RTL 4330 Exam 2
Phases of qualitative research: Invention
Phase 1. Research design or action plan
4 ways to control variance
Randomization, building conditions or factors into the design as independent variables, holding factors constant, statistical adjustments
Ordinal Scale
Rank order from highest to lowest. Can't tell what exact difference is among categories, likert scales, letter grade.
Quantitative Research Design
1. Variables are determined 2. Organized to be studied in scientific manner 3. Title expresses research problem, key terms, main concepts and constructs 4. Results quantified and statistically analyzed 5. each factor/variable independent 5.each factor controlled separately to allow researcher to explain what is causing action
Analyzing data
2 basic types of statistics: descriptive and inferential
Qualitative research design
1. plan is put together to begin research 2.focus around paradigm, model, or perspective 3. collect data in real world
Data from quantitative study
Reasearcher assigns numbers to variables, people, phenomena, or concepts. Measurement test used determined by data.
Parts of a questionnaire (5)
1. title 2. intro- cover letter & intro paragraph 3. directions 4. questions- demographic, psychographic, questions to test research question/hypothesis 5. thank you
Research reports for Academia
Abstracts, journal writings/articles, theses/dissertations
Research Abstracts
Academic research report. Brief summary of research paper written to give details of research studies reported at meetings to accompany an oral research presentation. used in indexing service to retrieve articles, summary at the beginning of report/article
Research Articles
Academic research report. In peer reviewed journals, each professional organization has its own specific requirements for submitting
Oppenheim's 4 Variables of an Individual
All people have, what makes who you are. Opinions, attitudes( beliefs), values, personality.
Full Field notes
Analysis of data. Reread mental notes, jotted logs/notes, looks at other data collected including observation notes, photos, transcribed interviews, notes taken during interview, and other data, summarize what was found during review.
True Research design
Answers research question, control extraneous variables, can be generalized to greater population, have reliability, validity. Pretest-posttest control group, post-test only control group
Figures
Anything visual, charts, graphs, drawings, photos, highlights of figure must be talked about before it appears in paper
Powerpoint slides in research
Basic areas: intro, review of lit, methodology, results, conclusions with implications
normal Distribution
Bell curve. Symmetric, area under curve equal to one. 68% of observations within one std Dev of mean, 95% within 2 std dev of mean, 99.7 within 3 std dev of mean, mean, median, and mode located under peak. Dress size
Sorting
Categorize or group together similar concepts for further analysis
Working Design Plan
Choosing variables, procedures, controls, and systematic (randomization plans)
Field Study
Combine psychological, sociological, and educational variables, context or social situation is vital for interpretation, min or max involvement
Open Coding
Considers data in small detail while developing some initial categories
Holding Factors constant
Control technique, reducing a variable to a constant.
Cross-Sectional Survey Research
Data collected from random sampling, one or more populations can be used at one time. can't measure change because conducted only at one time
Longitudinal Survey Research
Data collected over time or at a variety of specific points. 3 types Trend study, cohort study, Panel study.
Steps in scientific method in Historical research
Define problem of question, state hypothesis or propositions, collect data, evaluate/analyze/synthesize data, interpret/report/ and communicate findings
Thematic analysis
Emerging patterns (themes) organized and segmented. Finding dominant explicit idea by coding, categorizing, and sorting
Internal Validity (experimental research)
Experiment is interpretable based on control, measurement, analysis, and procedures. Instrument is measuring what it's designed to measure.
Conclusions using quantitative data
Experimental and survey research, stated in relation to hypothesis and results, related to samples population and context of study, reviewed in relation to purpose, hypothesis and theory on which research is based
Symbols Used to Plan Experiments: X
Experimental variable and what will be done to it is subscript.
Nonequivalent Post-Test Only
Faulty design, Same populations are not randomly assigned or matched according to relevant variables, design doesn't compare corresponding groups. G1-X1-O1 G2-(no treatment)-O2
One Group Pretest-Post Test
Faulty design, data gathered with a pretest, a treatment, then response data that can be measured and compared to pretest. No control group to compare. RG-O1-X1-O2
One-Group Post-Test
Faulty design, has almost no value because there is nothing to compare the results to. RG-X1-O1
Pie Graphs
Figure used to show percentages or proportions
Line Graph
Figure, show trends or changes over time
Control Variance
Reason to have research design. Variables as an entity that can differ or take on different meanings.
Qualitative Research
Focuses on development and answers to questions. Looks at natural settings, uses descriptive and grouping formats to answer research questions. Investigates the phenomenon or experience. Analyzes data by grouping like things and placing the data in context of the culture and situation. Take research question and investigating without preconceived hypothesis.
Conclusion External Validity
Generalization to other person, places, or times
Symbols Used to Plan Experiments: G
Group of samples
Descriptive Statistics
Help organize, summarize, and describe data. Number, proportion, or percentage of subjects in each category explained. Tell what is found with data in results section.
Reliability
How consistently an instrument in a study measures the results. Controlled by using same instrument multiple times or using an equivalent instrument.
Epistemology
How we make and acquire data. How we make knowledge, the philosophical look at how we acquire knowledge
Limitations
Imperfections in the research, may be known prior to beginning study or as study progresses
Case Study
In depth look at one person, one company, or one situation. In depth look at an occurrence or phenomenon
Ratio Scales
Include absolute zero, meaningful comparisons made, shows relationship among scores.
Discussion
Included as part of conclusions or separate heading, interprets results, discusses relationship between purpose, hypotheses, and results, interprets meaning of results including accepting/rejecting hypotheses, relates study to previous studies
Method of Analysis
Interpretation, thematic analysis
Primary sources of ethnographic research
Interviews, observations, artifacts
Results Steps for Quantitative
Introduce section, summarize important points, describe data without statistics, display findings
4 phases of qualitative research
Invention, discovery, interpretation, explanation
Trend Study
Longitudinal Study in which random samples of general population are gathered at various times or points.
Survey Questionnaires
Look at knowledge, opinions, attitudes, beliefs, or personality, can measure change using pretest and posttest surveys.
Scientific Method in historical Research: Define Problem or question
Look for and find as much info about the subject as possible, complete in depth review of lit
Post-test
Measure taken after treatment to see if there has been a change
Nominal Scales
Measures of identity, separates results into 2 or more distinctive features. Naming without order. Label or name into categories such as age, gender, or colors.
Types of logs
Mental notes, jotted notes, full field notes
Selective Coding
Systematically codes with respect to core concept, keep original items in tact-words, pics.
Guidelines for preparing figures
Must relate to content, should be simple, necessary, and to the point, text fonts should be same as paper's text, all info should be able to be understood with little explanation needed, always referred to before placed in text, 4-20 numbers or items
Placebo
No treatment, control
Dependent Variable
Observation or effect that influenced by changes to independent variable
Skills needed for Ethnographic Research
Observation, conversation, participation, interpretation
Types of Ethnographic Research
Observation, individual observation, participant observation, photography. Interviewing-individual, focus group, case study. Artifact analysis.
Symbols Used to Plan Experiments: O
Observation, measurements, or data collected
Faulty Designs
One-group post-test, one-group pretest-post-test, nonequivalent post-test
Steps in method of analysis
Organize data, describe data, analyze data
Phases of qualitative research: Interpretation
Phase 3. Evaluation, analysis, and understanding of data.
Phases of qualitative research: Discovery
Phase 3. observation or data collection that produces the info
Phases of qualitative research: Explanation
Phase 4. Interpretation and producing messages to industry and academia
Working Design
Plan or way data is collected and analyzed. Helps answer questions and test the hypothesis.
Tables
Present numerical and text data, data can be compared side by side, used with quantitative data, shows comparisons in qualitative data, 20+ numbers or items
Research reports for business
Press releases, annual reports, trade reports
Coding
Process for categorizing qualitative data and for describing the implications and details of these categories. Attaches names to collected data, looks at how data is related/linked together, marks parts that talk about the same thing, ranks/orders/or diagrams, based on themes/topics/ideas/concepts/terms/phrases/or keywords, named or labeled so they can be easily recognized to bring meaningful comparisons
Historical Research
Qualitative methodology, use system of assembling, assessing, confirming, and combining evidence establishing facts, searches for the meaning, provides data for future uses, uses experience, looks at the past.
Ethnographic (field) Research
Qualitative. Observation, individual and participant observation, photos, interviews individual, focus group, case study, artifact analysis
Historical Research
Qualitative. Open ended questionnaire, literature research, artifact analysis
Survey Research
Quantitative or qualitative, objectives: to explore, describe, explain, or evaluate a particular sample. Can study things in the past, as they exist now, or how they may be in future.
Survey Research
Quantitative. Close ended questionnaire: controlled objectives (knowledge questions), likert (attitude scale)
Experimental research
Quantitative. Observation of controlling variables: questionnaire.
Experimental Research
Quantitative. One or more events, conditions, or situations, called independent variables, that are manipulated or changed by the researcher.
Time Series Design
Quasi experimental design, effects of experiment with pretest and two or more post tests. G-O1-X1-O2O3O4
Nonequivalent Control Group
Quasi-experimental design, researcher doesn't have ability to randomly select participants but other factors such as age, sex, education are considered. G1-O1-X1-O2 G2-O3-no treatment-O4
Pretesting
Questionnaires should be given first to small group of subjects to see how easily people can complete questionnaire, ensure meaning of each question is clear, allow changes to be made to the instrument
Symbols Used to Plan Experiments: R
Random assignment group
Research style choice based on
Research question,hypothesis, design, resources available
Internal Validity
Research study measures what it is supposed to measure
Participant Observation
Researcher living same life or experiencing same phenomena as subject. Researcher part of group or social situation being studied. Field work and action research.
External Validity (experimental Research)
Results are interpreted accurately and can be generalized to other populations and conditions.
Closed-Ended Questions
Statement followed by 2-5 possible responses, aka multiple choice. Responses predetermined so subject doesn't have to create/think about answer, able to complete in short period.
Likert Scale
Statement or question concerning attitudes, opinions, or beliefs followed by a set of responses that ask the degree to which the subject agrees or disagrees. Aka summated scale. ordinal scale refers to degree of liking/disliking. Testing one's strength of the conviction.
Statistical Adjustments
Statistical control, use of mathematical procedures when the data are analyzed in order to control the data.
Working design Process
Subjects to be studied, site to collect data, length of study, and possible variables to investigate.
Mental Notes
Thoughts and preconceived ideas before you collect data. becomes part of results of the study and are put in appendix or another retrieval location.
Research Methods
Tools or instruments used for data generation or collection. Quantitative, qualitative, or mixed.
Pretest-post-test control group
True research design, before-after design that includes at least two random (comparable) sample groups Control group given pretest and post test but not given treatment, and experimental group that is given pretest, experiment, and post test. RG1-O1-X1-O2 RG2-O3-no treatment- O4
Validity
Truth or accuracy of the research. If questions get the answers wanted
Control Group
Used as basis for comparison, not manipulated of has nothing done to it.
Induction Model
Used in qualitative research, data collection begins without any preconceived notions or hypotheses.
Quasi-Experimental designs
Used most often when randomization is not possible. Nonequivalent control group, time-series design
Pretest
Used to measure sample before the experimental treatment
Charts
Used to show models, sequences, or flows, made up of boxes and shapes, drawings such as maps used to illustrate position or location
Mixed or Combination Research Methods
Uses both quantitative and qualitative methodology to answer question/test hypothesis, understands question as well as tests hypotheses
Quantitative Research
Uses data analysis to reject or accept hypothesis. Used to test hypothesis and examine causes and effects. Data collected with experiments and surveys. Data analyzed using stats.
Confounding/Extraneous Variables
Variables that influence as study, that are not the independent variable that is being manipulated and could affect the results of the experiment
Parallel-sample survey research
Variation of cross sectional design, using different populations for comparison.
Axiology
Why research. Relates to ethical considerations and our own philosophical viewpoints
Principles of research Design
Working design-idea, working hypothesis, data collection, data analysis and interpretation
Ontology
What you are investigating ex: knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors of customer
Working hypothesis
What you think will occur
Jotted Log
Written while collecting data or shortly after. Includes how people respond to data collection process, reactions of the subjects, ways those around subjects responded, thoughts that occurred while collecting data.
appendix
actual data subjects said or wrote, pics, written logs, transcripts of oral histories, or other qualitative data not used in body of paper, write sentence in paper stating they are placed in appendix
Independent Variables
arranged, changed, or manipulated by researcher. deliberately controlled and observed to see what change may be affected.
Strategies of historical research
artifact analysis, interview/situational
Standard Deviations
built off of deviations from the mean, S^2, typical distance that an observation deviates from the mean, units for variance are squared and difficult to interpret. When you square root the variance, you will get a measure that is not the original units of the data (becomes easy to interpret)
Randomization
control technique that equates groups of subjects by ensuring every member an equal chance of being assigned to any group.
Building conditions or factors into the design
control technique, consider differences when designing your methodology.
Scientific Method in historical Research: State hypothesis or propositions
define research objectives, purpose, or question of the study, may be moveable or changeable
Variance
differences or relationships among variables, External variables that confuse results of the study.
inferential statistics
draw conclusions about larger population based on sample info, employ inductive reasoning to draw conclusions in conclusions/implications section.
Historical research in retail
evaluate past sales to forecast selling season, look at last years sales, forecast trends, use ethnographic and historic research to trend styles
Organizing data
examining or sorting, inspecting data for accuracy, entering data into computer, using software application to develop a database structure that incorporates various measures.
Bar graph
figure. column graph, used to show differences among groups or groups over time spans
Results steps for mixed research
follow directions for qualitative and quantitative methods, place in chronological order, begin question, explain phenomena, accept or reject hypothesis, no interpretations discussed
qualitative research
form of systematic empirical inquiry into meaning, to find insightful aspects of a social situation, accumulates large quantities of data that illuminate the experience
Models or theories
formulate based on findings, make recommendations revising existing theories based on conclusions
Conclusion Construct Validity
idea or theory
implications in qualitative study
include development of concept, construct, model, or theory, results and conclusions used to justify statements
Results Steps for Qualitative
introduce section, summarize important points, give detailed examples to support themes and questions, display findings
Panel Study
longitudinal study using same subjects but researcher collects from them over longer period of time
Cohort study
longitudinal study, specific population is repeatedly studied at various times or points.
measures of central tendency
mean, median, mode
Conclusions of qualitative data
meaning of data discussed, detailed descriptions placed in social context of time, place, and group studied
Conclusions
meanings drawn from the results.
Conclusion Validity
measure by which conclusions derived from data are logical. relationship between two variables
Research Design
plan or strategy used to conduct research. Best way to answer question or hypothesis
Dissertation
more in depth, has more detail, usually written as culminating study in doctoral work
Basic types of historical writing
narrative history, biography, scholarly monograph
SPSS
new name: IBMSS, statistical software package used in analyzing all types of research including academic, marketing, textiles, manufacturing, fashion design, and retail
Open-ended questions
no answers for participant to choose, subjects speak their mines, establish underlining meaning or social context behind topic, easiest to develop, coding and method of analysis time consuming.
Individual observation
or complete observation, researcher disguised as member of group.
Thesis
original research written as culminating study in masters studies
Ethnographic research
qualitative methodology that tries to understand cultural phenomena based on observing human interactions. AKA field study. Study phenomenon in its natural setting, evolved from field of anthropology, strong focus on cultures. Requires field in which to research
measures of variability
range, variance, standard deviation
implications in quantitative study
refer directly to study's hypothesis, model, or theory, includes discussion of logical use of info
Interval Scale
reflects differences among items, measurement units are equal. zero doesn't represent absolute lowest value. Temperature, weight, height, retail sales in quarters.
Variance
reflects variability of scores in a distribution, degree of dispersion, or scatter of a set of numbers
Conclusion internal validity
relationship is casual (connecting)
Common tasks for qualitative data analysis software
segments, labels or codes, automates or semi automates research, prints, attaches notes or memos to selected text, allows easy revision of codes and tracking changes, saves text segmenting and coding
Distribution of data
set of all scores, needs to be described: where distribution is located on scale of measurement, how distribution is dispersed, identification of its shape
range
simplest measure of variability, calculated by finding difference between largest and smallest scores
Implications
specific uses or applications of conclusions, meanings related to individual, group, field, or discipline, existing or new theory, relationships that are important, knowledge gained
Attitude
state of readiness, tendency to respond in a certain manner when confronted with a certain stimuli
Grounded Theorizing
theories flow from data, researchers add own perspectives as to why data or phenomenon occurs
Post-test only control group
true research design, after-only design, has pretest missing as difference, avoids any influences that may be caused by pretest. RG1-X1-O1 RG2-no treatment-O2
Factorial Designs
two or more independent variables, at least one variable is the treatment variable and others may be independent variables included for control purposes. Solomon Four group Design.
Belief
type of attitude, general idea thought to be true. Cognitive component of what people know about textiles, design, and retail.
Text
used when 3 or few numbers or items
Procedures
way research is designed
Interpretation of results
what activities, actions, or observations occur that influence researcher's decisions, what label categories, what activities place subject in category
research report
written account of a completed research project