Rhetorical Tradition Final

Huehuetlahtolli

"the ancient world" or "speeches of the elders" "of the rhetoric and moral philosophy of Mexican people" aimed to transmit traditional values and ensure harmony in a hierarchal society

Why does agitation occur?

- A growing feeling of dissatisfaction with the status quo by a segment of society - Clear evidence of injustice deeply affecting the well-being of the segment of society - The segment of society affected has been unable to legitimately access the establishment in order to make change

Importance of Visual Rhetoric

- Burke said we need to be able to analyze images - Things start to become more visually focused so we had to move towards visual rhetoric - With technology coming, more visuals came and it became very important

Caste System Rules

- Can't speak in the "I" - have to take a job based on your caste, lower your caste is, the worse your job is - Can't name your low caste baby a nice name - Everyone knew it was their fault for being in their caste

Fundamental Concern with Effects (aims for obedience)

- Don't care what's going on in your head, care about what you actually do - Propagandists want you to act, and in alignment with them

Invitational Rhetoric (Foss and Griffin)

- Exclusive focus on persuasion has damaged our ability to understand rhetoric that is not focused on changing the behavior or beliefs of others Rhetoric might not always have to be persuasive Learn on your own and make your own decisions - Western rhetoric has always been viewed with a foal as changing the way a person thinks, feels, or behaves - Forcing change seems to be something we feel driven to do...regardless of consequences - Have been doing it for forever, studying was of persuading for over 2,000 years

Definition of Visual Rhetoric

- Has to be the tangible product of a creative act - rhetor made strategic choices, made an active decision or action, human intervention is required - Can be 2 or 3 dimensional - Created for utilitarian or aesthetic purpose - has a practical purpose or a beauty purpose

Mass Media are the Channel of Choice

- Have to use the same channel that the masses are using, which is based off demographics - Social medias aimed at particular groups of people - tik tok and snapchat for younger generations - Meant to be so you are unable to get away from it, on every social and everyone is talking about it - Propaganda that works is inescapable

Relies on Ideology (and can use deception)

- Ideology is a system of belief that guides and has power over people - Religion, Capitalism, Democracy, etc all ideologies - They know everyone walks in the door with ideologies and they ask themselves, "what does this population believe and how can I use that to get them to comply?" - If they don't use an ideology that appeals towards a lot of people, then we have groups that don't agree and that hurts propaganda

Undermining Demagoguery

- Mainly related to politics - Propaganda in the service of unworthy political goals - Contribution to public discourse that is presents as an embodiment of a worthy political, economic, or radical ideal, but is in the service of a goal that tends to undermine that very ideal

Algorithmic Rhetoric

- Most persuasion doesn't happen from another person, it's like AI and bots - The algorithm affects us so much - How should or could this potentially change the way you think about your decisions on and offline? - The more we play into this, the easier they have keeping us wanting more - We can't actively feel ourselves wasting our time when we are sitting on our phones or computers

Generally Institutionally Sponsored

- Need money for propaganda because you have to be able to get the information somehow - pretend there's no internet, have to use ad space and pay for it - Institutionally sponsored because no one had that kind of money back then *2010s and on - money wasn't needed because you can use the internet for free - twitter, instagram, etc. - Historically, institutionally sponsored. Nowadays, both institutionally sponsored and not.

Shaping and Sharing Community

- Once a speaker has developed understanding, they are now in a place to create a community around that understanding. - Want to make the audience feel like they are bigger and clearer because of the speech they heard

Assumptions about Invitational Rhetoric

- Persuasion is a violation of the integrity of others - Attempts to change people are ineffective, "What we resist persists!" (Johnson, 1987) - We can only change ourselves

Invitational rhetoric between parents and adolescents

- Plan at least 45 minutes to an hour to talk - Make sure conversation is ideally in person, if possible - Make sure conversation is not snuggled in between major events - Acknowledging each others stakes in the conversation is very important

Undermining Propaganda

- Pretends to contribute to certain public ideals, yet actually erodes those very ideals - BAD propaganda

Aimed at the Masses (audience centered)

- Propaganda works best when focused on the mass than the individual - When it's just one individual, they will ask you a lot of questions and the stakes are very high because it's one on one, but if you can push it out to the mass audience, people will feel societal pressure and are more likely to act

Rhetoric Post-Enlightenment

- Reduction of interest in rhetorical theory and use --knowledge became experiment based - people became sus about science after WW2 - atomic bombs, science was making life worse - science destroyed countries - people began to ask whether or not we should start looking at language more - slow move back towards rhetoric

"Science is innocent of rhetorical seductions" (Boyd)

- Science is separate from persuasion - Scientists are untouched by cultures/norms/beliefs associated with the scientific realm - "builds only on the most rigorously selective"

Represses Dissent

- Shut down people who say no as quickly as possible - Can be by discounting them and their knowledge/credibility

Dominant Reading

- The audience member clearly understands what the rhetor is trying to get across, no confusion whatsoever, reading exactly as the rhetor designed it - For an ad, they understand what's being sold and what's being implied and suggested as well Denotative Meaning - main meaning of the thing Connotative Meaning - know what is being implied and suggested

visual aesthetics vs visual rhetoric

- To look at aesthetics we'd have to be trained in fines arts, they look at the little details of the art and access the quality of the art - Visual rhetoric is not accessing the quality of art, shouldn't be doing that - Visual rhetoric is asking how persuasion is working in the visual realm, how are visuals lending people to act, think, move in a different way - How is this persuading the audience to do or think something?

Discourse as politics

- We employ different ways of speaking or engaging to access more or less power - All language is political - Heteroglossia versus mongolia Heteroglossia is the idea that there are multiple ways of speaking in a world that are rich and equal Mongolia is the idea that there is one way to talk, speak, deal with stuff, and that is valued over all else

Terministic Screens that shaped immigration rhetoric

- aliens, toxic, war, battle --words associated w immigrants - these terms make us move away from the individual (some of) - all of these terms are used to describe people who are immigrating

Five Controversies of Sophists

1. Accepted Payment - people didn't think you should have to pay to learn 2. They were foreigners - came from places other than Athens and people didn't like that 3. Wanted everyone to be educated- they didn't want to be governed by aristocrats, wanted democracy 4. Culture was relative - didn't believe that the way Athens did things was the only right way to do things, everyone does things differently but the ppl of Athens are very obsessed w Athens and think their way is the right way 5. Truth is relative - hard to find the truth, everything is based off the standpoint of the individual *Also taught Arete (excellence) which the people of Athens said can't be taught, you have to be born with it, but non-nobles were very excited to be able to learn finally

Types of Agitation

1. Agitation based on vertical deviance - Accept the value system but want it to be adjusted Ex. drinking age - accept that there should be a drinking age but wish it was different 2. Agitation based on lateral deviance - Dispute the value system itself, fundamental system in place is wrong Ex. defund the police - believe that the police system itself is corrupt and bad, don't want to change the police - want them to completely be abolished Ex. military draft - said draft is not ethical, should be abolished, people should serve because they choose to, not because they're forced to

Common Elocution

1. Analogy - extended metaphor or simile that compare unfamiliar concepts to more familiar ones 2. Personification - endowing inanimate objects with human qualities 3. Irony - use of humor, satire or sarcasm to suggest a different meaning than what is actually being said 4. Allusion - making vague or indirect references to people, events or concepts to give deeper meaning to message 5. Hyperbole - obvious exaggeration used to drive a point home 6. Alliteration - the repetition of consonant sounds in two or more neighboring syllables. It has a poetic and musical qualitterm-60y that can be advantageous 7. Parallelism - refers to the arrangement of words, phrases, and sentences in similar form Idiom - a set of words that mean something that don't really mean 8. Onomatopoeia - formation of a word from a sound that is associated with what it is named

Methods of Identification

1. Common Ground - sharing same characteristics, uniting over common concepts 2. Common Enemy - bonding over hating the same thing/person 3. Use of "we" - creates community by including yourself, used by ppl in power to relate, used to soften the blow situation

Philosophical Issues w Ancient Rhetoric

1. Concerns about the area of focus - don't know where to start 2. Concerns about missing the purpose of studying rhetoric - value in looking at patterns in behavior to find change

Rhetoric helps us:

1. Define ourselves and communities 2. Understand the nature of meaning 3. understand motivation and action

Elements of the Rhetorical Situation

1. Exigence 2. Audience 3. Constraints

Ancient Mesopotamian + Assyrian Rhetoric Developments

1. First Person Dialogue 2. Use of invention, supporting evidence, counter-arguments, arrangement, and style 3. Story - List - Sanction

Citizen Orator Qualities

1. Free from vice - Vice = appetite; opposite of virtue; pattern of behavior Example: dishonesty, drinking, smoking 2. Advocates only in what he truly believes - Aids in gathering virtue for the community 3. A lover of wisdom/seeks knowledge - Seeking wisdom is an active process; always telling yourself that there is something new to know Person who considers himself wise is no longer looking to develop 4. Servant of the community/people/state - The polis

Characteristics of Propaganda

1. Generally Institutionally Sponsored 2. Fundamental Concern with Effects (aims for obedience) 3. Aimed at the Masses (audience centered) 4. Mass Media are the Channel of Choice 5. Relies on Ideology (and can use deception) 6. Represses Dissent

Stages of Movement

1. Genesis - the beginning, where we see the ideas emerge, people who are involved in Genesis are the people who start it so they don't typically see it until the end 2. Social Unrest - some sort of catalytic movement where people say we are done, it's time to act now, charismatic leader is brought in 3. Enthusiastic Mobilization - people listen to the leader and then happily start the movement 4. Maintenance - Enthusiastic Mobilization ends and more people start to drop out of the movement then people who join 5. Termination - can happen when actual success happens or when failure happens and people are discouraged, the government shuts the movement down

Three Functions of Language (Greek Rhetoric)

1. Heuristic - using language as a tool to get things done, sort of like a set of directions - this is most used 2. Eristic - enlight/engage/enrage us, used by people who just want to debate and argue for fun - entertaining 3. Protreptic - persuasive, trying to convince someone of something they don't already believe

Plato's concerns with rhetoric

1. Manipulates Audience - makes you think that things are one way and not another even though it's not necessarily true - think standard of beauty 2. Benefits those in power - feeds information based on who's most influential and puts people with power at the top 3. Gain agreement without really telling the truth - have shaped definitions that aren't actually true - again, think standard of beauty 4. Coerce and manipulate so justice cannot be achieved

Instruction of Ptah-Hotep Key Lessons

1. Morality of Speech - never over speak, don't say unimportant things, don't spread lies or gossip, don't be or listen to a hot headed person 2. Truth in Language - don't alter someone's words, don't misquote or misinterpret 3. Listening as Necessary - listening is even more important than saying, ALWAYS be listening 4. Humility and Rightness - don't get cocky, everything is a gift of God you didn't do shit be grateful 5. Justice - do everything you can to be a good leader 6. Balance and Order - don't let your emotions best you, don't let others get to you

Agitation exists when

1. People outside the normal decision-making establishment - Establishment is a group of decision makers that hold the legitimate power in a particular setting/context Power to decide policy Power to enforce, through negative or positive means, those policies Ex. government, families, school 2. advocate significant social change - Agitation starts to happen when people outside the establishment aren't happy with what's going on and they see a problem and want to change it - Looking for social change - written or unwritten change in how a group or society in question regulates themselves 3. encounter a degree of resistance within the establishment such as to require more than the normal discursive means of persuasion - More than normal means that it's more than just talk, you have to really push for change, requires some sort of action

Key Aspects of New Rhetoric

1. Philosophy of Argument 2. Psychology of Audiences 3. Argument Schemes

Stages of Propaganda

1. Pre-propaganda - getting your audience ready to accept propaganda, gain attention - cause negative emotions 2. Out Group a. Set the stage that makes things look really bad and make people feel bad about themselves and life - Make it someone's fault The world is a terrible place and this is how I can make it better for you b. Stereotype c. Rename d. Constant Repetition of stereotypes and new names Identification of an individual that can serve as the focus of negative emotion

Supporting Propaganda

1. Primarily aimed to align with goals that could be advantageous for a community 2. Trying to shortcut your rational will and prompt you to behave with a certain tactic 3. An embodiment of certain ideals, yet increases the realization of said ideals by either emotional or non rational means Ex. sexual assault campaign Draws in on your emotions Makes you feel like you should comply by having you identify with the helplessness of the woman Works at a deep emotional level 4. Ideally always for the common good

Dialectic Method

1. Start with endoxa - something no one can argue 2. Give an argument 3. Dissoi Logoi (counterargument) back and forth until you find the conclusion that is the most true

Stanley's Types of Propaganda

1. Supporting Propaganda 2. Undermining Propaganda 3. Undermining Demagoguery

Overarching Values in Rhetoric (karenga)

1. The dignity and rights of the human person - don't be cocky, you always have more to learn, everyone has value and something to offer 2. Wellbeing and Flourishing of the Community - do what is right 3. Integrity and Value of the Environment - protecting land and community 4. The Reciprocal Solidarity and Cooperation of Humanity - humanity will work towards the good when possible

Common Types of Arrangement

1. Topical arrangements are useful when all speech points are relatively equal levels of importance 2. Chronological arrangements are useful when subjects follow a natural sequential order 3. Causal (cause and effect) arrangements should be used with the main points of a speech compare something that's known to be a "cause" with its "effects" - Highlight particularly important things, showing the relationship between things 4. Problem-solution arrangements organize the main points to demonstrate the nature and significance of a problem and then provide justification for a proposed solution - Ex: Not just showing a problem, but revealing a solution at the end to engage the audience 5. Compare and contrast arrangements are useful when you want to compare one tings to another (usually to show that one is better than the other) - Allowing you to show differences and superiority

Four Functions of Rhetoric

1. Upholding truth and justice and downplay opposites - keeping promises, being clear, using evidence, helping truth to rise 2. Teaching to an audience - pay attention to your audience, who is audience and how do I give them this information to best suit them. ex. you dont teach the same concepts to kids and adults in the same way 3. Analyzing both sides of a question - understanding both sides of an opinion, want to look at other sides to better understand your own argument 4. Defending oneself - good for the mind and body

Noble Speaker

1. Value the audience - regardless of whether they agree with you or not, you can make a better argument when you value the audience's feedback 2. Reflect concern, selflessness, involvement, and genuine desire to help the audience actualize your argument

Syllogism

A form of deductive reasoning consisting of a universal principal, a minor premise, and a conclusion. ex. all men are mortal, i am a man, therefore i am mortal This is very rarely used because there are so few universal principles and we don't really need to apply logic to universal principles

Chiasmus

A statement consisting of two parallel parts in which the second part is structurally reversed Think of "never let a fool kiss you or a kiss fool you"

Strategies and Tactics: Protest Rhetoric

A successful social movement often will have an individual that is capable of using language to: - Discredit prevailing institutions and damage the masses allegiance to them - By doing so create a need for a new set of ideas to believe in (since others have now been discredited) - Offer a new set of beliefs - Undermine/discredit those that suggest the new set of beliefs is unnecessary so they will not be real threats to the movement

Theory of Argumentation

A theory of argumentation that focuses on both reason and sentiment by considering the human experience rather than formal logic - universal facts never really get us anywhere - said the audience was key to argumentation and aimed to provide them freedom

Methodological Issues w Ancient Rhetoric

Access - really hard to find any sort of information on this topic/not a lot of primary sources Training - need someone who has training to help translate Sense Making - have to make sense of something that has no context at all Expertise - not many people out there do this and there are very little people to quality check work/no robust system to check quality

Resurgence of Interest in Rhetoric

Aided in personal and moral refinement Aided in efforts to gain political and social power Increase in women in rhetoric - elite women were starting to be educated and embrace these concepts and come up with theories of their own

Discourse as ideology

All language is ideological Language constructs the world; it creates our reality All language, all talk, not only reflects a state of being, but it also creates a state of being Language reflects reality Language shapes how we understand or perceive something - it actually creates the way we understand something Through language and agreement, it becomes a social reality

Discourse as dialogue

All language is negotiated Sender/Speaker----- Meaning Creation (negotiated territory)----Receiver/Listener What the sender sends over the bridge may not be what the listener receives They may misunderstand, choose to not understand, etc. All of this discourse is an engaged process; one group will push for a certain view, and one group may push back You have to have tension within the negotiation in order to come to some sort of understanding; connection between the two sides

evolutionary perspective

All rhetoric is time and culture bound, rhetoric is alive and constantly changing with time Golden theorized this: said that with the growth of technology change will happen - argument as we have come to know it may have radical discontinuity separating us from the cumulative knowledge we hold ie. suffer from too much information - Language structure and usage will lose its aesthetic dimension ie. texting/slang - interpersonal communication will come too common and we will all be disconnected. ie. you can text or call or communicate with anyone whenever you want so it's no longer special

Moral in tone

Always have an angle of morality, never neutral

Aspects of Rhetoric

Anything that explains the way we feel, provokes emotion, teaches and persuades, we have hugely expanded what we define as rhetoric

Hierarchy of Arguments (Best to Worst)

Arguments from facts - unchangeable/can't refute From Similitude - arguments that can be made from similes, analogies, and metaphors Cause and Effect/Consequences - aren't statistically sound/not based in data making this less reliable Circumstance - based on personal experience/is ever changing, NEVER argue with circumstance as your main argument

Roman Rhetoric:

Aristotle - died 322 BC - People used his framework but did not add to it - Refinements when Cicero appears Power struggle between Greece and Rome (323 BC) - Greece becomes part of the Roman Republic (202 BC - 146 BC) Roman Republic becomes Roman Empire (70 BC) - Shifts away from democracy, shaping how rhetoric functions

Memory: Status System

Based on knowing the facts of an issue and case - Helps you remember the invention of your argument because it has these four components: 1. Facts Did the person commit robbery? 2. Definition Should we define it as robbery vs. burglary? 3. Quality Severity: How serious was this thing that happened? 4. Policy/Procedure What should we do about this? Court/jail?

Constraints

Both internal and external Inside of me and outside Internal Example: May be thinking about other things; worry, self-doubt; can be stuck in the situation and think you cannot do it; think that others are better suited; worried about how the audience will respond; hungry, want to eat lunch right now; tired External Example: having an audience that isn't receptive; lighting; bad acoustics

Single Definition Perspective

Bryant. Rhetoric has certain functions that are unique to it...Instrumental (tool), Literary (words/writing), Philosophical (interested in the why) , Social (all about interaction)

Burke's Overall Position

By examining how a rhetor presents the situation and identifies the players, we can: 1. determine how the rhetor perceives the situation 2. Identify the choices the rhetor sees as available 3. Understand how action taken was justified

Speeches of Indigenous People

Characteristics in Speeches 1. truthfulness as necessary - "does not require many words to speak the truth" 2. thought before speech - "silence is meaningful" focus on love, honor, and ethics - "we do not want riches, we want to train our children right" 3. service to community - people dont do things with self motive, they do things because it will benefit the greater community 4. protection of the environment and land - dont complain about weather, do everything with the intent of protecting the environment 5. highlighting white people's behavior

Introduction to Democracy

Cleisthenes introduces the idea of democracy If you could hold the attention of the national assembly then it was said you were good enough to lead Democracy was foundational in the development of rhetoric You became allowed to plead your case in front of a jury and a judge - anyone could be on a jury, ppl wanted to learn how to publicly speak and present

Sensus Communis (vico)

Common Sense something that a community shares and everyone knows and bonds about can draw communities together or tear them apart calls on a shared experience "judgement without reflection, shared by an entire class, an entire people, an entire nation, or the entire human race"

The Middle Ages

Constantine legalizes christianity and the empire falls People are highly sus about rhetoric and christianity has a hold on rhetoric

Condit's Family Characteristics

Definition and Understanding, Shaping and Sharing Community, and Display and Entertainment

Mikhail Baktin and His Circle (Voloshinov & Medvedev)

Discourse as Ideology Discourse as Dialogue Discourse as Politics Valuing Polyphony

Three ways to respond to an artifact: Reception Theory (Stuart Hall)

Dominant Reading Negotiated Reading Oppositional Reading

Giambista Vico

Dont need to take a science only approach to understand things, should use rhetoric and creativity to understand the world

Systems Perspective

Ehninger. How rhetoric functions based on a specific time period Classical- Greek, Roman - semantics and linguistics of rhetoric British - interested in the audience and engaging ppl/what motivates an audience Contemporary - Sociological, how do we understand/interact with eachother

Enconium of Helen (Gorgias)

Everyone hated Helen so Gorgias was like no I'm gonna argue she's not that bad 1. Could've been in love 2. Could've been held captive 3. Could've been the will of the Gods 4. Someone could've used really good rhetoric and she was persuaded

Socrates

Focused on the question of "How can ppl be good?" and was always questioning and asking why people do things Never wrote anything down because he thought that knowledge was in the interaction and the moment -- not through text Government didn't like Socrates because he was always questioning things and was charged with impiety and corrupting the youth Said the government is lazy and that he is a fly that will never leave you alone Became a new type of hero because he was so dedicated to his cause and followed his conscience no matter the consequences

Not all rhetors agree

Gaonkar reminds us that Aristotle said that rhetoric was the art we employ to guide decisions - making when we do not have other arts and sciences to guide us

Advisory Rhetoric

Goal is to advise audience of beneficial ideas 1. Educate and enlighten 2. See their role as a listener and may even change their mind about the idea through listening 3. Best teachers use advisory - provide a whole bunch of information and you determine how to incorporate or not into your life 4. Sees the relationship between the people than the message being understood, protect relationship over mandating material adherence 5. Rhetor and audience have genuine affection for one another 6. Maintaining connections more important than anyone changing their minds

The Power of Speech (Gorgias)

Gorgias said that rhetoric IS (not like) a drug People don't chose to be impaired by rhetoric, it just happens -- you can't control the way words effect you

Cicero

Greatest Roman Orator and Rhetorical Theorist of Rome - He says this himself; wrote it down; confident Established the Canons of Rhetoric Draws upon a lot of Aristotle's work, but refines it to make it user-friendly - Writes it in De Inventione when he is 19

Display and Entertainment

Have to draw in and engage an audience Engage and entertain the audience, actively compel them in your argument

Public discourse which focuses solely on the realm of the ideal or hypothetical, avoiding attempts to link the ideal with the actual, is ethically suspect.

Have to link arguments to a real thing

Memory: Topical System

Here are ways to remember things if we organize them right in our head; mental organization - Example: Look at the house inside your head and divide things you need to remember by room; associate things to the rooms - Memorize the language and put them on different places on your bed in your mind

Monuments, Museums, and Memorials

How does an artifact teach us about our history and who we are as people Give us time to reflect and take it in

Renaissance Rhetoric

Humanism - focused more on the flourishment of the self, people are becoming more interesting in poetry, writing, ethics, and politics.

Negotiated Reading

I get what they're doing, but I don't align with this based on my viewpoints, but not opposed to it per say Inserting own experiences and viewpoints

Photographs

Iconic photographs - Every single person in a society has seen the picture and knows the picture, recognized by every generation, aren't very many of them - moon landing picture - Some are just iconic by generation - kent state shooting in 1970 picture - Goal of an iconic photo is to help us remember and think about something - Has a strong emotional response - people feel something when they see the picture - Photos can catalyze people and prompt them when other things can't

Identification Terms

Identification, Consubstantiality, Persuasion

Enthymene and Unstated Premises

If you have an enthymene that has an unstated premise, you're getting someone to think that something was their idea -- getting someone to think something and think they made the decision

Types of Visual Rhetoric

Image Events and Body Rhetoric, Photographs, Monuments, Museums, and Memorials

Middle Age to Renaissance

Important Events that spark changes in rhetoric: 1. Printing press - everyone now had access to writing and reading and it was no longer just for the elite 2. Protestant Reformation

Kant's Categorical Imperative

In order for something to be ethical it has to be the same for everyone. So, if an action can be done by everyone without any harm, then it's ethical

A group that proposes or opposes change

Innovative - much make changes for a better future, prescribes a means to the end - black lives matter Revivalistic - says we want to return to an idealized past, usually have some sort of danger or bigotry - drinking age, going back to when drinking age was lower Resistive - predicts a terrible future if we don't make changes now - any climate change or justice issue

scholars that have pushed back on rhetoric as only persuasion

Johnson (1991) - Argued specifically that rhetoric can help someone make sense of the world internally, inside one's own head Help order and systematize the things you know Elshtain (1982) - Says that rhetoric can be used for internal clarity and self empowerment Again talking about the building of the self, on the inside Foss (1991) - Talks about self empowerment as well, value of using rhetoric to create a more fully realized self Gearhart (1979) - Everytime we try to persuade someone, we are committing an act of violence against them, anyone trained in rhetoric is being trained as a weapons specialist - All believe there are systems created historically that disadvantage one population over the other - How have these systems come to be and how can we dismantle them - All studied feminism

Image Events and Body Rhetoric

Kevin Delucca theorized image events Image events are where a visual or picture shapes public understanding at large Body Rhetoric When you use your body to get your message across, often the only resource someone has -- dakota pipeline/standing rock, people used mirrors and their bodies, took a defensive position, used to remind the people pushing back on them to remind them of what they're doing, have to face themselves, look at what they're doing in the face

Madame de Scudery

Leading thinker of rhetoric of conversation during the renaissance said that women need to be appreciated for their minds and not their beauty said no one should have power over another, should engage in conversations as equals

Argument Schemes

Loci - the starting points to build an argument (facts, values, presumptions)

Cicero's 5 Canons of Rhetoric

MEDIA 1. Memory 2. Elocution 3. Delivery 4. Invention 5. Arrangement

Communicative options

Modeling - "The enactment of the perspective in the rhetoric and the life of the rhetor" (Foss & Griffin, 1993) - "The transformed self is the medium. The transformed life is the message" (Ferguson, 1980) Willingness to yield Creation of external conditions for change (all 3 must be created between the audience & rhetors) 1. Safety - you feel like you are in a space where you can try to change and adapt and that will be accepted, not scary and you are not at risk 2. Value - feel like people are actually there to support you, value you, attend to your needs, won't be mocked or emotionally harmed 3. Freedom - have the freedom to do it, live in a space or place where you have the capacity to do what you want (Internal conditions of change must already be present)

Was Isocrates a Sophist?

No, he said sophists will try and convince you they can teach you amazing things, but they're lying to you - says what sophists say is not believable and suspicious This is ironic because he charged people for his teachings which is what a sophist is

Social Movement

Noninstitutionalized, An Organized Collectivity, A group that proposes or opposes change, Moral in tone

Aspasia

Only known female rhetor in Greece Educated, which was super super rare All we have about her is from people talking about her

Origins of Western Rhetoric

People started veering away from using mythology to justify things and changed to the study of the natural world.

Valuing Polyphony

Polyphony - not just one narrative or story about something, different values and narratives for everything

Strategies and Tactics: Polarization

Process of figuring out who is and isn't on your side, really important because there is no middle ground, no black and white here - if you are not pro the movement, then you are against it, you cannot be neutral, if you're neutral than you're okay with the status quo and social movements go against the status quo, forcing people to take a stand and make a choice - Non-violent Resistance - doesn't hurt anyone, should be irritating, not useful as a strategy if it doesn't make people mad, doing something contrary to the establishment, march, walkout

Propaganda

Propaganda is the manipulation of the rational will to close off debate in order to compel the audience to act in accordance with the desires of the propagandist 1. Short-cutting rational will 2. When language directs you to see something and nothing else, hides you from parts of the argument 3. Mechanism through which we send a message in hopes people will agree 4. Can be good and bad 5. Advertising wants you to buy something and propaganda wants you to believe something

Additional Contributions by Quitillian

Questions: 1. Indefinite - big picture/meta questions 2. Definite - rhetoric questions, everyday/very specific questions Bases: 1. Existence - did a thing happen? 2. Definition - how do we define that thing? 3. Quality - What is the severity of the thing? Ex. Child Abuse vs. Discipline

"A good man may sometimes be justified in misleading those whom he addresses, for the attainment of some good object"

Quote by Quintilian You can lie sometimes if it is to the larger benefit of the community Ex: telling a lie to prevent the death of someone; protect the community from a negative action

Rhetoric in Ancient India

Ran through the caste system - highest castes were in charge of rhetoric Born into caste based off how good you were in your past life - no way out of caste, can't move castes Rhetoric at this time was not about persuasion, it was about right vs wrong Rhetors appointed by caste (Brahman only)

What does the caste system have to do with rhetoric?

Rhetoric in ancient india was about right vs wrong and the cast system was all about rules and what and what not to do. Also, it was based on the rights and wrongs you did in your past life

unwarranted shifts in meanings of words is ethically suspect

Rhetorical Substitution: taking an old word and applying a new concept - degrades the word and makes it less descriptive (eg. liberal=democrat) Rhetorical Prevarication: Taking a word out of context and using it for a completely different meaning all together (eg. bitch is not actually used to describe a female dog)

Second Sophistic to 1900 Context

Rome is living it up, leaders are at least, because they have banned all democratic behavior so you could only speak positively about government or you die Only speech allowed was display oratory

Plato

Said that we need to learn what truth is on our own Not a fan of democracy - thought society needed more order and that rhetoric is just used to fake intelligence and it's just "talking smart"

Sophists

Teachers who charged for their teachings Would write speeches and give speeches for those who didn't want to or couldn't Taught rhetorical competence through natural ability, theory, and practice

Invention

The discovery of valid arguments. These are the things a rhetoric uses to persuade the audience - The full argument that would include logos, pathos, and ethos - Aristotle gave the appeals, but Cicero put them into invention to forward an argument\ - Seen as the most philosophic, theoretical rich component of speech

Strategies and Tactics: Control in Establishments

The main goal of any establishment in power is to maintain dominance - Make sure things don't have to change - Going to use whatever power they have to ensure things don't change Those in control have a distinct advantage over agitators - Powers to define - Define the social movement - People who get to set the rules are the ones in charge - able to pick and write the rules of the game - The establishment has this power The establishment will do everything they can to remain in control. They will: - Argue the protestors are a small minority while they have to act in the interest of everyone - "Re-name" the protestors to something negative or demeaning - Name themselves as defenders of ___ while describing protestors as lawless and irrational - Predict terrible consequences should the protestors prevail - Try to divide the group internally, meaning they will creating fighting between members - Feminist movement - she's a bad feminist, she's the wrong type of feminist - When an establishment can get the members of the movement to fight then they attention is drawn away from them, this isn't hard because everyone in a social movement is very passionate

True Orator

The true orator must be honorable person who adds virtue to the things of which he speaks Orator = speaker "Adds virtue" means that he is always trying to benefit the community Benefit or improve the polis, create a more ordered society

Public vs Private Speaking

There wasn't much public speaking (debates, open conversation) because it wasn't a democracy (no free speech). There was a lot of private speaking which was people who would privately share things with the government.

Audience

There's an audience that expects addressing They are expecting to hear from someone; how do we deal with and solve this exigence

Epideictic Speech

This is a ceremonial speech intended to praise or blame. used for important moments -- toast, wedding speech, eulogy

Memory

This is the effort the rhetor puts in to creating a lasting impression with the audience (often means memorizing and practicing the speech) - Way to transmit information - How well they can remember the speech and share the invention of the argument - Determines if someone is skilled enough to be able to speak publicly in this way - Two ways to allow speakers to improve their ability to memorize and speak out their inventions: Status and Topical Systems

Delivery

This is the method of presentation by the rhetoric; it includes the use of voice, gesture, and use of media - How you share your message - Way you draw the audience's attention to you and keep it on you Example: Marshal Davis Jones "Touchscreen" - Prepared, memorized - Elocution: onomatopoeia, etc. - Delivery shapes the way people perceive you - Arrangement: comparing and contrasting real life to technology and nature to technology - His goal/intention: you as the audience to take something away from this poem; he hopes it is going to be invention-based - Takeaways: technology is taking over people's lives; human interaction and social behaviors are being dictated by technology rather than the other way around

Elocution

This is the style in which the rhetor communications her/his information

Arrangement

This is the way the rhetor organizes the invention to ensure it makes sense and will have the most impact

"persuasion is at the heart of science, not at the un-respectable fringe"

Those that see rhetoric as informing science say: - all knowledge was a personal and emotional quality, pure objectivity is impossible (polanyi), New models of science develop for reasons that have little to do with scientific research as ordinarily understood (Kuhn)

Philosophy of Argument

Truth is a process - truth is not the same for everyone, you have to come to a common truth, comes from listening and talking Appreciation of irreducible plurality of voices - there will always be other voices in the mix, they might be contrary but that's not exactly the right thing Rapprochement - bringing dissonant topics into harmony, brings things together to sound right hearing every side and bringing them together Empathy - have to be open to the possibility of chnage, put yourself in others shoes and see things from their perspectives, understanding people and being empathetic will help the other person do the same for you

Psychology of Audiences

Universal Audience/Particular Audience Personal relationship Freedom to judge - give opportunity to decide, freedom to make your own choices Values already have a place in audiences thoughts

Ancient Chinese Rhetoric

Used confucianism to look at rhetoric Believed that the simpler/more clear things were, the better they were - Chinese were not interested in the aesthetics of rhetoric Condemned "glib talking" - said it muddies the water and makes it harder to know what's right - just be clear and straight forward Focused on writing more so than speaking due to differences in responsibility of the individual within government - public vs private speaking

Oppositional Reading

We understand the dominant reading and we reject it outright Fundamentally disagree with the message

"scientific work is conducted by humans existing within a world of persuasion that is impossible to escape. Science functions rhetorically to shape people's beliefs just as history, religion, or any other master narrative in society" "Accepting that rhetoric plays an important role in science does not mean that science isn't a trustworthy way of seeking truth"

When have subjective view points related to science aided objective science for the better of society? - Darwin, had objective discovery but people didn't really believe him

Exigence

a problem that is immediately marked by urgency pressing problem that needs to be addressed

Communication which blurs necessary distinctions is ethically suspect

a) Sometimes there is an authoritative figure b) Sometimes there is no middle ground - just right and wrong

Ingenium (Vico)

ability to grasp similarities and relationships, comparing No matter how educated you are, everyone can understand and grasp things people are naturally able to compare things and understand relationships ex. video of moments from class - brings so many different people together/we're all so similar - none of our experiences are really ours

Theory

abstraction of social life, looks at something from a different angle, looks at all little pieces and takes them to look at the overall situation and make sense of it

Deontological Ethics

all about laws and rules - being ethical is following the rules/laws how they are laid out and if you don't that's being unethical

Speech Acts Theory

all about performance and not actual speech

Terministic Screens

all language is strategic or rhetorical, terms we use become a screen for which we see the world, the words we employ in the in thought filter our experience, language that highlights some things and hide others -> use them all the time, language functions as a terministic screen reflect-select-deflect

Conquest rhetoric

an interaction in which winning is the goal Goal is to win, by any means necessary... 1. Prove that argument is the best, don't care how its done 2. Winners and losers 3. Cooperation and collaboration not useful 4. Rules are established and followed 5. Audience as opponents, trying to win, they are trying to win too

Enthymeme

argument based in probability, not fact, and is co-constructed with the audience this isn't syllogism because it isn't based in a universal principle, it's an opinion makes us forget the specifics and jump to conclusions

Kairos

at the oppurtune moment, the rhetor must know when to strike and hit em with their argument

Audience and Radiance of Being

audience and speaker have to share a connection

Chaim Perelman

becomes a leader of the resistance movements in Belgium, questioned whether there is a better way than war -- does stuff have to turn to violence, starts looking at logic deeply, can't, started to look at logic deeply, can't reason through logic about morals or values or conflict, conflict comes from moral or value based beliefs so can't solve through logic, need a method of practical reasoning that handles real life

Weaver's standards of ethics

believes that there is a hierarchy of arguments & very into rules (more conservative)

The New Rhetoric by Olbrects-Tyteca and Perelman

book that created a framework for the new rhetoric and how it works, creates a theory about demonstration (formal logic) vs Argumentation (practical logic) -- formal logic is something that is always true and argumentation is when you have a premise and there are many ways to come to the answer, rarely deal w universal facts,

Rhetoric in Second Sophistic

called this because it was focused on the showmanship of rhetoric and nothing about politics rhetoric became a method to keep historical records and do work for the government and showed us that rhetoric and democracy are directly tied -- when democracy thrives, so does rhetoric. Can judge the healthiness of democracy by the rhetoric

rhetoric in being

customs and rules that govern communication ex. not talking over someone, raising hand in class basically being able to read the room and knowing how society functions and how to communicate based off that

Types of Speech

deliberative, forensic, epideictic

Story-List-Sanction

device that focused on the past, present, and future 1. story - make clear who you already are, set yourself up 2. list - credit yourself, what are you currently doing right and what have you done 3. sanction - there will be consequences for what happens in the future This is most commonly used in religious arguments - Greeks and Romans never used this

Intention

do something with a hoped outcome - is the rhetor responsible? Doesn't matter what you intended, it's all about how the audience receives it, audience ALWAYS wins you are always responsible for what you say regardless of your intention

Forms of Proof

ethos (credibility/character -- not stable, one thing can completely **** your credibility), pathos (emotion -- most used but also most ethically suspect, ethical when it's used for the public good), logos (argument/logic)

Ethics:

ethos - character - the mental and moral qualities of a person, focuses on the self and person

Evil Speaker

exploits, dominates, possessive, selfish, superior, deception, defensive doesn't give good reasoning or clear definition with points doesn't talk about both sides of an issue not honest

Aristotle:

find truth through observation says you can only mess up truth and justice because they are stronger than their counterparts, so if they don't prevail it's your fault - the good should always be evident

Deliberative Speech

focused on the future, helps people make good choices -- used very often proves something wise or foolish, or useful or useless

Forensic Speech

focuses mainly on the past an argument in which speakers debate the facts of a case and attempt to answer questions of justice defending and attacking less common in everyday use

Strategies and Tactics: Promulgation

getting the message out there, trying to get people to pay attention to the movement, sharing the knowledge of the thing with other people

Ain't I a Woman Speech

gives speech in the way Sojourner Truth would've, logos based arguments -- if im so weak then give me rights it's not like i can do anything with them, provided empathy for men towards the end

Conversion Rhetoric

goal is to convince the other party that your argument is better than another 1. Create compelling and appealing arguments 2. Induce adherence (Perelman & Olbrects- Tyteca) 3. Develop Identification (Burke) 4. Paternalistic toward audience 5. Thinking about the audience, finding a way to identify with them, and converting them to your opinion/argument 6. Whether they have more knowledge or not, they believe they have this type of authority

St. Augustine

had many concerns about rhetoric and christianity and thought that rhetoric should never be used to convert someone to christianity because then they are converting for the wrong reasons if we use rhetoric in religion, it has to be in a very specific place -- learn, teach, and defend scripture

Audience and Judgement

have to look at how an audience responds to a speaker to see if they were a good speaker

Definition and Understanding

helps you understand the way you feel tries to help the audience feel better about what comes next

Functions of Rhetoric

ideas are tested, advocacy is assisted, power is distributed, facts are discovered, knowledge is shaped, community is built

Consubstantiality

identifying with other people and society, ex. going to a sports game and having a visceral reaction when a player does well even though you didn't do it

A group that encounters institutional resistance

if this wasn't the case, it would be law

Rhetoric in the Americas - Aztec Rhetoric

know about this through catholic missionaries who went to go convert people Father segan was very engaged with the aztec people authority of the speaker as proof - focused on ethos if someone spoke, we knew that they had authority because only people with the knowledge and authority to speak were allowed to

Rhetoric and Science:

living in the material and socially constructed world, it is not inherently a problem that we understand the world objectively and subjectively, it's a problem when we don't realize we're doing it, science is "innocent of rhetorical seductions" - -good rhetoric has nothing to do w science, some people don't believe the world is socially constructed, some do, issue in science is that we always talk about it as an objective fact -- things can change, we can view things differently

Teleological Ethics

moral goodness is determined by the end or result

Kenneth Burke

most important rhetorical theorist of contemporary times, theorized aspects of rhetoric that hadn't been considered/developed, focused on the why not the what

Rhetoric in the Enlightenment

move away from the self and look more towards picture questions -- how and why does stuff work?

Strategies and Tactics: Exploitation of the mass media

need the mass media to pay attention to what you're doing but they don't want to usually so you want to force the mass media to pay attention - Seek legitimizers - have famous/influential people represent your social movement - Stage Newsworthy Events - be radical, do something crazy or bring people to the center stage, protests, riots

All Language Has a Position (Weaver)

no one is ever neutral and being neutral is the least ethical thing you could do because everyone has a position and you have to be honest Pseudo-Neutrality is ethically suspect

Noninstitutionalized

not controlled by one party or entity, organized collectivity, have no formal institutional backing, today social movements become institutionalized very quickly because they need money

Objective vs. Subjective

objective - reality is based in material acceptance subjective - we have constructed a view of the world through language and social behavior

Identification

only way to persuade someone is getting them to see how we are alike

Critics of Rhetoric during the Renaissance

people liked invention and dialectic, not rhetoric Agricola - interested in dialectic Ramus - said invention and organization belonged to the field of philosophy, not rhetoric. said philosophy is for smart people and rhetoric is for showmanship. says rhetoric can have style and delivery and nothing else Has been a loss in the value of rhetoric ever since

Characteristics of Rhetoric

planned, adapted to an audience, has motives, responsive, persuades, addresses contingent issues

Christianity Three Components of Rhetoric

preaching, letter writing, poetry writing

What is rhetoric:

process and product that aims to teach and persuade

"Eloquent speeches are not the result of momentary inspirations, but the products of research, analysis, practice, and application"

quote by quintilian, Nobody is born a naturally gifted speaker; the great speakers and speeches come from effort, practice, and routine

transactional model of communication

recognizes that we simultaneously send and receive messages; a cyclical model of the communication process

Dialectic vs. Rhetoric

regular people use rhetoric to ask questions, doesn't have to involve multiple parties and has a larger audience narrow questions like who should I vote for

Strategies and Tactics: Solidification

reinforcement of membership, agree with the collective push for the social movement, once they've given their membership, you want them to deeply identify with it - Symbols, art, songs, plays, poetry, slogans, inside jokes - Hands up don't shoot - brought the issue to many people's attention for the first time, but for others they decide that they deeply identify with this movement because they see people they care about caring about the movement - Emma Gonzales - we call BS, became very powerful slogan

Frederick Douglass Speech

repetition, ethos - his descendants are credible, more so than others, delivery - read from script and then made eye contact and engaged us

Protagoras

said "man is the measure of all things" - we know what is right and wrong said that resolution to really important manners requires intense argument and debate

Phaedrus

said rhetoric can be an art if specific requirements are met: 1. study different parts of the soul to gain a deeper understanding of them 2. with this knowledge, we can influence parts of the soul 3. If persuasion is successful then a more ordered society is created

Gorgias

said that he could make the weakest argument the strongest as a great rhetor

Olaudah Equiano

sold into slavery at age 11; name got changed by master, after gaining freedom, he spoke out against slavery and published his autobiography, uses rhetoric to get people to realize the harshities of slavery

Strategies and Tactics: Petition

speak to the establishment - usually this is unsuccessful but it's always the first step

Argumentative Theory Perspective (condit)

speeches are preparatory to action, have to act and be pumped up

Descarte

studied things through science and logic thought rhetoric was dumb and that you needed rhetoric to understand the world

Dialectic

the art of investigating or discussing the truth of opinions dialectic is for philosophers and the educated very small audience wider questions like what is the purpose of humanity

Antithesis

the direct opposite, a sharp contrast ex. it was the best of times, it was the worst of times

Quintilian:

the last of the great classical theorists, defined rhetoric as the study of "the good man speaking well" The Citizen Orator

Alienation and Unification

understanding of identification is incomplete w out an understanding of division - people are inclined to focus on difference and only hang w ppl similar Goal of rhetoric is to bring together -rhetoric builds identification which builds connection

Isocrates

was unable to publicly speak, wrote speeches and taught instead said that rhetoric is needed for democracy to thrive and that Rhetoric needs to be two things: 1. Thematic - Important issues addressing the state 2. Pragmatic - impact on the people Cared deeply about Athens - said people who care about democracy and want it to work and thrive will constantly be questioning it and criticize it most to have it at it's very best

Persuasion is the result of identification

we act because we identify, rhetoric -> persuasion -> identification

An Organized Collectivity

whole bunch of people from different places and backgrounds that all agree on one thing so they come together and say let's maker change

Rhetoric in the Americas - Voting Rights and Abolition

women and black people had to be persuasive because no one wanted to listen to them, they had no choice

Lucie Olbrects-Tyteca

writing duo w perelman