RTL 4330 Exam 2

Phases of qualitative research: Invention

Phase 1. Research design or action plan

4 ways to control variance

Randomization, building conditions or factors into the design as independent variables, holding factors constant, statistical adjustments

Ordinal Scale

Rank order from highest to lowest. Can't tell what exact difference is among categories, likert scales, letter grade.

Quantitative Research Design

1. Variables are determined 2. Organized to be studied in scientific manner 3. Title expresses research problem, key terms, main concepts and constructs 4. Results quantified and statistically analyzed 5. each factor/variable independent 5.each factor controlled separately to allow researcher to explain what is causing action

Analyzing data

2 basic types of statistics: descriptive and inferential

Qualitative research design

1. plan is put together to begin research 2.focus around paradigm, model, or perspective 3. collect data in real world

Data from quantitative study

Reasearcher assigns numbers to variables, people, phenomena, or concepts. Measurement test used determined by data.

Parts of a questionnaire (5)

1. title 2. intro- cover letter & intro paragraph 3. directions 4. questions- demographic, psychographic, questions to test research question/hypothesis 5. thank you

Research reports for Academia

Abstracts, journal writings/articles, theses/dissertations

Research Abstracts

Academic research report. Brief summary of research paper written to give details of research studies reported at meetings to accompany an oral research presentation. used in indexing service to retrieve articles, summary at the beginning of report/article

Research Articles

Academic research report. In peer reviewed journals, each professional organization has its own specific requirements for submitting

Oppenheim's 4 Variables of an Individual

All people have, what makes who you are. Opinions, attitudes( beliefs), values, personality.

Full Field notes

Analysis of data. Reread mental notes, jotted logs/notes, looks at other data collected including observation notes, photos, transcribed interviews, notes taken during interview, and other data, summarize what was found during review.

True Research design

Answers research question, control extraneous variables, can be generalized to greater population, have reliability, validity. Pretest-posttest control group, post-test only control group

Figures

Anything visual, charts, graphs, drawings, photos, highlights of figure must be talked about before it appears in paper

Powerpoint slides in research

Basic areas: intro, review of lit, methodology, results, conclusions with implications

normal Distribution

Bell curve. Symmetric, area under curve equal to one. 68% of observations within one std Dev of mean, 95% within 2 std dev of mean, 99.7 within 3 std dev of mean, mean, median, and mode located under peak. Dress size

Sorting

Categorize or group together similar concepts for further analysis

Working Design Plan

Choosing variables, procedures, controls, and systematic (randomization plans)

Field Study

Combine psychological, sociological, and educational variables, context or social situation is vital for interpretation, min or max involvement

Open Coding

Considers data in small detail while developing some initial categories

Holding Factors constant

Control technique, reducing a variable to a constant.

Cross-Sectional Survey Research

Data collected from random sampling, one or more populations can be used at one time. can't measure change because conducted only at one time

Longitudinal Survey Research

Data collected over time or at a variety of specific points. 3 types Trend study, cohort study, Panel study.

Steps in scientific method in Historical research

Define problem of question, state hypothesis or propositions, collect data, evaluate/analyze/synthesize data, interpret/report/ and communicate findings

Thematic analysis

Emerging patterns (themes) organized and segmented. Finding dominant explicit idea by coding, categorizing, and sorting

Internal Validity (experimental research)

Experiment is interpretable based on control, measurement, analysis, and procedures. Instrument is measuring what it's designed to measure.

Conclusions using quantitative data

Experimental and survey research, stated in relation to hypothesis and results, related to samples population and context of study, reviewed in relation to purpose, hypothesis and theory on which research is based

Symbols Used to Plan Experiments: X

Experimental variable and what will be done to it is subscript.

Nonequivalent Post-Test Only

Faulty design, Same populations are not randomly assigned or matched according to relevant variables, design doesn't compare corresponding groups. G1-X1-O1 G2-(no treatment)-O2

One Group Pretest-Post Test

Faulty design, data gathered with a pretest, a treatment, then response data that can be measured and compared to pretest. No control group to compare. RG-O1-X1-O2

One-Group Post-Test

Faulty design, has almost no value because there is nothing to compare the results to. RG-X1-O1

Pie Graphs

Figure used to show percentages or proportions

Line Graph

Figure, show trends or changes over time

Control Variance

Reason to have research design. Variables as an entity that can differ or take on different meanings.

Qualitative Research

Focuses on development and answers to questions. Looks at natural settings, uses descriptive and grouping formats to answer research questions. Investigates the phenomenon or experience. Analyzes data by grouping like things and placing the data in context of the culture and situation. Take research question and investigating without preconceived hypothesis.

Conclusion External Validity

Generalization to other person, places, or times

Symbols Used to Plan Experiments: G

Group of samples

Descriptive Statistics

Help organize, summarize, and describe data. Number, proportion, or percentage of subjects in each category explained. Tell what is found with data in results section.

Reliability

How consistently an instrument in a study measures the results. Controlled by using same instrument multiple times or using an equivalent instrument.

Epistemology

How we make and acquire data. How we make knowledge, the philosophical look at how we acquire knowledge

Limitations

Imperfections in the research, may be known prior to beginning study or as study progresses

Case Study

In depth look at one person, one company, or one situation. In depth look at an occurrence or phenomenon

Ratio Scales

Include absolute zero, meaningful comparisons made, shows relationship among scores.

Discussion

Included as part of conclusions or separate heading, interprets results, discusses relationship between purpose, hypotheses, and results, interprets meaning of results including accepting/rejecting hypotheses, relates study to previous studies

Method of Analysis

Interpretation, thematic analysis

Primary sources of ethnographic research

Interviews, observations, artifacts

Results Steps for Quantitative

Introduce section, summarize important points, describe data without statistics, display findings

4 phases of qualitative research

Invention, discovery, interpretation, explanation

Trend Study

Longitudinal Study in which random samples of general population are gathered at various times or points.

Survey Questionnaires

Look at knowledge, opinions, attitudes, beliefs, or personality, can measure change using pretest and posttest surveys.

Scientific Method in historical Research: Define Problem or question

Look for and find as much info about the subject as possible, complete in depth review of lit

Post-test

Measure taken after treatment to see if there has been a change

Nominal Scales

Measures of identity, separates results into 2 or more distinctive features. Naming without order. Label or name into categories such as age, gender, or colors.

Types of logs

Mental notes, jotted notes, full field notes

Selective Coding

Systematically codes with respect to core concept, keep original items in tact-words, pics.

Guidelines for preparing figures

Must relate to content, should be simple, necessary, and to the point, text fonts should be same as paper's text, all info should be able to be understood with little explanation needed, always referred to before placed in text, 4-20 numbers or items

Placebo

No treatment, control

Dependent Variable

Observation or effect that influenced by changes to independent variable

Skills needed for Ethnographic Research

Observation, conversation, participation, interpretation

Types of Ethnographic Research

Observation, individual observation, participant observation, photography. Interviewing-individual, focus group, case study. Artifact analysis.

Symbols Used to Plan Experiments: O

Observation, measurements, or data collected

Faulty Designs

One-group post-test, one-group pretest-post-test, nonequivalent post-test

Steps in method of analysis

Organize data, describe data, analyze data

Phases of qualitative research: Interpretation

Phase 3. Evaluation, analysis, and understanding of data.

Phases of qualitative research: Discovery

Phase 3. observation or data collection that produces the info

Phases of qualitative research: Explanation

Phase 4. Interpretation and producing messages to industry and academia

Working Design

Plan or way data is collected and analyzed. Helps answer questions and test the hypothesis.

Tables

Present numerical and text data, data can be compared side by side, used with quantitative data, shows comparisons in qualitative data, 20+ numbers or items

Research reports for business

Press releases, annual reports, trade reports

Coding

Process for categorizing qualitative data and for describing the implications and details of these categories. Attaches names to collected data, looks at how data is related/linked together, marks parts that talk about the same thing, ranks/orders/or diagrams, based on themes/topics/ideas/concepts/terms/phrases/or keywords, named or labeled so they can be easily recognized to bring meaningful comparisons

Historical Research

Qualitative methodology, use system of assembling, assessing, confirming, and combining evidence establishing facts, searches for the meaning, provides data for future uses, uses experience, looks at the past.

Ethnographic (field) Research

Qualitative. Observation, individual and participant observation, photos, interviews individual, focus group, case study, artifact analysis

Historical Research

Qualitative. Open ended questionnaire, literature research, artifact analysis

Survey Research

Quantitative or qualitative, objectives: to explore, describe, explain, or evaluate a particular sample. Can study things in the past, as they exist now, or how they may be in future.

Survey Research

Quantitative. Close ended questionnaire: controlled objectives (knowledge questions), likert (attitude scale)

Experimental research

Quantitative. Observation of controlling variables: questionnaire.

Experimental Research

Quantitative. One or more events, conditions, or situations, called independent variables, that are manipulated or changed by the researcher.

Time Series Design

Quasi experimental design, effects of experiment with pretest and two or more post tests. G-O1-X1-O2O3O4

Nonequivalent Control Group

Quasi-experimental design, researcher doesn't have ability to randomly select participants but other factors such as age, sex, education are considered. G1-O1-X1-O2 G2-O3-no treatment-O4

Pretesting

Questionnaires should be given first to small group of subjects to see how easily people can complete questionnaire, ensure meaning of each question is clear, allow changes to be made to the instrument

Symbols Used to Plan Experiments: R

Random assignment group

Research style choice based on

Research question,hypothesis, design, resources available

Internal Validity

Research study measures what it is supposed to measure

Participant Observation

Researcher living same life or experiencing same phenomena as subject. Researcher part of group or social situation being studied. Field work and action research.

External Validity (experimental Research)

Results are interpreted accurately and can be generalized to other populations and conditions.

Closed-Ended Questions

Statement followed by 2-5 possible responses, aka multiple choice. Responses predetermined so subject doesn't have to create/think about answer, able to complete in short period.

Likert Scale

Statement or question concerning attitudes, opinions, or beliefs followed by a set of responses that ask the degree to which the subject agrees or disagrees. Aka summated scale. ordinal scale refers to degree of liking/disliking. Testing one's strength of the conviction.

Statistical Adjustments

Statistical control, use of mathematical procedures when the data are analyzed in order to control the data.

Working design Process

Subjects to be studied, site to collect data, length of study, and possible variables to investigate.

Mental Notes

Thoughts and preconceived ideas before you collect data. becomes part of results of the study and are put in appendix or another retrieval location.

Research Methods

Tools or instruments used for data generation or collection. Quantitative, qualitative, or mixed.

Pretest-post-test control group

True research design, before-after design that includes at least two random (comparable) sample groups Control group given pretest and post test but not given treatment, and experimental group that is given pretest, experiment, and post test. RG1-O1-X1-O2 RG2-O3-no treatment- O4

Validity

Truth or accuracy of the research. If questions get the answers wanted

Control Group

Used as basis for comparison, not manipulated of has nothing done to it.

Induction Model

Used in qualitative research, data collection begins without any preconceived notions or hypotheses.

Quasi-Experimental designs

Used most often when randomization is not possible. Nonequivalent control group, time-series design

Pretest

Used to measure sample before the experimental treatment

Charts

Used to show models, sequences, or flows, made up of boxes and shapes, drawings such as maps used to illustrate position or location

Mixed or Combination Research Methods

Uses both quantitative and qualitative methodology to answer question/test hypothesis, understands question as well as tests hypotheses

Quantitative Research

Uses data analysis to reject or accept hypothesis. Used to test hypothesis and examine causes and effects. Data collected with experiments and surveys. Data analyzed using stats.

Confounding/Extraneous Variables

Variables that influence as study, that are not the independent variable that is being manipulated and could affect the results of the experiment

Parallel-sample survey research

Variation of cross sectional design, using different populations for comparison.

Axiology

Why research. Relates to ethical considerations and our own philosophical viewpoints

Principles of research Design

Working design-idea, working hypothesis, data collection, data analysis and interpretation

Ontology

What you are investigating ex: knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors of customer

Working hypothesis

What you think will occur

Jotted Log

Written while collecting data or shortly after. Includes how people respond to data collection process, reactions of the subjects, ways those around subjects responded, thoughts that occurred while collecting data.

appendix

actual data subjects said or wrote, pics, written logs, transcripts of oral histories, or other qualitative data not used in body of paper, write sentence in paper stating they are placed in appendix

Independent Variables

arranged, changed, or manipulated by researcher. deliberately controlled and observed to see what change may be affected.

Strategies of historical research

artifact analysis, interview/situational

Standard Deviations

built off of deviations from the mean, S^2, typical distance that an observation deviates from the mean, units for variance are squared and difficult to interpret. When you square root the variance, you will get a measure that is not the original units of the data (becomes easy to interpret)

Randomization

control technique that equates groups of subjects by ensuring every member an equal chance of being assigned to any group.

Building conditions or factors into the design

control technique, consider differences when designing your methodology.

Scientific Method in historical Research: State hypothesis or propositions

define research objectives, purpose, or question of the study, may be moveable or changeable

Variance

differences or relationships among variables, External variables that confuse results of the study.

inferential statistics

draw conclusions about larger population based on sample info, employ inductive reasoning to draw conclusions in conclusions/implications section.

Historical research in retail

evaluate past sales to forecast selling season, look at last years sales, forecast trends, use ethnographic and historic research to trend styles

Organizing data

examining or sorting, inspecting data for accuracy, entering data into computer, using software application to develop a database structure that incorporates various measures.

Bar graph

figure. column graph, used to show differences among groups or groups over time spans

Results steps for mixed research

follow directions for qualitative and quantitative methods, place in chronological order, begin question, explain phenomena, accept or reject hypothesis, no interpretations discussed

qualitative research

form of systematic empirical inquiry into meaning, to find insightful aspects of a social situation, accumulates large quantities of data that illuminate the experience

Models or theories

formulate based on findings, make recommendations revising existing theories based on conclusions

Conclusion Construct Validity

idea or theory

implications in qualitative study

include development of concept, construct, model, or theory, results and conclusions used to justify statements

Results Steps for Qualitative

introduce section, summarize important points, give detailed examples to support themes and questions, display findings

Panel Study

longitudinal study using same subjects but researcher collects from them over longer period of time

Cohort study

longitudinal study, specific population is repeatedly studied at various times or points.

measures of central tendency

mean, median, mode

Conclusions of qualitative data

meaning of data discussed, detailed descriptions placed in social context of time, place, and group studied

Conclusions

meanings drawn from the results.

Conclusion Validity

measure by which conclusions derived from data are logical. relationship between two variables

Research Design

plan or strategy used to conduct research. Best way to answer question or hypothesis

Dissertation

more in depth, has more detail, usually written as culminating study in doctoral work

Basic types of historical writing

narrative history, biography, scholarly monograph

SPSS

new name: IBMSS, statistical software package used in analyzing all types of research including academic, marketing, textiles, manufacturing, fashion design, and retail

Open-ended questions

no answers for participant to choose, subjects speak their mines, establish underlining meaning or social context behind topic, easiest to develop, coding and method of analysis time consuming.

Individual observation

or complete observation, researcher disguised as member of group.

Thesis

original research written as culminating study in masters studies

Ethnographic research

qualitative methodology that tries to understand cultural phenomena based on observing human interactions. AKA field study. Study phenomenon in its natural setting, evolved from field of anthropology, strong focus on cultures. Requires field in which to research

measures of variability

range, variance, standard deviation

implications in quantitative study

refer directly to study's hypothesis, model, or theory, includes discussion of logical use of info

Interval Scale

reflects differences among items, measurement units are equal. zero doesn't represent absolute lowest value. Temperature, weight, height, retail sales in quarters.

Variance

reflects variability of scores in a distribution, degree of dispersion, or scatter of a set of numbers

Conclusion internal validity

relationship is casual (connecting)

Common tasks for qualitative data analysis software

segments, labels or codes, automates or semi automates research, prints, attaches notes or memos to selected text, allows easy revision of codes and tracking changes, saves text segmenting and coding

Distribution of data

set of all scores, needs to be described: where distribution is located on scale of measurement, how distribution is dispersed, identification of its shape

range

simplest measure of variability, calculated by finding difference between largest and smallest scores

Implications

specific uses or applications of conclusions, meanings related to individual, group, field, or discipline, existing or new theory, relationships that are important, knowledge gained

Attitude

state of readiness, tendency to respond in a certain manner when confronted with a certain stimuli

Grounded Theorizing

theories flow from data, researchers add own perspectives as to why data or phenomenon occurs

Post-test only control group

true research design, after-only design, has pretest missing as difference, avoids any influences that may be caused by pretest. RG1-X1-O1 RG2-no treatment-O2

Factorial Designs

two or more independent variables, at least one variable is the treatment variable and others may be independent variables included for control purposes. Solomon Four group Design.

Belief

type of attitude, general idea thought to be true. Cognitive component of what people know about textiles, design, and retail.

Text

used when 3 or few numbers or items

Procedures

way research is designed

Interpretation of results

what activities, actions, or observations occur that influence researcher's decisions, what label categories, what activities place subject in category

research report

written account of a completed research project