow
humanistic psychology; hierarchy of needs-needs at a lower level dominate an individual's motivation as long as they are unsatisfied; self-actualization, transcendence
Common sense hypotheses
hypotheses derived from the inductive process
construct
hypothetical factor or variable that cannot be directly observed but is inferred from certain behaviors, an abstract factor/variable
positive correlation
indicates that as the value of one variable increases, we can predict that the value of the other variable will also increase
Quota Sampling
inexpensive, efficient, convenient, slightly more sophisticated than haphazard; chooses a sample that reflects the numerical composition of various subgroups; no restrictions are placed on how the individuals are chosen
probabilistic research
inferences from this type of research (for example, behavioral research) are not expected all cases all of the time; they instead explain a certain proportion of the possible cases
What is non-therapeutic research
informational/descriptive research; there is no direct benefit to participants and there is no intervention or treatment does have ethical concerns
What does IRB stand for?
institutional review board
cognitive neuroscience
interdisciplinary study of brain activity linked w/ cognition including perception, thinking, memory, language
Describe the difference between internal and external validity
internal validity is casual relationships external is generalization outside sample
What was the Helsinki Declaration originally established for?
it was a continuation of the Nuremberg Code, originally established for biomedical research
What was the update in 2000 for the Helsinki Declaration?
it was updated to require the government funded agencies to monitor how research is conducted
Why is randomization important in experimental studies
it washes out individual error
sample
items (often people) selected at random from a population and used to test hypotheses about the population
chomsky
language aquististion device: imaginary black box located in brain, responsible for language learning in infants -Believed language was innate; developmental theorist
example: principle of beneficence
let's say the experimental group is showing great advantage because of the research they must also provide that benefit to the control group
operationalizing a variable
linking the variable concept to a specific measurement
How do theories help us to generate new knowledge-
make predictions that we can test
Describe why is it necessary to Debrief every subject after the completion of a study
make sure the subject understands their contribution to the study we want the person to feel good about participating, give a change for the researcher to get feedback about the study
Give examples of independent variables and their relationship to example dependent variables
manipulate hours studied( indepent) grade of test ( dependent)
Independent variables
manipulated to cause changes
industrial-organizational psychology
martha is an undergraduate student who is interested in pursuing a career in psychology. she wants to use her knowledge of psych to help employees become more productive...
Simple Random Sampling and Stratified Disadvantages
may cost more; may be difficult to get full list of all members of any population of interest
Give an example of why it might be necessary to get contact information from confidential Interviews
may want to do a follow up study
significant outcome
meaningful results that make it possible for researchers to feel confident that they have confirmed their hypothesis
Beneficence
means that the well-being of participants are protected.
Dependent variables
measured to determine effects
Reliability coefficient
measures reliability between 0 and 1. 0.70 and above is reliable. Internal reliability, test-retest, split-half
psychiatrist
medical doctor who has specialized in treating psychological disorders
numeral scale
numbers are just a label
ordinal scale
numbers indicate rank ordering
inferential statistics
numerical methods used to determine whether research data support a hypothesis or whether results were due to chance (e.g. p-value)
define: data fabrication
occurs when, instead of recording what really happened in a study researchers invent data that fit their hypothesis
limits of intuition
often were wrong we have to listen to data, best to find non intuitive results
the need for experiment replication and skepticism
one study does not prove anything rather suggest more studying needs to be done about that topic
experience
only be experience can one comprehend human nature
What recent examples have violated ethical standards
ophthalmologist here at usf
Deductive Method
opposite of inductive method; a specific conclusion is arrived at from a general principle
Theory
organization of concepts to predict data
give an example when a researcher uses deception in research
participants might be aware that they are given an exam booklet with a red cover but not know that the covers of other participants are blue, green.
ethical violations of Tuskegee Study
participants were not treated respectfully, participants were harmed, researchers targeted a disadvantaged social group, and family members of participants also suffered.
scientific method
particular way of arriving at knowledge
wording effects
people are much more approving or disapproving of major effects of wording -critical thinkers will reflect on how the phrasing of a question might affect people's expressed opinions
Discuss how the artificiality of experiments can influence results
people might not behave the same as they would in real life
neuroscience
perspective on psychology that emphasizes the study of the brain and its effects on behavior
two historical roots of psychology
philosophy and biology
3 independent academic fields that began to study behavior in the 19th century
philosophy, physiology, psychology
Give examples of how stress during an experiment might harm subjects-
physical and emotional damage, someone may panic in a situation and hurt themselves
Two subtypes of External Validity
population validity and ecological validity
at-risk research
poses greater than minimal risk and must be reviewed by the IRB.
Confounding
potential design flaw —Compromises internal validity of results
hypotheses
predictions about the answers to research questions
prescreening
procedure to identify and eliminate participants who are at high risk can do with part of informed consent process
example: data falsification
professor that changed observations to fit students hypothesis
example: data fabrication
professor that entered entire data bases to fit hits students hypothesis
define: Ethical principle: Integrity
professors are req. to teach accurately, therapist req. to stay up to date on empirical evidence for therapeutic techniques.
ratio scale
properties of interval scale, and a true zero
falsifiable
prove to be false by evidence, like you can not prove someone has psychic powers
review journal articles
provide a summary of all the research that has been done in a certain area
empirical journal article: abstract
provides a concise summary of the article
basic research
provides knowledge
clinical psychologists
psychologist who treats people serious psychological problems or conducts research into the causes of behavior
behavioral psychology
psychology should be an objective science that studies behavior without reference to mental processes
what is the job of the teacher?
punish learner when he makes a mistake in a learning task
categorical variable
quality, such as sex, and is typically measured by assigning a category label to each individual. Other examples include people's nationality, their occupation, and whether they are receiving psychotherapy.
mixed methods research 2. triangulation.
quantitative(used for hypo testing and qualitative (used for hypo question) are combined 2. use both quantitative and qualitative methods simultaneously to study the same general questions and to compare the results
variable
quantity or quality that varies across people or situations
quantitative variable
quantity, such as height, that is typically measured by assigning a number to each individual. Other examples of quantitative variables include people's level of talkativeness, how depressed they are, and the number of siblings they have
What are the two research designs discussed in this course?
quasi and experimental
variance formulas
r= variation shared by x,y/ total variation in x,y OR r=covariance x,y/SDx x SDy
True IV
randomly assigned IV can make definite causal statement
deduction
reasoning from the general to the particular -theory->hypothesis->experiment
induction
reasoning from the particular to the general (think mexican food example) *ideas are derived from a theory through induction
Induction
reasoning using data to generate theory —Data —> Theory —Specific —>General Problem: theories are tentative ideas not absolute truths, can't test the theory
snowball sampling
recruitment of participants based on word of mouth or referrals from other participants
Scientific Method
refers to a body of techniques for investigating phenomena , acquiring knowledge, or correcting and integrating previous knowledge
descriptive
the method used to observe and record behavior without manipulation (survey, case study, naturalistic observation)
median
the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it.
Give examples of hypotheses and predictions that arise from them
the more I study the better grade I will get
correlational research
research in which the relationship between two sets of variables is examined to determine whether they are associated or "correlated"
Person by treatment
research manipulates one IV and obeserves if another IV will manipulate the DV
mode
the most frequently occurring score in a distribution.
construct validity
the most important kind of measurement validity -convergent validity (certain things SHOULD always correlate with) -discriminant validity (certain things should not correlate with)
program evaluation and field research
the most used scientific pursed field research involves naturalistic observation
dependent variable
the outcome factor; the variable that may change (dependent upon manipulation of variables) in response to independent variable
systematic variance
the part of the total variability in subjects' behavior that is related in a predictable way to the variables being studied
error variance
the part of total variability due to individual differences or random unpredictable factors (not related to errors made by subjects)
illusory correlation
the perception of a relationship where none exists; the basis for many superstitions
Debriefing
the post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants. Researcher can interact with participants at this time.
define plagarism
the practice of taking someone else's work or ideas and passing them off as one's own.
dualism
the presumption that mind and body are two distinct entities that interact
the pop-up principle
the principle that things that easily come to mind tend to guide our thinking
Purposive Sampling
the purpose is to obtain a sample of people who meet some predetermined criterion; good way to limit sample to a certain group of people
research question
the question about your topic you seek to answer
define: principle of beneficence
the researcher must take precautions to protect research participants from harm and to ensure their well-being: includes the community, consider risks and benefits
ecological function
the role that various behaviors play in adapting to the environment-what function they seem to serve for the organism
generalizing from a sample to a population
the sample must be representative because we are generalizing just a sample of the population
personality psychology
the study of an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting
evolutionary psychology
the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection.
behavior genetics
the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior
Basic assumptions of science:
the subject matter is orderly, lawful, and stable suggesting predictable patterns and documentable, predictable cause-effect relationships
normal curve
the symmetrical bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes. Most scores fall near the average, and fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes.
overconfidence
the tendency to be more confident than correct-to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgements
overconfidence
the tendency to be more confident than correct—to overestimate the accuracy of one's beliefs and judgments.
hindsight bias
the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. (I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon)
the present/present bias
the tendency to notice things that are present rather than things that are absent
false consensus effect
the tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors.
operational definition
the translation of a hypothesis into specific, testable procedures that can be measured and observed
what did the PHS approve of in 1943
the treatment of syphilis with penicilin
independent variable
the variable that is manipulated by an experimenter
independent variable
the variable that is manipulated by the researcher aka: antecedent variable, treatment variable, experimental variable, causal variable.
dependent variable
the variable that is measured and is expected to change as a result of changes caused by the experimenter's manipulation of the independent variable
privacy
their right to decide what information about them is shared with others. This means that researchers must maintain confidentiality, which is essentially an agreement not to disclose participants' personal information without their consent
psychology bias
theories can lead to bias our observations. our expectations are ever-present both inside and outside labaratory through (interpretation) *use operational definition as a check of procedures
theory of diffusion of responsibility
theory by Latane & Darley; the greater the number of bystanders or witnesses to an event that calls for helping behavior, the more the responsibility for helping is perceived to be shared by all the bystanders. (bystander effect)
gestalt therapy
therapy that aims to integrate different and sometimes opposing aspects of personality into a unified sense of self
How do we protect researchers from court orders to divulge sensitive information from research
there is a federal law that protects all researchers from divulging sensitive information
APA Ethical Guidelines
these rules specify that researchers avoid procedures that might cause serious physical or mental harm to human subjects, protect confidentiality of the data, respect a subject's right to refuse at any time during the study; includes Informed Consent, Freedom to Withdraw, Debriefing, No Harm, and Confidentiality
what lasting effects did the milgram study have on participants?
they were carefully debriefed BUT some participants were dramatically affected by learned that they were willing to harm another human being just because someone told them to
1. how were the men not treated respectfully?
they were lied to about the participation of the study, no proper informed consent, conducted autopsies on participants: offering the family a lot of money
2. how were the men harmed in the study?
they were not told about a treatment for a disease that in later years of study could be easily cured, subjected to dangerous tests
hurricanes and authority
things like church can stop from advancing science ie: Galileo
critical thinking
thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumption, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidences, and assesses conclusions
critical thinking
thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions
what are the five APA ethical principles?
three are the exact same as the ones in the Belmont report (beneficence, justice, and respect for persons). The other two are 4) integrity and 5) fidelity and responsibility
what did the Belmont report consist of?
three guidelines: 1.Principle of respect for persons 2.Principle of Justice 3.Principle of Beneficence
What past research in American and Guatemala have violated ethical standards
through 1972 we did not give people with syphilis treatment and in Guatemala we gave people syphilis as part of a research experiment
how is the principle of respect for persons applied?
through informed consent
structuralism founder
titchner
Understand, explain and give examples of: the goals of research
to control different elements of psychology
What is the purpose of central tendency?
to determine the single value that best represents the entire distribution of scores
why were these professionals called by the U.S. congress to meet together?
to discuss basic ethical principles researchers should follow when conducting research with human participants
Give example of Beneficence in research-
to maximize the benefits and minimize risks, you can study cocaine for people already using it but you cannot give it to them
General IRB Procedures
training, application, review, approval, continuing review.
Demographic Information
traits of the subjects that allow characterization of participants
What were the Nazi medical trials?
trials towards German physicians who treated prisoners harshly (temperature extremes, viral components, sterilization experiments, twin experiments) 23 german physicians were testified against; 16 found guilty and 7 executed
operational definition of variables
turning a concept of interest into a measured or manipulated variable; these are the definitions needed to test a hypothesis with empirical research
Correlation study "are A and B STRONGLY correlated"
type of nonexperimental research in which the researcher measures two variables and assesses the statistical relationship (i.e., the correlation) between them with little or no effort to control extraneous variables. - IV and DV do not apply -research wants to see if there is test A scores are STRONGLY CORRELATED to test B scores -can use archival data for this
Extraneous Variable
type of relevant variable that is not being studied
Design a simple experiment that would use inter-rater reliabilit
use several raters watching a video of child behavior each analyst should get the same score watching the same score if they do we have high inter-rater reliability
double-blind procedure
used to prevent possibility that a placebo effect or researcher's expectations will influence a study's results, scientists employ -both participants and researcher don't know whether participants will receive placebo or experimental
convenience sampling
using a sample of people who are readily available to participate
how did the "teachers" obedience change?
when the learner sat in the same room and when they observed across the haul giving phone orders
Give example of when we are justified in using Deception
when there is no other way to study a phenomenon
criterion validity
whether the measure is related to a concrete outcome that it should be related to if its valid
theoretical article
When a review article is devoted primarily to presenting a new theory
Test-retest reliability
When a test is taken by the same subject two or more times, how close are the obtained scores
Describe why an extraneous variable is a problem. What specifically is affected?
When an extraneous variable is present, we have no way of knowing whether the extraneous variable or the IV caused the effect we observe.
Acting Responsibly and With Integrity
research questions (such as Milgram's) are difficult or impossible to answer without deceiving research participants. Thus acting with integrity can conflict with doing research that advances scientific knowledge and benefits society. We will consider how psychologists generally deal with this conflict shortly.
basic research
research that aims simply to enhance the general body of knowledge as opposed to solving a specific practical problem
translational research
research that intentionally uses findings from basic research to develop and test applications to real-world situations
replicated research
research that is repeated sometimes using other procedures, settings, and groups of participants, to increase confidence in prior findings
what are the procedures of informed consent according to APA standards?
researcher shows an outline including risks/benefits, treatments to the participant, tells them if their results will be public/confidential and they sign two copies.
how is the principle of justice applied?
researchers might first ensure that the participants involved are representative of the kinds of people who would also benefit from its results
define: refinement
researchers must modify experimental procedures, and other aspects of animal care to minimize or eliminate animal distress
define: reduction
researchers should adopt experimental designs and procedures that require the fewest animal subjects possible
define: replacement
researchers should find alternatives to animals when necessary ex. using computer stimulations instead of animals
define: deception
researchers withhold some details of the study from the participant-deception through omission. In some cases, they actively lie to them which is called deception through commission.
What are two potential problems of survey research?
response rate and type of subjects
Declaration of Helsinki
s a similar ethics code that was created by the World Medical Council in 1964. Among the standards that it added to the Nuremberg Code was that research with human participants should be based on a written protocol—a detailed description of the research—that is reviewed by an independent committee
random sample
sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.
sampling frame
a list of individuals from whom the sample is drawn
external validity
a measure of how well the study generalizes to areas outside the study itself
manipulation check
a measure used to determined whether an independent variable in a social science study varies in ways researchers expect
test-retest reliability
a method for determining the reliability of a test by comparing a test taker's scores on the same test taken on separate occasions
purposive sampling
a non-probability sampling method in which elements are selected for a purpose, usually because of their unique position
in its earliest days, psych was defined as...
science of mental life
median
score at or below which 50% of observations fall -unaffected by extreme values (N+1)/2 measure of central tendancy
Mode
score recorded most frequently; can have more than one
concurrent validity
scores on the measure are related to a criterion measured at the same time
applied research
seeks answer
confirmatory hypothesis testing
selecting questions that would lead to a particular answer
confirmation bias
selectively seeking out evidence that supports one's belief
four stages of development
sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational
Give examples of the kinds of variables that we as researchers would consider highly sensitive
sex, drugs, etc.
searching for data to 'prove' a theory
sign of pseudo-science,
Phenomenology
simplest non-experimental method; self reports of perception; low internal validity and low external validity
sample
small subset of the population
constant
something that does not change (only has one level)
variable
something that varies (must have at least two levels or values)
SD
square root of variance (so variance measured in squared units) -indicated representativeness of mean
Give some examples of how a measured score is the combination of true + error scores
standing on bathroom scale you can get different numbers each time
Wilhelm Wundt
started to study behavior in 1875 but didn't write anything down until 1879; Father of Modern Psychology
operational definition
statement of procedures used to define research variables (human intelligence may be operationally defined as "what an intelligence test measures") -independent and dependent variable are define to specify procedures that manipulate independent variable- Answer "What do you mean?"
reject the null when
statistical analysis shows that the significance level is below the cut-off value we have set either 0.05 or 0.01, we reject the null hypothesis and accept the alternative hypothesis.
socio cultural psychology
study of how situations and cultures affect our behavior and thinking
Ethology
study of naturally occurring behaviors in animals or humans
ethical guidelines
suggested rules for acting responsibly and morally when conducting research or in clinical practice. (Confidentiality, Voluntary participation, Withdrawal rights, Informed consent, Deception, Debriefing)
Review articles
summarize previously published research on a topic and usually present new ways to organize or explain the results
Belmont Report (1979)
summarizes the basic ethical principles and guidelines for the protection of human subjects of research. (Respect for persons, beneficence and justice)
research designs in psychology
survey and observational correlational experimental quasi-experimental
Conceptual scheme
a set of concepts connected to form an integrated whole that specifies and clarifies the relationships among them; individually, each concept describes a unique process; as a group, the concepts still retain common characteristics
Theory
a set of interrelated concepts, definitions, and propositions that presents a systematic view of a phenomena.
Federal Policy for the Protection of Human Subjects
a set of laws that apply to research conducted, supported, or regulated by the federal government. An extremely important part of these regulations is that universities, hospitals, and other institutions that receive support from the federal government must establish an IRB
data
a set of observations
theory
a set of propositions specifying interrelationships between constructs and or variables. Should be tentative and falsifiable
Tuskegee Syphilis Study
a staggering example of unethical research; U.S. Public Health Service and the Tuskegee Institute wanted to examine the effects of untreated syphilis. At the time (1932) only a dangerous treatment involving the infusion of toxic metals was available to treat syphilis.
operational definition
a statement of procedures (operations) used to define research variables. (ex: memory may be defined as "number of words correctly recalled from a list").
theory
a statement, or a set of statements, that describes general principles about how variables relate to one another
correlation coefficient
a statistical index of relationship between two things (-1 to +1)
correlation coefficient
a statistical measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other
statistical significance
a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance (arbitrary) -lab instead of real world
statistical significance
a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance.
Briefly, describe Tuskegee syphilis study
a study conducted by the Tuskegee institute and U.S. public health on 600 black men, 400 infected and 200 not infected. Wanted to study the effects of untreated syphilis on the men's health over the long-term
factorial design
a study in which there are two or more independent variables, or factors research complex cause-effect relationships that cannot be tested with only one independent variable.
survey
a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of people, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of them.
confirmation bias
a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence
hypothesis
a testable prediction, often implied by a theory.
Construct
a theoretical entity, or concept, that enables one to discuss something that cannot be seen, touched, or measured directly
Explain the relationship between a theory and a hypothesis
a theory is an overacrching explanation generates testable hypothesis
satisfactory theory
a theory or model that is above threshold on many evaluation criteria, and can be readily used by practitioners because it makes clear predictions about alternative design possibilities
ordinal data
a type of data that refers solely to a ranking from high to low or low to high
convergent validity
a type of measurement validity that represents the extent to which a measure is associated with other measures of a theoretically similar construct
Cluster Sampling
a type of probability sampling; identify clusters of individuals then sample from those clusters
temporal precedence
a variable has temporal precedence if it comes first in time; this is important in establishing a causal claim
Intervening variables
abstract concepts that link independent variables to dependent variables
sections of an empirical journal article
abstract, introduction, method, results, discussion, reference list
Pseudoscience
activities and beliefs that are claimed to be scientific by their proponents—and may appear to be scientific at first glance—but are not Frued's theory of id, ego, superego can not be proved
herbert simon
adminstrative man model of decision - making; 3 phases of decision making (Nobel prize winner)
Give examples of how past research has been a source of new ideas in psychology-
after one hundred years of research in mental illness a new approach called positive psychology focuses on people considered "normal"
informed consent
agreement to participate in psychology research, after being informed of the dangers and benefits of the research
Basic Research
aimed at establishing theoretical explanations and understanding concepts -very controlled
Applied Research
aimed at solving specific problems -more real life
discrete level data
aka categorical or nominal data data that only names or identifies what is being measured describes presence or absence of some characteristic Categories must be mutually exclusive, exhaustive, and equivalent
descriptive design
aka cross-sectional or non-experimental Systematic but researcher has no control over independent variable. Participants not randomly assigned data is not collected in a temporal order
quasi-experimental design
aka natural experiments variations in the independent variable may exist naturally. Participants not randomly assigned to control & treatment groups.
Continuous level data
aka ordinal, interval or ratio data. aka quantitative data variables assume a value, quantity, magnitude, etc. values can differ in degree, amount or frequency and ordered on a continuum.
parsimony
all other things being equal, the simplest solution is the best (most likely to be true)
Counterbalancing
all possible orders of presenting the variables are included
population
all the cases in a group, from which samples may be drawn for a study.
population
all those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn
pseudo-science
already reaching a conclusion and then trying to find data to support it
extraneous variables
alternative explanations for an outcome that make it difficult to determine what the cause of something really was
confederate
an actor in an experiment that plays a specific role for the experimentor
claim
an argument that someone is trying to make
Describe random variability
an error component that we do not have control of
double-blind procedure
an experimental procedure in which both the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or placebo.
theory
an explanations using an integrated set of principles that organizes and predicts observations.
case study
an in-depth , intensive investigation of an individual or small group of people
case study
an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.
Quasi Independent Variable
another relevant relevant variable that is not in direct control of the researcher; trait of the subject that cannot be selected for
behavior in psychology is defined as
any action we can observe and record
experimental group
any group participating in an experiment that receives a treatment
Define and give an example for reactivity of measures
any time you change your behavior because you see instrument it changes the behavior
a psychologist who studies how worker productivity might be increased by changing office layout is engaged in what type of research
applied
Professional journals
are periodicals that publish original research articles.
association claims
argue that one level of a variable is likely to be associated with a particular level of another variable
causal claim
argues that one variable is responsible for the change in the other
experience philosphers
aristotle, hume, locke
Mean
arithmetic average; biased by magnitude; not based on magnitude; drawn toward extreme scores
journalism
articles in magazines, newspapers, television, internet sites, blogs; these are written by laypeople and not researchers
random assignment
assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups
random assignment
assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups.
Who does an IRB panel include?
at least 5 people: one scientist, one who has an academic interest outside of science, one or more should be a community member. (if research is on prison participants there must be a person as a designated prison advocate)
ways of arriving at knowledge
authority logic experience
Give examples of autonomy and informed consent
autonomy is the ability to withdraw from experiment without penalty, you need to put that in writing on informed consent participant needs to know
empiricism and the elements of causation
base everything on data and if its data drive you can deduce casual relationships
knowledge from authority
based on what authority figures tell us, is not always accurate
basic vs. applied research
basic looking at brain waves while playing computer games, applied seeing how effective a drug treatment really is
a psychologist who conducts experiments solely intended to build psychology's knowledge base is engaged in
basic research
all psychological research questions are about what kind of variability
behavioral
edward thorndike
behaviorism; Law of Effect-relationship between behavior and consequence
variables
behaviors, events, or other characteristics that can change, or vary in some way
debriefing
being carefully informed about a study's hypotheses; participants are given additional details about the study, told about any deception (if applicable), told about the various experimental conditions (if applicable), and are given contact information in case they wish to learn more about the study in the future. Often, references for additional reading on the topic are provided.
instituional review board
best interest of partipants (most of the time) -Harry Harlow: unethical monkey experiment
statistical relationship
between two variables when the average score on one differs systematically across the levels of the other. tells us about the causes, consequences, development, and organization of those behaviors and characteristics
Nonequivalent group design "between subjects not randomly assigned"
between-subjects design in which participants have not been randomly assigned to conditions.
interaction effect
both independent variables combine and have an effect on the dependent variable.
positive correlation
both variables match each other (correlate) 0 and 1.00
theories
broad explanations and predictions concerning phenomena of interest
William James
built upon Titchener's idea of structuralism by focusing on the functional aspects of thoughts and feelings (adaptive)-purpose for structure (functionalism) -wrote an important early psychology text book
What happens when a subject admits to abusing a child during a confidential face-to-face survey
call the police you have an ethical responsibility
Give an example of a personality test (mentioned in class) that does not have face validity
car colors
experimental research examples (strength)
casual inference: infer cause and effect
independent variable
causes the dependent variable like psychotherapy causes the reduction in symptoms of depression dependent variable
What are the vulnerable groups of people that require additional protection?
children, pregnant women, fetuses, prisoners, elderly, economically disadvantaged HIV-positive, terminally ill, homeless
association claims
claim that one level of a variable is likely to be associated with a particular level of another variable -involves more than one variable -these variables are measured not manipulator
define: ethical principle: fidelity/responsibility
clinical psychologists who are also professors may not serve as a therapist for a student/ must avoid sexual relationships
psychologist who studies how brain activity is linked to memory, perception, and other thought processes
cognitive neuroscientists
Jean Piaget
cognitive psychology; created a 4-stage theory of cognitive development, said that two basic processes work in tandem to achieve cognitive growth (assimilation and accommodation)
Deviant case analysis in case studies
comparing 2 similar cases with different outcomes Researcher identifies factors that determine outcome by careful comparison of 2 cases —-Improves inferential capabilities: improves ability to say one thing causes another
Exhaustive
complete and thorough
Ethnogram
complete inventory of specific behavior
Construct
concept of the idea; an operational definition is needed
nominal level
conditions are qualitatively different and have different names, but they cannot be ordered on a quantitative dimension
Extraneous Variable
conditions that the experimenter wishes to prevent from affecting outcome of the experiment
how did the experimenters in the Tuskegee study ensure that participants would come back for treatment?
conducted a dangerous spine tap
Applied research
conducted primarily to address some practical problem
Deception in Milgram
confederates, using phony equipment like Milgram's shock generator, and in Milgram's study in which he deceived his participants in several significant ways that resulted in their experiencing severe psychological stress with an incidental learning study in which a "memory test"
hypothesis
conjecture regarding the relationship between two variables that can be tested empirically
today, psychology is a discipline that...
connects w/ diversity of other fields
Reliability
consistency of measurement Participants react similarly to the items on a scale
The Inductive Method
consists of inferring general principles or rules from specific facts; general conclusion is arrived at by specific examples
Define construct validity its relation to operational definition and give an example
construct is depression and operational definition is that you have to a certain amount of symptoms for a certain amount of time
What is meant by Construct Validity
construct validity is based on the adequacy of our operational definitions
empirical journal article: reference list
contains a full bibliographic listing of all the articles the authors cited in writing their article
What is the most often used but non-successful sample?
convenience sample- participants chosen based on availability
Give an example from psychology of convergent validity
correlate 2 IQ tests
What are some of the disadvantages of the test-retest method -
cost, time, remember old answers
scientific attitude
curiosity, seeking evidence, skepticism & humility
what are the two forms of research misconduct?
data fabrication and data falsification
the scientific method relies upon
data: role of observation, i.e. experience logic: to draw logic about what the data means
when research spend time using ______ they must also spend time ______
deception, debriefing
operational definition
defined in terms of a procedure or set of operations, or how the concept is measured
conceptual definitions of variables
definitions that use words to describe a variable of interest
sampling error
degree in which a sample differs from population characteristics on some measurements As sample size increases, sampling error is reduced
external validity
degree to which claims/results of study can be generalized to other populations
internal validity
degree to which variation in the outcomes variable was really due to variation in the causal variable
frequency claims
describe a particular rate or level of something
Empirical research reports
describe one or more new empirical studies conducted by the authors. They introduce a research question, explain why it is interesting, review previous research, describe their method and results, and draw their conclusions
frequency claims
describe rate, level, frequency, number, or amounf of something. -involves only one variable -that variable is a measured variable not a manipulated one
sensorimotor
describes Piaget's stage in which the child explores the world through interaction of his mouth and hands with the environment
empirical journal article: results
describes the quantitative and, as relevant, qualitative results of the study, including statistical tests the authors used to analyze the data
goals of research in psychology
describing behavior understanding behavior predicting behavior solving applied problems
what are basic research methods psychology uses
description, experimentation, correlation
interval scale
equal differences between numbers reflect equal differences in the thing measured
What kind of privacy concerns are associated with concealed observations of behavior
ethical problems, right to privacy, sensitive information may be misused i.e. bathroom
hindsight bias
events seem more predictable after they have occurred (knew it all along theory)
how often does IACUC monitor labs including animals?
every 6 months
What is meant by the risk-benefit analysis-
everything we do is assed for risk and potential benefit to science and participant approved by IRB
evolutionary perspective
evolutionary psychologists examine human thoughts and actions in terms of natural selection. Natural selection in this context refers to the idea that some psychological traits might be advatageous for survival and that these traits would be passed down from the parents to the next generation. similar to the bipsychology perspective
quasi IV
ex. gender, introvert vs extrovert, college majors
What is the easiest IRB review to get?
exempt from full review
types of review
exempt, expedited, full review
independent variable
experimental factor that is being manipulated (can be varied on its own)
placebo effect
experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance of condition, which is assumed to be an active agent.
placebo effect
experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent.
types of quantitative research
experimental, quasi-experimental, non-experimental
empirical journal article: method
explains in detail how the researchers conducted the experiment and usually has subsections such as participants, materials, procedure, and apparatus
Minimal risk research
exposes participants to risks that are no greater than those encountered by healthy people in daily life or during routine physical or psychological examinations. Minimal risk research can receive an expedited review by one member of the IRB or by a separate committee under the authority of the IRB that can only approve minimal risk research
correlation study
expresses the relationship between 2 variables; DOES NOT IMPLY CAUSATION
face validity
extent to which a measure appears to measure the construct it is supposed to measure
content validity
extent to which a measure includes all relevant aspect of the construct
statistical validity
extent to which conclusions/claims are based on sound statistical analysis
experimental bias
factors that distort how the independent variable affects the dependent variable i an experiment
if an institution conducts research using _______ money, then a designated ____ is required
federal, IRB
how to calculate SD
find distance from mean square value take sum of squares divide by number of entries take square root
Mary Whiton Calkins
first female president of the APA (1905); a student of William James; denied the PhD she earned from Harvard because of her sex (later, posthumously, it was granted to her)
Exposure therapy with response prevention
for OCD
Exposure therapy
for PTSD
What is the hardest IRB review to get?
full board review
Explain how you would implement a test of reliability using the test-retest method
give everyone test once give the same test to the same people 2 weeks later correlate the test high coorelation is high reliability
debrief
giving participants in a research study a complete explanation of the study after the study is completed
debriefing
giving participants in a research study a complete explanation of the study after the study is completed; required by APA ethics guidelines
frequency claims goals and design
goals: describing design: survey, observational
association claims goals and design
goals: understanding predicting, solving problems design: correlational, quasi-exoerimental
causal claims goals and design
goals: understanding, predicting design: experimental
3. how were the men targeted as a disadvantaged social group?
syphilis effects people from all ethnicities and backgrounds, yet all the men in the study were poor African American
Theory
system of ideas designed to interrelate concepts and facts in a way that summarizes existing data and predicts future observations
how many sd's from the mean?
take the difference and divide by the SD
participants in the research study?
teacher and learner
survey
technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, especially by questioning a representative, random sample of group
negative correlation
tells us that as the value of one variable increases, the value of the other decreases
hawthorne effect
tendency of some people to work harder and perform better when they are participants in an experiment. Individuals may change their behavior due to the attention they are receiving from researchers rather than because of any manipulation of independent variables.
Weigh the Risks Against the Benefits in Milgram
that Milgram's study—as interesting and important as the results were—would be considered unethical by today's standards.
extraneous noise "control by using same everything"
that influence the dv that are evenly distributed across the IVS ex size of comp screen, brightness of screen
what were the men told by researchers in the tuskegee study about their blood?
that they had bad blood
What was the Nuremberg Code a result of?
the Nazi medical trials
internal validity
the ability to rule out alternative explanations for causal relationships between two variables
Variability (descriptive stats)
the amount of spread in the distribution of scores -Standard deviation = (s) (SD) in reports -Range -Difference between highest and lowest score -Variance (s²) - Square of the standard deviation
empiricism
the approach of collecting data using evidence from out senses (sight, hearing, touch) or from instruments that assist our senses (such as thermometers, timers, photographs, weight scales, questionnaires, and so on)
scientific method
the approach through which psychologists systematically acquire knowledge and understanding about behavior and other phenomena of interest.
mean
the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores.
mean
the average -affected by extreme values measure of central tendancy
experimental manipulation
the change that an experimenter deliberately produces sin a situation
Independent Variable
the condition being investigated as the cause of some change in behavior
control group
the condition of an experiment that contrasts with the experimental condition and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment., In an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.
Dependent Variable
the condition that is affected by the independent variable
clinical practice of psychology
the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders and related problems
range
the difference between the highest and the lowest scores in a distribution.
What is scientific research?
the discovery of answers to questions "through the application of scientific and systematic procedure"
dependent variable
the experimental factor - in psychology, the behavior or mental process - that is being measured; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.
independent variable
the experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.
criterion validity
the extent to which a measure is related to an outcome
internal validity
the extent to which a study rules out alternative explanations for the association seen
generalizability
the extent to which a study's findings can be reasonably assumed to apply to the study population (not just the sample); enhanced by having larger, random samples and large differences between (experimental and control) groups
Validity
the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to
validity
the extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to
generalizability
the extent to which results from a study can be generalized to the population
statistical validity
the extent to which the statistical conclusions drawn by the study are accurate and reasonable
define: principle of justice
the fair balance between the kinds of people who participate in research and the kinds of people who benefit from it
interaction
the finding that there is a difference in one condition (dual task), but not another (single task)
null hypothesis
the hypothesis that there is no significant difference between specified populations, any observed difference being due to sampling or experimental error.
experiment
the investigation of the relationship between two or more variables by deliberately producing a change in one variable in a situation and observing the effects of that change on other aspects of the situation
curvilinear association
the level of one variable changes its pattern as the other variable increases
treatment
the manipulation implemented by the experimenter
survey research
the measurement of public opinion through the use of sampling and questioning
population sample
group of people you are studying or researching.
Median
half of the scores lie above and half fall below; true midpoint; not based on magnitude
falsifiable
having the capacity to be proved wrong
Describe five ways intuition is biased
•Being swayed by a good story •Availability heuristic (rely what comes to mind) •present/present bias (failing to think about what we cannot see) •confirmatory hypothesis testing (asking biased questions to get biased answers/ focusing on the evidence we like best) •bias blind spot (being biased about being biased)
Characterizing
Describes the distinctive nature or features of something
Samples
Subsets of the population studied in a research project
construct validity
does the operational definition actually measure the construct of interest
define: debriefed
when participants are carefully informed about the study's hypotheses
Haphazard Sampling
"Convenience sampling"; inexpensive, efficient, convenient; likely to introduce biases
Ethical Responsibilities
"Lack of awareness or misunderstanding of an ethical standard is not itself a defense to a charge of unethical conduct."
Sigmund Freud
"freudian psych"- how our unconscious though processes and our emotional repsonses to childhood experiences affect our behavior (controversial ideas that have influenced humanity's self-understanding) -psychoanalysis: paralysis- people experience fear because of unconscious -conflicts that exist within unconscious affects behavior -talk therapy *great insight but little empirical (scientific) evidence
basic research vs. applied research
- Basic research is research that fills in the knowledge we don't have; it tries to learn things that aren't always directly applicable or useful immediately (conducted in university) - Applied research is research that seeks to answer a question in the real world and to solve a problem (conducted in industry)
What are the pitfalls of relying on intuition rather than research?
- Biases of intuition. - Cognitive biases - Motivational biases - The Availability Heuristic - Present/present Bias - Bias Blind Spot
What are the four types of Scientific Sources to consult for research?
- Empirical Journal Articles - Review Journal Articles - Chapters in Edited Books - Full Length Books
Multiple Baseline Designs
Change is observer under multiple circumstances -The manipulation is introduced at different times -Determines that the manipulation caused change
Characteristics of pseudoscience
- Hypotheses generated are not typically testable - if scientific tests are reported, methodology is not scientific and validity of data is questionable Ex: facilitated communication with autistic children - Supportive evidence is anecdotal and does not cite scientific references - Claims ignore conflicting evidence - Claims tend to be vague, and appeal to pre-conceived ideas - Claims are never revised
Limitations of Intuition (illusory correlation), Authority (news, book, gov. religious figures)
- Intuition relies on unquestionable judgement and cognitive/motivation biases - many accept statements based on faith in authority - scientific approach rejects this notion &r requires much more evidence before conclusions can be drawn.
-The Nature of Journals 2. Psychological Abstracts (hard month) 3. PsycINFO (1800s &updated weekly) 4. PsycFIRST (electronic 3 yrs)
- It is where researchers publish the results of their studies - Much, but not all, research can be conducted on-line from your school's library website -Peer reviewed 2. Abstracts published in hardcopy each month 3. Electronic index of all abstracts from 1800s to present -Updated weekly 4. Electronic index of all abstracts published in last 3 years
null hypothesis
- NO difference between control and experimental is random-experimental value had no effect (thus correlate) A statement or idea that can be falsified, or proved wrong.
Ethical Issues in Reporting Research
- ensuring accuracy - avoiding plagiarism - protecting identities of participants
Psychology can be used in...
- public policy (supreme court/developmental psych and testimony) - developing/assessing programs - informing citizen w/research for increased knowledge for everyday - occupations require research
interrupted time-series design "OVER time mama"
- type of pretest posttest, -time series is a set of measurements taken at intervals over a period of time
Steps of Scientific (Quantitative) Research
--Ask a Question --Review existing research/theory --Construct a Hypothesis --Method/Procedure --Experiment --Collect Data --Analyze Your Data and Draw a Conclusion --Present Results --Replicate --Publish in journal
What is communication research?
--Research that is quantitative or qualitative conducted by communication scholars about communication phenomenon. --Focus on social science perspective. --Not critical or rhetorical perspectives.
What is Social Science Research?
--Scientific & systematic methods --Assumes the research will uncover patterns in peoples lives
Characteristics of scientific research
--objective --controlled --systematic observation --empirical (factual data) --interpretation --cyclical --cumulative & self reflecting --potentially replicable
Pretest-Posttest Design "the DV is measure before the treatment and then once after"
-A pretest is given to each group PRIOR to introduction of the experimental manipulation -Assures that groups are equivalent at the beginning of the experiment -Can quickly measure changes that occur from the pretest to the posttest
Internal Validity
-An experiment must be designed and conducted so that only the IV can be cause of the results -Ability to draw conclusions about causal relationships from IV -an experiment is high in internal validity when IV is caused the DV and extraneous variables were held constent
reverse/withdrawal design or ABA design
-A, a baseline is established for the dependent variable. This is the level of responding before any treatment is introduced -B begins as the researcher introduces the treatment -researcher waits until that dependent variable reaches a steady state so that it is clear whether and how much it has changed
regression equations
-Calculations used to predict a person's score on one variable when that person's score on another variable is already known
confound varible
-Another variable that occurs along with the independent variable -Is an uncontrolled variable -Cannot determine which variable is responsible for the effect -influence the dv and varies systematically across the IV like age,
How do you know if you are doing research?
-Are you procuring subjects/participants? -Will data collected be analyzed, interpreted, and disseminated? -Do you think the knowledge you will gain can be generalized to similar situations or lead to new processes or procedures? If you can answer yes to any of these questions, its research
Placebo Effect
Changes in behavior due to participants' expectations that a drug (or other treatment) will have some effect
Test-Retest Reliability "take a test again and against and get the same results"
-Assessed by measuring the same individuals two points in time -Vulnerable to artificiality -Vulnerable to maturation
partial correlation
-describe the relationship between two variables whilst taking away the effects of another variable, -Provides a Way of Statistically Controlling Third Variables
Scientific Method:
-Belief on basis of experience (observation and testing) —Empirical: based on experience rather than faith (tested) —Self-correcting: ways of determining superiority of one belief over another
A priori Method:
-Belief without prior study or examination bc it seems reasonable
four goals of scientific research
-description of bx -prediction of bx -determination of cause of bx -explanation of behavior
Experimental Method
-direct manipulations and control of variables -reduces ambiguity of interpretation of results -high control can create artificial atmosphere -Experimental Control -Randomization
range
-distance between the highest and lowest values -affected by extreme values
All scientific approaches involve:
-Data -Theory
Quantitative Research
-Deductive reasoning - Tests theory Generalized(theory) to specific (research conclusion) - Support or verify that a theory is true
Describe the beneficence aspect of Belmont Report?
-do no harm -always secure well-being of participants
Cross-Sectional Method 2. Longitudinal Method 3. Sequential Method
-persons of different ages measured at the same point in time 2. same group is observed at different times (as they age) 3. combination of 1 and 2
The institutional Review Board (IRB)
-Each institution that receives federal funds must have an IRB -Responsible for reviewing research at the institution -Must have at least 5 members -One member must be from outside the institution -All research conducted by students, faculty and staff must be reviewed
What are the ethical problems with the case study in this chapter?
-Emily needs informed consent -Her project constitutes research, and it may need both university and hospital IRB approval (so 2 IRBS) -She needs special consent for patients 18 and under -She must have complete confidentiality since the info collected is behavioral and medical data
The scientific approach
-Empiricism -Falsifiability -Peer review
Simple random sampling Stratified random sampling
-Every member of the population has an equal probability of being selected -Population divided into subgroups (strata) and random samples taken from each strata
single subject research "good for analysis of bx" case study group reserach
-quantitative research based on a small group of a detailed bx study -single person detailed study -is large research
how to measure variability
-range -interquartile range -variance -standard deviation
factorial design
-each level of one IV or factor is combined with each level of the others to produce all possible combinations. -Each combination becomes a condition in the experiment -IV xPV pv=participantv variable. -factorial design table can be 2x2 or 2x2x2 2 × 2 factorial design has four conditions, a 3 × 2 factorial design has six conditions, a 4 × 5 factorial design would have 20 conditions -there can be a nonmanipulated independent variable, reserach measure doesn't manipulate IV
Standard Deviation
-How much scores depart from mean -Scores cluster around mean= small standard deviation -Scores mostly far from mean= large standard deviation
Curvilinear Relationship between variables
-Increases in one variable relative to both increases and decreases in another -Included U-shaped and Inverted U-shaped curves
stat significance
-Infers whether the results will hold up if the experiment is repeated several times, each time with a new sample of research participants -inferential Statistics
testability
-examining only empirical questions ( those that can be tested in a systematically empirical and publicly verifiable manner -an example of a non-empirical question would be "do angels exist" not publicly verifiable, not replicable, not systematic examination
confounding variable
-extraneous variable that affects validity of experiment -a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment (independent variable irrelvevant)
public verifability
-findings must be observable and recognizable by others -procedures used must be systematically reported (APA style)
inter-quartile range
-first quartile (Q1) score at or below which 25% of observations fall -second quartile (Q2) (median) score at or below which 50% of observations fall -third quartile (Q3) score at or below which 75% of observations fall SO Q3-Q1 is the range of the middle 50% of observations -less affected by extreme values
z table
-follows normal distribution mean=0 and SD=1
What constitutes expedited review?
-research projects involving no more than minimal risk
inferential statistics
-generalize to population -statistical significance -t-test: 2 different groups compared -f-test: more than 2 groups compared -null: no difference between 2 groups -alternative hypoth: reject null come up w/new one
cognitive revolution
-human cognition, how sensory info. becomes processed and interpreted by minds -biological basis
why is psychology a difficult discipline
-human minds cannot be examined -there are many characteristics among humans that cannot be generalized/assumed
example of a logical inference
-if p then q is true: if p is not true, q is not true
Describe the respect for persons aspect of Belmont report
-individual is treated as an autonomous agent -people with diminished autonomy are entitled to protection
What were the ethical problems involved in Duke's scandal?
-lack of beneficence: patients could have been given the worst possible treatment -not total informed consent: patients were not informed that the trial had been suspended and incorrect percentages were told to patients -researchers had duty to continue a successful experiment or effort
Confidence Intervals
-Level of confidence that the true population value lies within an interval of the obtained sample -Sampling error or margin of error
mixed factorial design "2 birds with one stone"
-manipulate one IV between subjects and another within subjects
association claims in research designs
-many research designs lead to association claims, should to just be linked to correlation/regression designs
Reactivity Measure "like participant awareness"
-Measure is reactive if awareness of being measured changes an individual's behavior -Measures of behavior vary in terms of their potential reactivity
Sources of Belief 4 Methods of Acquiring Knowledge or "Fixing Belief":
-Method of Authority -Method of Tenacity -A priori Method -Scientific Method
1. Advantages and 2. Disadvantages of the pretest-posttest design
-Mortality (dropout factor) -Assess equivalency of groups with small sample size -Can be used to select participants for the experiment 2. Time consuming and awkward to administer -Sensitizes participants to what is being studied - Demand characteristics - Reduces external validity
Observations in Psychological Research Three types:
-Naturalistic Observations -The Case Study -Survey Research
case studies
-Provides a Description of an Individual -Psychobiography -a type of case study in which a researcher applies psychological theory to explain the life of an individual -Valuable in Informing Us of Conditions that are Rare or Unusual
Reactivity:
-Participants' responses/actions influenced by researcher's presence -Also known as demand characteristics
Reliability and Accuracy of Measures
-Reliability indexes do not indicate whether a particular measure is an accurate measure of the variable of interest -A measure can be highly reliable but not accurate
What was the Duke University scandal?
-research was being conducted on cancer treatment, and one of the researchers was falsifying the data
extraneous variables
-may or may not affect validity of experiment -Any variables other than the independent variable that seem likely to influence the dependent variable in a specific study
descriptive statistics
-measures of central tendency -measures of dispersion
Charles Darwin
-natural selection: maximizing survival (mental abilities to complex for this) -sexual selection: maximize chance of reproduction (too sophisticated than NS-between passive and physical environment)
latest forces
-neuroscience -evolutionary perspective -sociocultural influence -interdisciplinary fields
What are the 3 main categories in the Belmont Report?
1. respect for persons 2. Beneficence 3. Justice
MEASURING THE DEPENDENT VARIABLE
-Self-report measures -Behavioral measures -Physiological measures -Galvanic skin response (GSR) -Electromyogram (EMG) -Electroencephalogram (EEG) -Functional MRI (fMRI)
Method of Authority:
-Simplest way of gaining knowledge (fix belief) -Trusted authority's word is taken as true -Takes minimal effort and provides substantial security —until doubts are raised
Internal Consistency Reliability "reflects the same underlying construct"
-Split-half reliability -Cronbach's alpha -Correlation of each item on the measure all other items on the measure -Item-total correlations
Testable Hypothesis:
-Statement about a presumed or theoretical relation between 2 or more variables Specify how variables will be measured Specify how variable will be related
Goals of Psychological Research:
-To conduct sound research -To evaluate results of research
Literature Review
-Tells if your hypothesis has been tested -Tells what to consider in developing your research project
Nonexperimental Method
-observing or measuring variables in natural enviorment -bx observed, asking ppl to describe bx, recording physiological responses, examining public records -Allows measure of covariation between variables -allows to study particpants variables that cannot be manipulated -Direction of Cause and Effect -The Third-Variable or Confounding Variable Problem
quasi "resembling" experimental design
-person by treatment -pretest post test -naturalistic experiment -Used when control features of experimental designs cannot be achieved -For example, the independent variable cannot be manipulated -Internal validity may be affected
IV= cause
-The variables that are considered to be the "cause" -Usually manipulated by the researcher
DV= effect
-The variables that are considered to be the "effect" -Usually measured by the researcher
What were the ethical problems with the Milgram Obedience Study?
-There was no informed consent because they used deception on the participants -There was no justification for the study since it was done based on researcher's curiosity -Participants did not have full autonomy -responsibility for harmful experience
Biases may affect:
-Types of questions asked —Types of participants recruited —Treatment of participants
Method of Tenacity:
-Unwavering adherence to acquired belief, regardless of contradictory evidence -Allows one to maintain uniform/constant outlook (no need to change) -Relieves people from stress and psychological discomfort
multiple correlation "R"
-Used to combine a number of predictor variables to increase the accuracy of prediction of a given criterion or outcome variable
operational definition of varibales
-Variable is an abstract concept that must be translated into concrete forms of observation or manipulation -Studied empirically -Help communicate ideas to other
Advantages of Descriptive Observation:
-Very useful in early stages of research to get idea of research problem's breadth/range -Help define the problem and raise additional questions that may be tested in more controlled way (experiment) -Flexibility -Inexpensive and convenient -High ecological (or external) validity
Content analysis "keywords"
-a family of systematic approaches to measurement using complex archival data. -requires specifying keywords, phrases, or ideas and then finding all occurrences of them in the data
What was the purpose of the Stanford Prison Experiment?
-a simulated prison environment was created to see if guard brutality was due to evil personality or the prison environment
discriminant validity
-also divergent validity and empirically support type of measurement validity that represents the extent to which a measure does NOT associate strongly with measures of other theoretically different constructs
how does one overcome various limits human observation
-by adopting scientific procedures and methods -understand human behavior -objective: completely seek answer/reason (no assumptions)-unbiased, avoid stereotypes
correlations
-can be calculated between any two variables -only provides measurement of linear relationship -greatly affected by a range of values -unaffected by linear transformations -have no units -bidirectional
multiple regression
-can use ratio or interval dataThis involves measuring several independent variables (X1, X2, X3,...Xi), all of which are possible causes of a single dependent variable (Y). The result of a multiple regression analysis is an equation that expresses the dependent variable as an additive combination of the independent variables.
experimental research examples (weakness)
-cannot include non-controllable variables (extraneous, confounding, nuisance) -situation is chosen arbitrarily: random choice, not natural -tells little about single person -articifical effects: overgeneralization, deception (ethics)
Systematic observation
-careful observation of specific behaviors in a particular setting -Coding Systems -Methodological Issues -Equipment -Reactivity -Reliability -Samplin
causal claims
-claim that variation in one variable causes variation in another variable -involves more than one variable -must satisfy certain criteria of causality
Source of Ideas
-common sense -observation of personal/social events -theories (a systematic body of ideas) -past research -practical problems
inferential statistics
-confidence intervals (estimation -hypothesis testing
r
-correlation coefficient -varies between 1 and -1
systematic empiricism
-data driven -empirical: relying on observation to draw conclusion -systematic: systematic collection of data, precise definitions (so no alternative interpretations), reliable valuable measures
alternative definition of theory
-summarizes empirical knowledge -organizes knowledge in the form of precise statements of relationships among constructs or variables -provides tentative explanations -basis for predictions about behavior
types of t-tests
-tests for differences between sample means --when the samples are independent (different subject in two groups) --when samples are not independent (same subject in both groups)
r^2
-the coefficient of determination -varies between 1 and 0, the smaller the value the less correlation between the two variables
What were the ethical problems with the Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment?
-there was NO informed consent -rights of human subjects were disregarded -there was no protection from harm b/c participants were not given medical treatment for the disease when it became available
What were the ethical problems with the Stanford Prison Experiment?
-there was no justification for the study since it was based on the researcher's curiosity -participants were not treated as autonomous agents, as they didn't feel free to leave as they wanted or make their own decisions -lack of beneficence, prisoners were treated poorly -responsibility for harmful experience
Nonprobability Sampling 2. Haphazard sampling 3. Purposive sampling 4. Quota sampling
-unknown probability of any member being chosen 2. convenience sampling 3. sample meets predetermined criterion 4. sample reflects the numerical composition of various subgroups in the population
the t statistic
-use sample SD to calculate SD's from mean -as sample size increases, t distribution becomes closer to normal distribution -degrees of freedom = N-1 -use t instead of z when we don't know population SD
descriptive statistics
-used to describe as a sample (sample analysis) -mode: most common score -median: where all scores congest (center) -mean: average -standard deviation: amount of difference from mean -normal distribution: bell curve-many physical, psychological attributes
Naturalistic observation
-useful in complex setting -cannot be used to study all issues - some issues is participation, concealment and identifying scope of observation
correlation: cannot make casual references 3 possibilities
-weakness of correlations: ambiguous casuality -correlations: -1 to 1 -examples: assumptions/bias -third variable issue causing the causality of the correlated relationship. *correlation dos NOT determine cause and effect- just because to factors predict one another does not mean they cause one another
variables
-what is being studied, unit -in psychology, an aspect of human behavior or something that affects human behavior -varies among individuals or situations
knowledge from experience
-what we experience may have other confounds -what we experience can be biased, this is called "intuition"
A floor effect "test too hard" vs A ceiling effect (too easy)
-when most of your subjects score near the bottom. There is very little variance because the floor of your test is too high. -when most of your subjects score near the bottom. - little variance because the floor of your test is too high. -your questions are too hard for the group you are testing. This is even more of a problem with multiple choice tests have random guessing
Describe the justice aspect of Belmont Report?
-who ought to receive benefits and who should bear the burdens of research? -"fairness of distribution" -an injustice occurs when some benefit to which a person is entitled is denied without good reason
Gestalt
-whole form school (phi phenomenon) -whole is greater than sum of its parts -Gestalt therapy, impression formation (Asch)
Nonparametric
1 assumption; Nominal and Ordinal; Mann Whitney U Statistic
inductive approach to research
1) Identifies research problem 2) Consider existing research 3) Research Question 4) Method/procedure 5) data 6) analyze & interpret 7) Theoretical explanation
Deductive approach to research
1) Identify research problem 2) Review existing theory 3) Hypothesis 4) Method/Procedures 5) Data 6) analyze & interpret
ethical issues in research
1. Deception 2. Use of confederates 3. Physical/Phycological harm 4. Confidentiality/Anonymity 5. Video/audio-taping 6. Debriefing participants- affect btw researcher and participants
4 Goals of Communication Research
1. Describe behavior 2. Determine behavioral causes 3. Predict behavior 4. Explain behavior
types of research & IRB
1. Exempt Research (no review needed) -Research in which there is no risk of harm 2. Minimal Risk Research - When the risk of harm is no greater that risk encountered in daily life or routine physical or psychological tests - Routine review conducted by the IRB 3. Greater Than Minimal Risk Research -thorough review conducted by the IRB 4. IRB Impact on Research -Extended time for approval of study -Submissions often need to be revised or clarified -Very cautious around approval
logical reasoning
1. assumptions (ex: primates are capable of using language, Bozo is a primate) 2. conclusions: Bozo is capable of using language can also be false
many popular beliefs about human nature
1. based on and provide wrong explanations 2. describe non-typical cases 3.ignores non-confirming examples
social cognition biases
1. belief perseverance 2. availability heuristic 3. conformation bias
APA Ethical Principles
1. beneficence and nonmaleficence 2. fidelity and responsibility 3. integrity 4. justice 5. respect for people's rights and dignity
all 6 approaches
1. biological 2. behavioral 3. cognitive 4. humanistic 5. psychoanalytic 6. sociocultural
steps in calculating variance
1. calculate mean 2. calculate deviations from mean 3. square deviations 4. add squared deviations 5. adjust for number of subjects in sample by dividing by # of ss
criteria for establishing causality
1. causal and outcome variable must covary (as one changes so does the other) 2. variation in causal variable must precede variation in outcome variable (temporal precedes criterion) 3. other causes of variation in the outcome variable must be ruled out (internal validity criterion, have to rule out third variable)
types of definitions
1. conceptual 2. operational
four big validities
1. construct validity 2. external validity 3. statistical validity 4. internal validity
four types of validity
1. construct validity 2. statistical validity 3. external validity 4. internal validity
2 key strategies of experimentation
1. except for cause make other variables/conditions identical (replication) 2. random assignment
What are the 3 IRB review types?
1. exempt from full review 2. expedited review 3. full board review
empirical journal article: introduction
1. explains the topic of the study 2. lays out the theoretical and empirical background for the research 3. states specific research questions, goals, or hypotheses for the current study
the three claims
1. frequency claims 2. association claims 3. causal claims
three types of claims
1. frequency claims 2. association claims 3. causal claims
What are the 8 major issues of ethical research?
1. justification to experiment on humans 2. informed consent, truth telling and deception 3. confidentiality/right to privacy 4. researchers responsibility for harmful experience 5. duty to continue a successful experiment or effort 6. relationship of therapeutic and non therapeutic research 7. sponsored research 8. publication of unethical research
what were the three ethics violations in the Tuskegee experiment?
1. not treated respectfully 2. harmed 3. targeted a disadvantaged social group
quantitative
1. propose theory 2. formulate hypothesis based on theory an test theory by conducting experiment
What constitutes exemption from full review?
1. research about normal education practices (instruction strategies, effectiveness, classroom management, curriculum) 2. educational tests with info recorded in a way to protect the identity of the children 3. observation of public behavior as long as subjects cannot be identified and the researcher is not involved in the activities observed 4. use of existing public data; subject can't be identified 5. surveys and interviews recorded totally anonymously
Wilhelm Wundt
1879- established the first psychology labratory at University of Leipzig, Germany (first pioneer: "psychology is the science of mental life") - investigated biological causes of behavior -structuralism: consciousness can be broken down into elements (introspection)- participant senses of rose
Carl Rogers
1902-1987; Field: humanistic; Contributions: founded person-centered therapy, theory that emphasizes the unique quality of humans especially their freedom and potential for personal growth, unconditional positive regard, fully functioning person
year: Tuskegee syphilis experiment
1932
what year was the Milgram study and what did they illustrate in research?
1960's: illustrated some of the difficulties in ethical decision making
cognitive psychology
1960: explores how we perceive, process and remember information and even why we get anxious or depressed
What year did many proffessional citizens gather at the Belmont Conference Center in Maryland?
1976
Give an example from psychology of discriminant validity
2 disorders anxiety and depression that are alike and it is hard to distinguish between the two
How has evolutionary theory influenced the field of psychology
2 ways Charles Darwin focused research on individual differences of animals and his cousin sir Francis Galton used his Darwin's ideas to study humans
sampling bias
A problem that occurs when a sample is not representative of the population from which it is drawn.
Science
A process that identifies empirical relationships and then formulates theoretical relationships to explain the empirical relationships
Independent Variable
A property that is manipulated by an experimenter under the controlled conditions to determine whether it caused the predicted outcome of an experiment
Meta- analysis
A quantitative technique that combines the results of many studies and gives a number that summarizes the magnitude or effect size of a relationship. This technique weighs each study proportionately.
What is the difference between a representative sample and a biased sample?
A representative sample is a true subset of the population and accurately represents all subgroups, while the biased sample disproportionately includes or excludes subgroups and does not accurately represent the population.
Experiment
A research design that includes independent and dependent variables and random assignments of participants to control experimental groups or conditions
experiment
A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process
Representative Sample
A research sample that accurately reflects the population of people one is studying
Meta-analysis
A research technique for combining all research results on one question and drawing a conclusion
representative sample
A sample that reflects the characteristics of the population from which it is drawn
scientific method
A series of steps followed to solve problems including collecting data, formulating a hypothesis, testing the hypothesis, and stating conclusions.
Theory
A set of related assumptions from which testable predictions can be made
Hypothesis
A specific, informed, and testable prediction of what kind of outcome should occur under a particular condition
Hypothesis
A statement of the predicted outcome of an experiment or an educated guess about the relationship between variables
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
A statement that affects events to cause the prediction to become true
Standard Deviation
A statistic measure of how much scores in a sample vary around the mean
t-Test
A statistic that compares two means to see whether they come from the same population
Mode
A statistic that represents the most commonly occurring score or value
Coefficient of Correlation
A statistical index ranging from -1.00 to +1.00 that indicates the direction and degree of correlation
Case Study
A study design in which a psychologist, often a therapist, observes one person over a long period of time
What was the Milgram Obedience Study?
A study done to see how far people would go in obeying instruction/authority if it involved harming another person Person was told to administer an electric shock every time the learned got an answer wrong
Naturalistic Observation
A study in which the researcher unobtrusively observes and records behavior in the real world
experimental group
A subject or group of subjects in an experiment that is exposed to the factor or condition being tested.
Placebo
A substance or treatment that appears identical to the actual treatment but lacks the active substance
Theory
A temporary explanation
social desirability bias
A tendency to give socially approved answers to questions about oneself; a potential challenge in surveys involving self-report
hypothesis
A testable prediction, often implied by a theory
Confounding Variable
A variable whose influence on the dependent variable cannot be separated from the independent variable being examined
What were the ethical problems involved with the Nazi medical trials/Nuremberg Code?
NO informed consent and NO voluntary consent
archival research
Archival research involves using previously compiled information to answer research questions -Statistical Records -Survey Archives -Written and Mass Communication Record -Use of the General Social Survey (GSS) -difficult to obtain -can't be sure of accuracy
What is an extraneous variable? Provide two examples.
Are there factors, other than the independent variable, that can influence the dependent variable and change the results of your experiment?
Negative Slope
As values of one variable increase, the values of the other decrease; inverse relationship
Positive Slope
As values of one variable increase, the values of the other increase as well; direct relationship
When it might be sensible to accept the conclusions of authority figures
Ask about the source of their ideas. if authority refers to research evidence, advice might be worth it
Research question
Asks what the tentative relationship among variables might be or asks about the state or nature of some communication phenomenon.
Nominal (categories)
Categories with no numeric scales Males / females Introverts / extroverts Impossible to define any quantitative values
Pseudoscience
Claims presented as scientific that are not supported by evidence obtained with the scientific method
Where are you most likely to find scientific journals?
College or University libraries
What does it mean to say that research is probabilistic?
Conclusions are meant to explain a certain proportion of possible cases
asch
Conformity; people give obviously wrong answer to seek different opposing aspects of personality into a unified impression/sense of self
Research "MUSTS"
Consider ethics, biases, reliable communication
References
Contains a full bibliographic listing of all of the sources and the authors cited in writing their article, enabling interested readers to locate these other studies. Excellent source for additional articles on a given topic.
What's the difference between the experimental group and the control group?
Control:Direct manipulation of factors of major interest.An experiment is an implementation of control by manipulating the factor(s) that is the central focus of research.Control of unwanted factors Potentially influential and undesirable factors (other than the factor of major interest) are not allowed to change. Experimental:A group of subjects who are exposed to variable under study
Interrater Reliability
Correlation between the observations of raters
No Relationship between variables
Correlation coefficient a number between −1 and +1 calculated so as to represent the linear dependence of two variables or sets of data.
Abduction
Creative reasoning that may not be correct.
Research Hypothesis for Quantitative Research
Describes a logical explanation of difference or relationship between two or more variables Proposes what the relationship will be
debriefing in Milgram
Debriefing would be the time to return participants' moods to normal by having them think happy thought reconcile with confederate participant
APA Ethical Standard 8
Defines several specific research practices and rules: Institutional Review Boards (IRB) Informed consent Deception Debriefing Animal research Research misconduct
Operational Definition
Defining a scientific concept by stating the specific actions or procedures used to measure it
controlling participants/experimenter
Demand characteristics -Using unrelated filler items on a questionnaire -Placebo groups -Can control through the use of placebo effect -Used to assure external validity is maintained -Controlling for Experimenter Expectations -Experimenter bias or expectancy effects -Research on expectancy effects -Solutions to the expectancy problem -Single-blind experiment -Double-blind experiment
Operationalization
Denotes how the variable is observed or measured
Occam's Razor
Do not unnecessarily complicate things. If given the option, go with the simpler explanation
nonprobability sampling
Does not rely on random selection Weakens sample-to-population representativeness Used when other techniques will not result in an adequate or appropriate sample Used when researchers desire participants with special experiences or abilities
Strong Inference:
Eliminating possible alternative explanations for findings (confounds)
Define the characteristic of an ex post facto study.
Ex post facto - is a Latin phrase meaning "after the fact." When we conduct an ex post facto study, we are using an IV "after the fact" - it has already varied before we arrived on the scene.
What is the difference between empirical and theoretical relationships?
Empirical relationships are cause-effect relationships, while theoretical relationships are generalizations that organize and explain empirical relationships.
systematic empiricism
Empiricism refers to learning based on observation, and scientists learn about the natural world systematically, by carefully planning, making, recording, and analyzing observations of it
Discuss the Belmont Report: why is it important; when was it written; how does it guide us now
Ethics Guidelines insures human and animals are treated ethically, 1979, it continues to guide research here and around the western world
quota sampling
Researchers uses the target or quota as a goal for seeking people or elements that fit the characteristics of the subgroup
What are the two recording methods of field studies and naturalistic observations?
Event recording- establish a frequency count of behaviors; time sampling- establish a schedule for observations
systematic sampling
Every nth item in the target population is selected
Zeitgeist
Everything that we experience is in some way incorporated into our lives and behaviors; spirit of the times
International Encyclopedia of Communication or Encyclopedia of Communication Theory
Excellent step in finding resources for preliminary questions
Correlation
Existence of a consistent systematic relationship between two events, measures, or variables
What are the three sources of evidence for people's beliefs?
Experience, Intuition and Authority
What did Dr. Bushman conclude in his experiment on "venting" and how did he come to that conclusion?
Experiment proved popular assumption/idea wrong about venting/catharsis helping people out more than just sitting in a quiet room. By doing an experiment with comparison groups, they were proved wrong. If this exp had not been done then peoples beliefs would have put them on the wrong path via assumption or their personal exp.
What are the two types of Operational Definition?
Experimental (defines independent/manipulated variable) and Measured (defines the dependent variable/measurement)
Method
Explains in detail how the researchers conducted their experiment. Contains subsections such as Participants, Materials, Procedure and Apparatus. Gives enough detail to repeat the experiment if you wanted to.
External Validity
Extent to which the results can be generalized to other populations and settings
What is a literature review?
Finding out what research studies already exist in an area
Behavioral couples therapy
For alcoholism and substance abuse.
Cognitive behavioral therapy
For depression, panic disorder, bulimia nervosa, and PTSD.
Behavioral therapy
For depression.
Family therapy
For schizophrenia
response sets
Habitual way of answering questions
Threats to internal validity in quasi- experimental
History -Maturation -Testing -Instrument Decay -Regression Toward the Mean
experimental group
In an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.
control group
In an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.
Dependent Variable
In an experiment, the outcome of or response to an experimental manipulation
conditioned response
In classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS).
confidence level (reliability)
In sampling, a measure of how certain the auditor wants to be that his or her results are accurate. Note that the confidence level plus the risk of being ineffective = 100 percent.
Positive Linear Relationship between variables
Increases in one variable relate to increases in another
Negative Linear Relationship between variables
Increases in one variable relative to decreases in another
Define independent variable and dependent variable.
Independent variable:The factor that is the major focus of the research and that the researcher directly manipulates.Manipulation of the IV corresponds to one use of the term control Dependent variable:Consists of the recorded information or results of the experiment. Is the effect half of the cause-and-effect relation we are examining.Changes in DV scores will depend on the manipulation of the IV.
A good experiment has:
Independent variables, Dependent variables, and control variables
What are the two types of statistics?
Inferential and descriptive
Anonymity
Info that can identify a participant is never attached to the data.
what is the IRB for animal research called? Whom does it include?
Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC): vet, scientist familiar with the research, and community member.
IRB
Institutional Review Board, review research in advance to ensure ethical considerations are met
Inter-Item Reliability
Internal consistency; same question is asked more than once on same test
Goal of communication research
To describe communication phenomena as well as discover and explain the relationships among them
"psychology should investigate only behaviors that can be observed"
John Watson
Rationalism
Logical reasoning - the senses can be fooled and are not always reliable, should rely on logic
Error in Descriptive Observation:
Low internal validity: Can't assess causal relationships, simply observing what we see Often lack reproducibility: Left open to question Researcher bias:Too much interpretive observation instead of descriptive Participant Reactivity
experimentation
Making a reasoned analysis of an opportunity, envisioning potential solutions, evaluating those possibilities, and developing the most promising ones, consistent with the resources you have -cause and effect -dependent variable is compared between to or more independent variables -manipulation of independent variables and confounding variables
Animal Welfare Act of 1966
Mandates that institutions where animal research is conducted must have an Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC).
Central Tendency (descriptive stats)
Mean -indicates central tendency with interval or ratio scales Median (Mdn) The middlemost score indicates central tendency with ordinal, interval, and ratio scales Mode -Most frequently occurring score -Indicates central tendency with all scales including nominal scales
Measurement of Central Tendency for Ratio
Mean, median, and mode; absolute zero
Measurement of Central Tendency for Interval
Mean, median, and mode; relative zero
Single Case Experimental Designs (formerly called single-subject designs)
Measured from baseline period to treatment periods
Behavioral Measures
Measures based on systematic observation of people's actions, either in their normal environment or in a laboratory setting
Descriptive Statistics
Measures used to describe and summarize research
Measurement of Central Tendency for Ordinal
Median and mode
Is research ethical if it produces valuable data?
NO; research does not become ethical just because it produces valuable data (look at all aspects of the study, not just the results)
Descriptive Statistics
Methods of organizing and summarizing data
Measurement of Central Tendency for Nominal
Mode
refinement
Modify experimental procedures and aspects of animal handling to minimize or eliminate animal distress.
Framework of thinking about ethical issues
Moral principle -weighing the risk vs benefits -acting responsibly &w/intergrity -seeking justice -respecting ppl's rights who's is affected? research participants/scientific community/society
data falsification
More broadly influencing the study's results in ways not specified by the hypotheses and design
When do confounds occur?
Occurs when you think one thing caused an outcome but in fact other things changed too, so you are confused about what the cause really was.
exempt review
Must meet one (or more) of six categories of research; Can not be used if there is deception; Can not be used if the human subjects are detained (prison or another institution); Can not be used if the research might expose people to discomfort or harassment beyond the levels encountered in daily life.
Posttest-Only Design
Must: -Obtain two equivalent groups of participants -Care must be taken to eliminate selection differences -Introduce the IV -Measure the effect of the IV on the DV
What are the 3 fields of Science?
Natural, Social, and Formal
Define each of the qualitative research designs: naturalistic observation, ethnographic inquiry, archival study.
Naturalistic observation:Involves seeking answers to research questions by observing behavior in the real world.Goal "is to capture natural activity in natural settings" (Featherstone,2008). Ethnographic inquiry:Goal is learning about a culture from the perspective of the members of that culture.Uses participant observation in which the researcher becomes part of the group. Archival study:Refers to use of data recorded by other individuals for other purposes.Public health and census data
Field Studies and Naturalistic Observations
No manipulation; documents everyday life; low internal validity and high external validity; can use recording methods to increase structure
Interval ( 0 degrees doesn't mean absence of weather)
Numeric properties are literal Assume equal intervals between values Intelligence Aptitude test scores Temperature (Fahrenheit and Celsius) No true zero point
Empirical
Observation or experience in both quantitative/qualitative research
Naturalistic Observation
Observing behavior as it unfolds in a natural setting, provides only a description of behavior
Define each of the response categories for questionnaires, open-ended, multiple choice, Likert-type scale, forced alternative.
Open-ended A question is asked to which the respondent must construct his or her own answer. Multiple choice The respondent must select the most suitable response from among several alternatives. Likert-type scale The individual answers a question by selecting a response alternative from a designated scale. A typical scale might be the following: (5) strongly agree, (4) agree, (3) undecided, (2) disagree, or (1) strongly disagree. Forced alternative The respondent must select between two alternative responses.
Theories perform 2 major functions
Organization: means of organizing and sorting data Prediction: means of generating predictions for new situations/research
Institutional Review Boards
Organizations that evaluate research proposals to make sure research involving humans does not cause undue harm or distress
Research Designs
Plans of action for how to conduct a scientific study
innate philosophers
Plato, Descarte, Kant
What is the difference between positive correlation and negative correlation?
Positive correlation:As one variable increases, scores on the other variable also increase.A perfect positive correlation has a correlation coefficient of 1. Negative correlation:Indicates that an increase in one variable is accompanied by a decrease in the second variable.A perfect negative correlation has a correlation coefficient of -1.
what are three important req. the IACUC requires from applicants?
Precautions in place to minimize stress, protocol detailing the use of each animal, whether the animals will be euthanized
Pilot Research
Preliminary data to evaluate: procedures, independent variables, dependent variables, control methods
Review Journal Articles
Provide a summary of all the published studies that have been done in on research area. Sometimes uses meta-analysis. Must be peer-reviewed.
Belmont Report (1979) 3 ethical principles 2. Nuremberg Code (10 principles) 3. Declaration of Helsinki (medical council detailed)
Protection of ethical principles and guidelines for protection of Human reserach -Beneficence -autonomy -justice became the Federal Policy For the Protection of Human Subjects 2. 10 principles written because of the Nazi physicians 3. created by World Medical Council, must include protocol of description of research.
Define reliability and validity.
Reliability:Refers to the extent that the test or inventory is consistent in its evaluation of the same individuals over repeated administrations. The greater the similarity between scores produced by the same individuals on repeated administrations, the greater the reliability of the test or inventory. Validity:a test or inventory has validity when it actually measures what it is supposed to measure.
Goal of field studies and naturalistic observations:
Remain unobtrusive (unnoticed)
replication
Repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances.
Empirical Journal Articles
Report, for the first time, the results of an empirical research study. They contain details about the study's method, the statistical tests used, and the numerical results of the study. Must be peer reviewed.
Concept
Represent a number of individual but also related things. Abstract way of thinking to group things together that are alike from things that are not alike
plagiarism
Representing another's work as your own
What is propriety research?
Research commissioned by an individual or organization for its own use. It is private and only intended for use by who paid for it. ex. Marketing research
Heuristic Nature of Mass Communication Theories
Research findings must lead to more questions.
the research cycle
Research literature cycles to research question moves to empirical study then data analysis then to conclusions then back to research literature. Research questions lead to research literature vice versus. informal observations/ practical problems that arise can lead to research questions.
Explain the need for Research Methods
Research methods allows us to analyze problems with empiricism
When it might not be sensible to accept the conclusions of authority figures
Research they use might have been conducted poorly
beneficence
Researchers must carefully consider potential costs and benefits.
justice
Researchers must fairly balance the costs to participants with the benefits to participants and others. Ex: black men should not have been the only participants in the syphilis study.
replacement
Researchers should find an alternative to animals in research when possible.
deception
Researchers sometimes need to keep details of a research design hidden from participants (or intentionally mislead them about the study's true purpose). Note: must be corrected during debriefing
Zimbardo conclusion
Results of this experiment showed the behavior of normal, well educated men can be dramatically affected when a role they are given involves considerable power an status. A generalization that can be made is the treatment of prisoners in real prisons. Zimbardo believes that prisons are places that demean humanity... and bring out the worst in social relations among people. this study was unethical because it were expose to pain and humiliation they were not informed to what they would be undergoin
Experimenter Expectancy Effects
Results that occur when the behavior of the participants is influenced by the experimenter's knowledge of who is in the control group and who is in the experimental group
theory-data cycle
Scientists collect data to test, change, or update their theories. The most important cycle in science.
Discriminant/divergent validity (NOT relatable IQ compared to your IBS)
Scores on the measure are not related to other measures that are theoretically different
Concurrent validity "at the moment"
Scores on the measure are related to a criterion measured at the same time (concurrently)
Convergent validity (ACT compared to SAT)
Scores on the measure are related to other measures of the same construct
Predictive validity "can it predict bx in the future"
Scores on the measure predict behavior on a criterion measured at a time in the future
descriptive statistics
Statistics used to describe only the observed group or sample from which they were derived; summary statistics such as percent, averages, and measures of variability that are computed on a particular group of individuals.
How are these terms related? Serendipity, past research, inspiration.
Serendipity:Refers to those situations where we look for one phenomenon but find another. Past research:A careful survey of the research done in a specific area will highlight any knowledge gaps or unanswered questions in that area. Inspiration:Ideas that pop into one's mind from (seemingly) nowhere. Inspiration usually comes more easily after one has been working on a particular problem for some time.
Confederate
Someone who pretends to also be a participant but is actually helping the researcher.
inclusion and exclusion criteria
Sets of criteria that determine who can and cannot participate in a study
What is the difference between a Simple and Stratified Random Sample?
Simple and stratified are both representative of the population, however simple means that all members of the population have an equal probability of selection. The selection of one participant in now way influences any subsequent choices. Stratified is the modification of simple and the population can be subdivided into subgroups or strata.
Parsimony
Simplicity
Assessing Hypotheses
Simply stated? Single sentence? At least two variables? Variables clearly stated? is the relationship/difference precisely stated? Testable?
Correlation Coefficients
Statistics that range from -1.00 to +1.00 and assess the strength and direction of associations between two variables
What is the Availability Heuristic?
States that things that can pop up easily in our mind tend to guide our thinking. We decide that the answer that comes to mind easily must be the correct one.
Double-Blind Studies
Studies in which neither the participants nor the researchers administering the treatment know who has been assigned to the experimental or control group
Single-Blind Studies
Studies in which the participants do not know the experimental condition (group) to which they have been assigned
Correlational Designs
Studies that measure two or more variables and their relationship to one another; they are not designed to show causation
Descriptive Designs
Study designs in which the researcher defines a problem and variable of interest but makes no prediction and does not control or manipulate anything
Ethology
Study of animal behaviors
What is the difference between systematic and unsystematic extraneous variables?
Systematic extraneous variables occur on a regular or rhythmic basis, while unsystematic extraneous variables occur on an irregular or unpredictable basis
Reliability and Validity
Techniques for evaluating the relationship between measured and conceptual variables
What is the IRB and what are they responsible for doing?
The Institutional Review Board (IRB) is a campus review panel for the use of human participants in research projects.At some institutions the IRB also reviews research projects that utilize animals. Many institutions have an Animal Care and Use Committee that reviews research projects that utilize animals.A veterinarian must be a member of any panel that reviews animal research proposals.
Regarding research done bad what were the following know for? Nuremburg Code, Willowbrook hepatitis project, Tuskegee syphilis project, Milgram obedience experiments
The Nuremberg Code:is a set of research ethics principles for human experimentation set as a result of the subsequent Nuremberg trials at the end of the Second World War. Willowbrook hepatitis project:Mentally retarded children housed at the Willowbrook State School in Staten Island, New York, were intentionally given hepatitis in an attempt to track the development of the viral infection. The study began in 1956 and lasted for 14 years Tuskegee syphilis project:The study was conducted without the benefit of patients' informed consent. Researchers told the men they were being treated for "bad blood," a local term used to describe several ailments, including syphilis, anemia, and fatigue. In truth, they did not receive the proper treatment needed to cure their illness. In exchange for taking part in the study, the men received free medical exams, free meals, and burial insurance. Although originally projected to last 6 months, the study actually went on for 40 years Milgram obedience experiments:They measured the willingness of study participants, men from a diverse range of occupations with varying levels of education, to obey an authority figure who instructed them to perform acts conflicting with their personal conscience; the experiment found, unexpectedly, that a very high proportion of people were prepared to obey, albeit unwillingly, even if apparently causing serious injury and distress.
observation
The act of noticing and describing events or processes in a careful, orderly way. Information obtained through the senses. What is seen or measured The act or instance of noticing or perceiving.
Mean
The arithmetic average of a series of numbers
full review
The full IRB committee reviews the research proposal
What is the difference between a dependent and independent variable?
The independent variable is the treatment or manipulation that the researcher controls, while the dependent variable is the measurement
Random Assignment
The method used to assign participants to different research conditions, so that all participants have the same chance of being in any specific group
debriefing
This is the process of informing research participants as soon as possible of the purpose of the study, revealing any deception, and correcting any other misconceptions they might have as a result of participating
APA Sections of a Research Report:
Title page: Title, running head, name, affiliation, author note, page number, correspondence, grant Abstract: 150-250 words, summary of study (always page two), not indented, double spaced Introduction: Statement of what you plan to do and why; should include research question and testable hypotheses (always begins with page number 3) Important words are capitalized Method: Participants, materials (or measures, apparatus), procedure Results: Summarize important results with statistics, includes tables and/or figures Discussion: Interpret results: how do they relate to your hypothesis (support or not, relate to similar research?) References: Includes all references cited in text
What is "cherry-picking" and when do we tend to use it?
Used with motivational biases. When we look at evidence, we may only seek out the information we like, "cherry-picking" information, seeking and accepting only the evidence that supports what we already think and what we want to think.
Empiricism
Uses careful observation: have to use sensory systems; replication and varying conditions necessary
Nuremberg Code
a set of 10 principles written in 1947 in conjunction with the trials of Nazi physicians accused of shockingly cruel research on concentration camp prisoners during World War II
What is Confirmatory Hypothesis Testing?
When we are asking biased questions we enable ourselves to think what we want by asking questions that are likely to give the desired or expected answers. Questions that lead us to a particular, expected answer.
Why is the control group important?
Without the control group, it would be IMPOSSIBLE to to tell whether the experiment worked
Rati0
Zero indicates absence of variable measured Reaction time Weight Age Frequency of behavior Can form ratios (someone weighs twice as much as another)
multiple-treatment reversal design "regressing ABC"
a baseline of studying behavior for a disruptive student (A), then introduce a treatment involving positive attention from the teacher (B), and then switch to a treatment involving mild punishment for not studying (C).
Institutional Review Board (IRB)
a committee responsible for interpreting ethical principles and ensuring that research using human participants is conducted ethically.
institutional review board (IRB)
a committee that is responsible for reviewing research protocols for potential ethical problems. An IRB must consist of at least five people with varying backgrounds, including members of different professions, scientists and nonscientists, men and women, and at least one person not otherwise affiliated with the institution
scientific journal
a compilation of peer-reviewed scientific articles that usually come out every month
standard deviation
a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score.
nuisance variable
a condition in an experiment that cannot easily be removed and so is made an independent variable as a means of control (independent included or replaces)
Cronbach's alpha
a correlation-based statistic that measures a scale's internal reliability
operational definition
a definition of the variable in terms of precisely how it is to be measured.
placebo
a false treatment, such as a pill, "drug", or other substance, without any significant chemical properties or active ingredient
semantic differential scale
a five-point scale in which the opposite ends have one- or two-word adjectives that have opposite meanings
scatterplot
a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation.
control group
a group participating in an experiment that receives no treatment
comparison group
a group that allows you to compare what would happen with and without the thing you are interested in
confederate
a helper who pretended to be a real participant
directional hypothesis
a hypothesis that makes a specific prediction about the direction of the relationship between two variables
briefly, describe the Milgram study
a person is told be a teacher while a "learner" was in another room (Confederate), receiving increasing voltages after mistakes in a word association test
Non-probability Sampling
a population may be defined but little effort is used to ensure that the sample accurately represents the population; cheap and convenient
hypothesis
a prediction, stemming from a theory, stated in a way hat allows it to be tested
random assignment to condition
a procedure in which participants are assigned to different experimental groups or "conditions on the basis of chance and chance alone
Linkert-type Scale
a question that asks for a rating of the extent of agreement or disagreement with a statement; a rating scale
skewed distribution
a representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value
experiment
a research method in which an investigator manipulates one of more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experiment controls other relevant factors.
random sample
a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion
random sample
a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has equal chance of inclusion
cluster sampling
a sampling technique in which clusters of participants that represent the population are used
conceptual definition
dictionary definition
2 types of statical relationship
differences between groups and correlations between quantitative variables
Ivan Pavlov
discovered classical conditioning; trained dogs to salivate at the ringing of a bell -only directly observable things represent mind (actions speak louder than words)- it is only a science of observable/measureable -operant conditioning
Descarte
dualism: -body= physical machine, obeying natural law (fountain statutes -mind/soul= spiritual, will (cannot be scientifically understood) -John S. Mill: psychology should leave realm of science
define: informed consent
each person learns about the research project, risks/benefits, and decides whether they want to participate
biopsychosocial approach
emphasizes the importance of different levels of analysis
Data
empirical observations (test results)
descriptive observations
enumerate what behaviors occur and in what quantity and frequency
humanistic approach and innate philosophy
ideas from innate philosophers influenced the development of humanistic approach
skipticism
ideas need to be tested against observable evidence
example: principle of justice
if a research study discovers that a procedure is harmful the participants bear the burden while the general population benefit from the results
How do you know if you need IRB approval?
if you know you are doing research something might NOT be research if its using data only for classroom or administrative purposes
belief perseverance
ignoring contrary evidence
preconscious
in Freud's theory, the level of consciousness in which thoughts and feelings are not conscious but are readily retrieveable to consciousness (tip of iceberg)
preoperational
in Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic
concrete operational
in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events
confounding variable
in an experiment, a variable, other than the independent variable, that could influence the dependent variable
research literature
in any field is all the published research in that field
Deception
in psychological research can take a variety of forms: misinforming participants about the purpose of a study, using confederates, presenting participants with false feedback about their performance
positive relationship
in which higher scores on one variable tend to be associated with higher scores on the other
Exempt research
includes research on the effectiveness of normal educational activities, the use of standard psychological measures and surveys of a nonsensitive nature that are administered in a way that maintains confidentiality, and research using existing data from public sources. regulations don't apply
define: Principle of respect for persons
includes two provisions: participants should be treated as autonomous agents and the fact that some people have less autonomy and they should have special protection (children)
feasibility
including time, money, equipment and materials, technical knowledge and skill, and access to research participants. Clearly, researchers need to take these factors into account so that they do not waste time
What is therapeutic research?
intervention; actually applying a treatment or intervention to participants this raises more ethical concerns
folk psychology
intuitive beliefs about people's behavior, thoughts, and feelings, seems true but is not.
negative relationship
is one in which higher scores on one variable tend to be associated with lower scores on the other. like higher stress is associated with lower immune system functioning.
Ethics
is the branch of philosophy that is concerned with morality
monograph
is written by a single author or a small group of authors and usually gives a coherent presentation of a topic much like an extended review article
External Validity
issue of generalizability; two types
how to frame a research question
issue of interest -> empirical question -> hypothesis
nature and nurture in psychology
issue of relative influence of biology and experience on behavior
How does randomization help with experimental control
it averages out all the random variations
Give examples of potential risks to human subjects during an anonymous survey on child abuse
it could cause an individual to experience trauma and open the wound
How does plagiarism violate our ethical code
it is based on fraud proper citations are necessary
skepticism
it means pausing to consider alternatives and to search for evidence—especially systematically collected empirical evidence—when there is enough at stake to justify doing so
What makes a theory a scientific theory-
it must be testable in order for it to be a scientific theory
What constitutes full board review?
more than minimal risk is present
mode
most commonly occurring observation -unaffected by extreme values measure of central tendancy
longitudinal design
multiple measurements of the dependent variable over time
empirical question
must be answered by observable data and terms must be clearly defined.
Under what circumstances might we NOT have to collect written informed consent
naturalistic observation, if collecting informed consent would change the participants behavior
peer-review
necessary to make sure we have conducting research appropriately
hallmarks of science
objective, skepticism, experimentation
description
observe people, drawing conclusions about why people do what they do -case studies -naturalistic observation -surveys, and interviews
naturalistic observation
observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation
naturalistic observation
observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation.
availability heuristic
occurs if one's experience is unrepresentative, the what comes easily to the mind becomes explanation
Attrition bias
occurs when participants drop out of a long-term experiment or study or loses interest
define: data falsification
occurs when researchers influence the study's results, perhaps by selectively deleting observations from a data set or influencing subjects to act in a hypothesized way.
replication
repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances.
what are the three "r"s of Animal care?
replacement, refinement, reduction
The three R's of animal research
replacement, refinement, reduction.
empirical journal articles
report (for the first time) the results of an empirical research study
applied research
research done with a practical problem in mind; researchers hope that their findings will be directly applied to the solution of that problem in a particular real-world context
nondirectional hypothesis
research hypothesis that does not predict a particular direction of difference between the population like the sample studied and the population in general
naturalistic observation
research in which an investigator simply observes some naturally occurring behavior and does not make a change in the situation
archival research
research in which existing data, such as census documents, college records, and newspaper clippings are examined to test a hypothesis
survey research
research in which people chose to represent a larger population are asked a series of questions about their behavior, thoughts, or attitudes.
Give some examples of how validity studies are related to personality and individual differences
validity studies are used most often to study personality and individual differences, in class test was an example
negative correlation
variables contradict one another 0 and -1.00
manipulated variables
variables that researchers directly control by assigning participants to the different levels of that variable
measured variables
variables whose values are recorded but not manipulated by the experimenter
key idea in calculating variability
variance of the observation from the distribution mean/variance of distribution
ordinate
vertical axis
population
very large group of people
Understand, explain and give example of: How common sense influences science-
very often we start with ideas that come from daily experience
How observation of the world can be a source of research ideas-
very often we start with naturalistic observation and then we try to explain it
APA Ethics Code
was first published in 1953 and has been revised several times since then, most recently in 2002. It includes about 150 specific ethical standards that psychologists and their students are expected to follow.
in defining psychology, the text notes that psychology is most accurately described as a....
way of asking and answering questions
why we need tentative conclusions
we can never be sure a result will hold up
confirmation bias
we focus on cases that confirm our intuitive beliefs and not on cases that disconfirm them if believe women talk more you will remember talkative women
why does psychology have all of these beliefs about human nature?
we seek understanding -meaning, value making -completely forget that occurrences/experiences are random
statistical validity
what is the margin of error? what can the statistics of a claim tell us about its accuracy
wording effects
when a specific word used in a question affects how respondents answer the question or the order of the questions
correlation (covariation)
when one variable changes, the other variable in question tends to change too; the two variables are related
when might informed consent not be needed?
when participants answer an anonymous survey, naturalistic observation
deception
withholding study details or actively lying to participants.
properties of a normal distribution
within 1 SD 68% of data within 2 SDs 95% of data
public knowledge
writing an article for publication in a professional journal, in which they put their research question in the context of previous research, describe in detail the methods they used to answer their question, and clearly present their results and conclusions essential for social process and adding to scientific knowledge
the research goal of 'control'
you cannot control astronomy
What options exist as alternatives to deception and what are the strengths and weaknesses
you could ask people to role play, simulation is a good alternative Stanford prison experiment is an example
Give an example of how you would 'randomize' a group of people to your experiment groups
you could assign number and randomly give them out
Describe what you would say to a subject at the end of an experiment that had used Deception
you must give a full account of the entire honest account of the study you must explain why you had to use deception
Unobtrusive observations
—-Concealed technology —-Participant observation (make participants think you're one of them)
—Unobtrusive measures:
—-Indirect observations of behavior —-Examine result of behavior not behavior itself —-Observing the after result
Operational definition
—Formula for building a construct so others can duplicate —Recipe
A good theory is:
—Parsimonious: can explain many results with few statements —-"simple is better" idea —Precise: —-Exact in predictions so agreement can be reached —Testable: — -Capable of disproof (good for self-correcting)
Types of journal articles:
—Review papers: summary of collection of studies on a topic —Theoretical papers: conceptual paper presenting theory, may not include actual study —Empirical papers: describe a research question, hypotheses, study, and findings-this is the type of paper you will use for your assignments in this course
ecological (or external) validity
—What is observed closely matches what happens in real life or real world —Unlike often artificial lab setting with low ecological validity
Research driven by:
—attempt to answer questions —Attempt to test theories —Practical problems
