Semantics and pragmatics

What is the term for the tendency of words to frequently occur together?

Collocation. Collocation is when a relationship between words that frequently occur together (e.g. salt and pepper)

What are the three specific kinds of such expressions?

Person deixis, spatial deixis and temporal deixis.

What are some examples of each of these three kinds of pointing expressions?

Person deixis: We use deixis to point to things (it, this, these boxes) and people (him, them, those idiots) Spatial deixis: Words and phrases used to point to a location (here, there, near that) Temporal deixis: those used to point to a time (now, then, last week)

What is the term for such actions whose form does not directly match its function? Exemplify.

Physical context.

What is the term for a person's public self-image?

Politeness.

What is the term for language use which reflects one's need to be connected or included?

Positive face is the need to be connected, to belong, to be a member of the group.

What is the term for pointing expressions which reflect a speaker's perspective?

Pragmatics

What is the term for actions performed by utterances?

Pragmatics, the study of "invisible" meaning.

What is the term for an assumption on the part of a language user about something already known by the language receiver?

Presupposition.

What is the term for an act by which a language user enables a language receiver to identify something? (user-based)

Reference.

What is the term for the basic elements that allow for a componential analysis of word meaning?

Semantic roles

To what kinds of grammatical units can semantic roles be assigned?

Sentence/phrase. The part played by a noun phrase, such as agent, in the event described by the sentence.

Explain and illustrate how synonymy can be related to style.

Synonomyer som kan ersätta varandra och synonymer som inte bör ersätta.

Name six semantic roles.

Agent (subject): theme(object) instrument ; experiencer (subject) location; source;goal. Instead of thinking of words as "containers" of meaning, we can look at the "roles" they fulfill within the situation described by a sentence. If the situation is a simple event, as in The boy kicked the ball, then the verb describes an action (kick). The noun phrases in the sentence describe the roles of entities, such as people and things, involved in the action. We can identify a small number of semantic roles (also called "thematic roles") for these noun phrases.

What is the term for a subsequent reference to an already introduced entity?

Anaphora.

What is the term for the first mention of the entity?

Antecedent.

What is the difference between conceptual and associative meaning?

Conceptual är vad det faktiskt är medan associative är vad individen associerar till. Conceptual meaning covers those basic, essential components of meaning that are conveyed by the literal use of a word. It is the type of meaning that dictionaries are designed to describe. Some of the basic components of a word like needle in English might include "thin, sharp, steel instrument." These components would be part of the conceptual meaning of needle. Associative meaning is the type of meaning that people might connect with the use of words (e.g. needle = "painful").

What is the term for pointing expressions which reflect a speaker's perspective?

Deixis

What kinds of antonymy do the following pairs of words exemplify: hot-cold; tie-untie; awake-asleep?

Graded (or gradable) antonyms are word pairs whose meanings are opposite and which lie on a continuous spectrum (hot, cold). Non-gradable (enter,exit) (married,single) Antonyms are usually divided into two main types, "gradable" (gradable antonyms: words with opposite meanings along a scale (e.g. big-small) And "non-gradable". With non-gradable antonyms: words which are direct opposites (e.g. alive-dead) (also called "complementary pairs"). The example hot-cold; tie-untie; awake-asleep is a non gradable antonymy because it is the opposite of each other.

What are the literal meanings of 'homophone', 'homograph', 'homonym', and 'polyseme'?

Homophone = When two or more different forms have the same pronunciation they are describes as homophones. For example: Bare/bear, Meat/meet... Homonym = We use this term when the written or spoken form has two or more unrelated meanings. For example the word pupil, which can state a pupil in school or a pupil in the eye. Polyseme = When we encounter two or more words with the same form and related meanings, we have what is technically known as polysemy. So the question -How was your date?, could have several different interpretations.

What is the term for an utterance or action that threatens another person's self-image?

If you say something that represents a threat to another person's self-image, that is called a Face-threatening act.

What is the term for such actions whose form directly matches its function?

Linguistic context, also known as co-text.

What is the term for the use of one word to mean something else, capitalizing on the symbolic relationship between the two words?

Metonym.

What is the term for language use which respects another's need for independence?

Negative face is the need to be independent and free from imposition.

How can the existence of this phenomenon be tested?

One of the tests used to check for the presuppositions underlying sentences involves negating a sentence with a particular presupposition and checking if the presupposition remains true. Whether you say My car is a wreck or the negative version My car is not a wreck, the underlying presupposition (I have a car) remains true despite the fact that the two sentences have opposite meanings. This is called the "constancy under negation" test for identifying a presupposition.

What kind of lexical relationship is illustrated by the following words: dog—animal? With regards to this particular word relationship, what is the term for the relationship between cat—dog?

When the meaning of one form is included in the meaning of another, the relationship is described as hyponymy. Examples are the pairs: animal/dog, dog/poodle, vegetable/ carrot, flower/rose, tree/banyan. The concept of "inclusion" involved in this relationship is the idea that if an object is a rose, then it is necessarily a flower, so the meaning of flower is included in the meaning of rose. Or, rose is a hyponym of flower.When we consider hyponymous connections, we are essentially looking at the meaning of words in some type of hierarchical relationship.

What is the term for an utterance or action that reduces such threats?

Whenever you say something that lessens the possible threat to another's face, it can be described as a face-saving act.