Sleep, Internal Regulation (Exam 3)
What is _______sleep i. Stages other than REM are referred to as ___________sleep (NREM). ii. When one falls asleep, they progress through stages __________in sequential order. iii. After about an hour, the person begins to cycle back through the stages from stage __________and then __________ iv. The sequence repeats with each cycle lasting approximately _______minutes.
'Good' non-REM 1,2,3,4 4,3,2,1 REM 90 (so about 4 cycles of 90 min is good sleep--> 6 hours)
Water Regulation i. THIRST 1) Water constitutes ______ percent of the mammalian body 2) Water in the body must be regulated within narrow limits --Sufficient fluid needed in circulatory system 3) The_________ of chemicals in water determines the rate of all ______ in the body
70 concentrations chemical reactions
a body-image disorder characterized by persistent and intrustive preoccupations with an imagines or slight defect in one's appearance
Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD)
what is the neurotransmitter released by the basal forebrain (inhibitory) and its effect on behavior?
GABA inhibits thalamus and cortex; sleep paralysis
Inhibitory Transmitters for hunger a. _________________ b. Neuropeptide Y ______________ c. Agouti-related peptide _____________ d. _______________block the satiety action of the paraventricular nucleus (which___)and provoke ____________________
GABA NPY AgRP NPY & AgRP tells you you are full overeating
Brain Mechanisms of Wakefulness and Arousal—_______ i. The ________________is a small structure in the pons whose axons release ______________to arouse various areas of the cortex and increase _____________ ii. Usually dormant while asleep
Locus Coeruleus (x2) norepinephrine wakefulness
T/F eating disorders are more common in west than non-western countries
T
______ REM sleep?? i. Research is inconclusive regarding the exact functions of REM. ii. During REM: 1) The brain may _____ useless connections Learned motor skills may be _____.
Why discard consolidated
what is the neurotransmitter released by the basal forebrain (excitatory) and its effect on behavior?
acetylcholine excites thalamus & cortex; increases learning, attention; shifts sleep from NREM to REM
What is the neurotransmitter released by the pontomesencephalon and what is its effect on behavior?
acetylcholine, glutamate increases cortical arousal
Digestion and Food - Biology a. Digestive system function i. _____________food into smaller molecules that the cells can use b. Digestion begins in the ______________ i. ___________in saliva break down carbohydrates _______________and enzymes in the stomach ______________proteins
break down mouth enzymes HCl digest
a fat rat may be from ....
destroyed VMH (VMH stops eating.. so when it is damaged.. you can't stop eating) -or stimulated LH (LH stimulates eating.. )
Stages of Sleep - EEG a. The ________ (EEG) allowed researchers to discover that there are various stages of sleep i. Allows researchers to compare brain activity at different times during sleep A ______________is a combination of EEG and eye-movement records
electroencephalograph polysomnograph
what is the neurotransmitter released by the hypothalamus that increases arousal?
histamine
Sleep Deprivation In ____________Severe sleep deprivation hurts virtually all aspects of functioning, especially complex task Contributes to ___________________accidents ____________out of sorts, unable to concentrate Extreme: ___________speech, ___________mental ability, ____________hallucinations
humans traffic & work place irritable slurred decreased paranoia
Insulin Levels a. If insulin level stays constantly high: i. Body continues rapidly moving blood glucose into the cells long after a meal ii. Blood glucose drops and hunger ___ in spite of high insulin levels iii. Food is rapidly deposited as ___ and ___ iv. Causes ___________________ ---Valuable preparation for winter in some animals
increases fat and glycogen weight gain
When is someone's optimal mood?
mood is on a pattern -5pm
__________is a sleep disorder characterized by the inability to _______ while sleeping for a prolonged period of time i. Consequences include sleepiness during the day, impaired attention, depression, and sometimes heart problems. ii. Cognitive impairment may result from ___ of neurons due to insufficient _________ levels. Causes include, genetics, hormones, old age, and deterioration of the brain mechanisms that control breathing and obesity.
sleep apnea breathe loss oxygen
What is a good remedy for jet lag?
stay in the sun
The Stomach and Intenstines a. Nerves i. The main signal to stop eating is the distention of the stomach ii. The __________________ 1) Cranial nerve X 2) Conveys information about the___________of the stomach walls to the __________________ b. Duodenum i. Part of the ___ ii. Site of initial absorption of significant amounts of __________________ iii. Distention of the duodenum can also produce feelings of ___ iv. The duodenum also releases the hormone cholecystokinin ___________which helps to _______________hunger c. CCK i. ____ (CCK) released by the duodenum regulates hunger by: 1) Closing the sphincter muscle between the stomach and duodenum and causing the stomach to ________its contents and ___________ faster Stimulating the vagus nerve to send a message to the hypothalamus that releases a chemical similar to CCK
vagus nerve stretching brain small intestine satiety CCK regulate cholecystokinin hold fill
The Daily Activity of a Squirrel Kept in Total Darkness... what happens?
waking period starts earlier each day than the last sleeping period starts earlier each day than the last
Types of Thirst Fixed concentration of solutes in the body is a set point: ___ M in mammals 1) Two different kinds of thirst a) ______________results from eating salty foods ---When osmotic thirst is triggered, water that you drink must be absorbed through the _______________system --- Delivered by the____________to the brain --- Process takes about_________minutes ---To inhibit thirst, the body monitors ____ and detects the distension of the stomach and intestines --- Preference for ____ water b) _______________a thirst resulting from loss of fluids due to bleeding or sweating ----Thirst associated with __________ volume of body fluids ---Low blood volume—kidneys release enzyme _______which helps forms ____. Other enzymes convert that into angiotensin II. c) Animals with _______ thirst have a preference for_____water --- dilutes body fluids and changes osmotic pressure d) Animals with __________thirst have a preference for slightly ___________ water -- Sodium-specific hunger: strong craving for salty foods -- Develops automatically to ____ solute levels in the blood
.15 osmotic digestive blood 15 swallowing pure hypovelemic low renin angiotensin I osmotic pure hypovelemic salty restore
What is the effect of damage to the following hypothalamus areas...? preoptic area ___ lateral preoptic area ___ lateral hypothalamus ventromedial hypothalamus paraventricular hypothalamus
1) impaired temperature regulation 2) defecit in osmotic thirst 3) undereating, weight loss, low insulin, underarousal/responsiveness 4) overeating.. increased meal frequency, weight gain, high insulin 5) increased meal size (carb intake)
What are the big sexual differentiation differences between females/males in the following areas? medial preoptic area ventromedial nucleus arcuate nucleus and periventricular nucleas
1) more dendritic spins in males caused by more testosterone & production of prostaglandin 2) more widely branched dendrites in males because of estradiol activating PI3 which releases glutamate 3) more dendritic spines in Females because of estradiol increasing GABA, which decreases dendritic branching of astrocytes
Dove "campaign for real beauty" -only____of women consider themselves beautiful...
2%
__________Nervosa i. Eating disorder characterized by a refusal to eat enough to maintain a healthy body weight 1) Most have an exaggerated_____of getting fat 2) Many also engage in excessive _________ 3) Have altered_________levels—cause versus effect? 4) New hypothesis for treatment—adjust _____ levels ii. European trials showed 3/4 of patients fully recovered c. Thoughts.......... i. Strong ____________influence........... ii. Develops during ________________ iii. Many____________have a difficult relationship with food,...one wrought with guilt, pleasure, shame and secrecy. What about _______? i. ______of the anorexics are ______ ii. Who? . ______________________________ iv. 35% of those who suffer from binge-eating (overeating) disorder are men v. More likely to abuse____________drugs than to________food -WHY??__
Anorexia fear exercise dopamine temperature socialcultural adolescence women men 5-10%, men career related: i.e. jockeys, boxing, wrestling etc. muscle-enhancing avoid media role
Sleep disorders: ABC news, Nightline - ______ - direct connection between retina in eye and circadian pace maker in the brain - ______ - slow onset of insomnia where patient dies after 3 years - ______ Americans are sleep deprived - Go to bed much later (versus sunset) and have more compressed sleep schedules (versus 12 hours) - When we don't let the sun dictate sleep - we don't get deep sleep and a feeling of restfulness that prehistoric people did or the same sense of clearheadedness - instead we now have a short dreamy sleep - this kind of sleep stopped with invention of the lightbulb - when we shifted our circadian rhythm - even ____ can change our biological clock to later hours so we don't get enough sleep anymore - also added almost constant sound and motion to the world
Circadian sleep disorders Rare genetic insomnia 100 million low levels of artificial light
Treatmentfor sleep disorders, jet lag, insomnia etc... PRESCRIPTIONS: 1) Selective_____________medications (____________neurotransmitter) 2) Ambien, Lunesta, Sonata v. _____________onset - Side effects: memory disturbance, hallucinations, confusional arousal ( ____________sleep walking) 2) Latest: ______ -acts on sleep wake cycle -bind to ____ receptors -2018= _____-____
GABA inhibitory rapid extreme Ramelteon melatonin BELSOMRA-OREXIN
Disruption of Normal Rhythms 1) __________refers to the disruption of the circadian rhythms due to crossing time zones. 2) Stems from a __________of the internal circadian clock and external time. 3) Characterized by sleepiness during the day, sleeplessness at night, and ____________concentration.
Jet lag mismatch impaired
__________levels a) The SCN regulates waking and sleeping by controlling activity levels in other areas of the brain b) The SCN regulates the _________an endocrine gland located posterior to the thalamus c) The pineal gland secretes _________a hormone that _____________sleepiness d) Melatonin secretion usually begins _____________ hours before bedtime e) Melatonin feeds back to __________the biological clock through its effects on receptors in the SCN f) Melatonin taken in the ___________ can _____________the internal clock and can be used as a _______________
Melatonin pineal gland melatonin increases 2-3 reset afternoon advance sleep aid
an obsession with eating foods that one considers healthy/"clean food"; a medical condition in which the sufferer systematically avoids specific foods in the belief that they are harmful
Orthorexia nervosa
__________? Is it ________??? a. Premenstrual syndrome (PMS) has a wide variety of signs and symptoms, including mood swings, tender breasts, food cravings, fatigue, irritability and depression. It's estimated that as many as 3 of every 4 menstruating women have experienced some form of premenstrual syndrome. b. The cause of PMS is ______________ c. May be related to a change in both sex hormone and ______________levels at the beginning of the menstrual cycle
PMS, real unknown serotonin
NREM and REM Cycles i. Stages 3 and 4 sleep predominate early in the night ii. Length of stage decreases as the night progresses iii. ______sleep is predominant _____at night 1) Length increases as the night progresses iv. REM is strongly associated with _____ but people also report dreaming in other stages of sleep
REM later dreaming
The Function of Good Sleep ________/restoring: "Down time"helps repair normal wear and tear on body and brain Effective learning & ___________ (strengthening memories) Good rest = better __________ Resting muscles Decreasing metabolism Performing cellular maintenance in neurons _________________ synapses
Repairing memory emotional & mental functioning reorganizing
Mechanisms of Circadian Rhythms The Suprachiasmatic nucleus (______) • __________that produce certain proteins • ____________levels
SCN Genes melatonin
Stage 2 sleep i. __________sleep is characterized by the presence of: 1) ___________-12-to 14-Hz waves during a burst that lasts at least half a second 2) _______________-a sharp high-amplitude negative wave followed by a smaller, slower positive wave
Stage 2 sleep spindles K-complex
Brain Mechanisms of Wakefulness and Arousal—_______ i. The_____________contains neurons that release ______________to produce widespread excitatory effects throughout the brain ii. Note:_______________produce sleepiness
The Hypothalamus (x2) histamine anti-histamines
__________Diabetes a. In people with Type I diabetes, insulin levels remain constantly __________but blood glucose levels are ____________ b. People eat more food than normal, but excrete the glucose unused and lose weight
Type 1 low high
Medial Areas of the Hypothalamus a. Output from the ventromedial hypothalamus _______________feeding b. ___________to this nucleus leads to _______________and weight gain c. Rats eat normal sized meals but eat more frequently d. Increased stomach motility—stomach empties faster than normal
VHM; inhibits damage overeating
Gene- sex dif a. The_____chromosome includes the______ gene -____________the primitive gonads to develop into ________the sperm-producing organs c. Developing testes then produce _____ -Increase testes growth -Also produce _____(MIH) that causes the Müllerian ducts to degenerate f. ____________the SRY gene and their gonads develop into __________the egg-producing organs
Y SRY causes testes androgens mullerian inhibiting hormone females lack overies
Biological Perspectives on Dreaming a. Biological research on dreaming is complicated by the fact that subjects often cannot ____________remember what was dreamt b. Two biological theories of dreaming include: i. The ___________________hypothesis 1) Suggests that dreams begin with spontaneous activity in the ______which activates _________of the cortex 2) The cortex synthesizes a _____ from the ____ of activation 3) Normal ____ information is sometimes integrated, but usually is not 4) When dreaming, you really can't move; this is also a common dream ii. The ___________________ hypothesis a) Places_______emphasis on the pons, PGO waves, or even REM sleep b) Suggests that dreams are similar to ________, just under unusual circumstances c) Similar to the activation synthesis hypothesis in that dreams begin with arousing stimuli that are generated within the brain d) Stimulation is combined with __________ ____ and information from the ______
accurately activation-synthesis pons many parts story, pattern sensory neurocognitive less thinking recent memories, senses
The ___________ of Constant High Body Temperature i. Mammals have a constant temperature of _____________ ii. Muscle activity benefits from being as warm as possible -- Ready for vigorous activity iv. So why not go ___________ if warmer is better? v. Requires even___________energy. vi. Proteins in the body break their bonds and ____ their useful properties at higher temperatures vii. Reproductive cells require cooler temperatures
advantages 37 C (98F) higher more lose
Brain Mechanisms a. Information from ___________of the body regarding hunger impinge onto the ___________________ b. The arcuate nucleus is a part of the ________________ containing two sets of neurons c. Neurons sensitive to___________signals d. Neurons sensitive to ___________signals The Arcuate Nucleus and _____________ Hypothalamus i. _________________ 1) Neurotransmitter released in the brain 2) Acts on the hypothalamus to increase appetite 3) Triggers stomach contractions ii. ___________also stimulates the satiety neurons in the arcuate nucleus --- Cigarette smoking___________appetite The Arcuate Nucleus i. Input to the _________-sensitive cells of the arcuate nucleus 1) Signals of both_________ and ___________satiety 2) Distention of the intestine triggers neurons to release the neurotransmitter __________ a) Blood glucose stimulates satiety cells in the arcuate nucleus b) Body fat releases ____
all parts arcuate nucleus hypothalamus hunger satiety paraventricular ghrelin (signals stomach contractions) nicotine decreases satiety long-term, short-term CCK leptin
Brain Mechanisms a. Information from ___________of the body regarding hunger impinge onto the ___________________ b. The arcuate nucleus is a part of the ________________ containing two sets of neurons c. Neurons sensitive to___________signals d. Neurons sensitive to ___________signals The Arcuate Nucleus and _____________ Hypothalamus i. _________________ 1) Neurotransmitter released in the brain 2) Acts on the hypothalamus to increase appetite 3) Triggers stomach contractions ii. ___________also stimulates the satiety neurons in the arcuate nucleus --- Cigarette smoking___________appetite The Arcuate Nucleus i. Input to the _________-sensitive cells of the arcuate nucleus 1) Signals of both_________ and ___________satiety 2) Distention of the intestine triggers neurons to release the neurotransmitter __________ a) Blood glucose stimulates satiety cells in the arcuate nucleus b) Body fat releases ____
all parts arcuate nucleus hypothalamus hunger satiety paraventricular ghrelin (signals stomach contractions) nicotine decreases satiety long-term, short-term CCK leptin
Allostastis a. ________refers to the adaptive way in which the body ____________ needs depending on the situation b. Helps the body __________ errors instead of just correcting them
allostasis anticipates avoid
Hormones in Males and Females a. Testes produce more__________than________________ b. Estrogens: hormones_________abundantin ___________ c. Androgens and estrogens are __________hormone Androgens and Estrogens 1) Categories of chemicals, not chemicals themselves ___________________ -Group of primarily male hormones -_____________is the most widely known ___________________ -Most common is ______________ - __________________ a) Prepares the uterus for the implantation of a fertilized ovum b) Promotes the maintenance of pregnancy
androgens estrogens more females steroid androgens testosterone estrogens estradiol progesterone
Paraventricular Hypothalamus a. Output from the ____ goes to the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus i. Part of the hypothalamus that _______ the lateral hypothalamus, an area important for eating ii. Axons from the satiety-sensitive cells of the arcuate nucleus deliver an excitatory message to the paraventricular nucleus iii. Causes release of _________________ b. Melanocortin -chemical important in _______________food intake ii. Deficiencies of this receptor lead to overeating iii. Input from the hunger cells of the arcuate nucleus: 1) Inhibits the ______ Which, in turn, inhibits the ____
arcuate nucleus inhibits melanocortins limiting paraventricular nucleus lateral hypothalamus
Activating Effects of Sex Hormones a. At any time in life, sex hormones exert activating effects to temporarily modify behavior b. _________ can also influence hormone secretion c. ___________________ - Important for reproductive behavior -Stimulates uterine contractions during delivery and mammary glands in releasing milk
behavior oxytocin
Food Selection and Behavior a. Unsubstantiated __________ may influence food selection i. Examples: 1) Sugar intake increases hyperactivity in children 2) Eating turkey increases body supply of tryptophan, which makes you sleepy ii. Adage that fish is brain food is ____ true 1) Eating fish may help improve memory --has: ____brain uses for healing and cognitive functions
beliefs partly Omega 3 fatty acids
What is Charles Bonnie Syndrome
blind but can still hallucinate because hyperactivity of other parts of the brain from little activity in V1 types of hallucinations & where in the brain occur: -geometric: primary visual cortex -visual images: temporal lobe, fusiform gyrus (facial recognition); abnormal activity = hallucinate faces; anterior part teeth & eyes are represented (activated w/ people w/ deformed hallucinations) -Cartoons-----drawing, watching, hallucinating -part of the brain for buildings/ landscapes; face cells... some cells can be very specific (car cells, for example) - info temporal cortex (lower levels; fragments) Temporal lobe efficacy- sense hallucinations w/ feeling in reality
What Men and Women seek in a mate....... a. ________men and women prefer a romantic partner that is healthy, intelligent, honest, and physically attractive b. Women prefer partners who are likely to be ___________________ c. Evolutionary explanation -Choosing a father who is likely to be a good provider aids the woman while she is pregnant or caring for a small child d. _____tend to prefer a ________partner i. Evolutionary explanation: 1) Preference exists because younger women remain fertile longer than older women 2) Men remain fertile well into old age so preference for a young mate for women is not as pronounced
both good providers men young
______________ i. Eating disorder in which people alternate between extreme _______________of overeating ii. Some force ____________after eating iii. Associated with increased release of_______ and alterations of several other hormones and transmitters iv. Resembles __________________ why?____
bulimia nervosa dieting and binges vomiting ghrelin drug addiction why? - like the taste of the food; ghrelin when it makes you hungry gives you rewarding neurotransmitters.. food is rewarding...
What causes obesity, a condition of excessive body fat? i. Biological and psychological factors contribute, including set point, eating habits, stress levels ii. Genetics ?? -Obese ____________increased eating, decreased metabolic rate
causes gene
Endogenous Circadian Rhythms All animals produce endogenous ________rhythms, internal mechanisms that operate on an approximately 24-hour cycle: 1) ___________cycle 2) Frequency of eating and drinking 3) _____________temperature 4) Secretion of ______________ 5) Urination 6) Sensitivity to drugs
circadian sleep body hormones
Interuptions of Consciousness: _________: extended period of unconsciousness characterized by low brain activity that remains fairly steady -Person shows little response to stimuli _________________person alternates between periods of sleep and moderate arousal but no awareness of surrounding -Some autonomic arousal to painful stimulus -No purposeful activity/response to speech ___________conscious state: one stage higher than a vegetative state marked by occasional brief periods of purposeful action and limited speech comprehension _____________: no sign of brain activity and no response to any stimulus
coma vegetative state minimally brain death
Mechanisms of Water Regulation 1) Human mechanisms of water regulation vary depending on circumstances 2) Water can be conserved by: a) Excreting_________________urine b) _________________sweat 3) Most often, water regulation is accomplished by ____ more water than we need and excreting the rest 4) _____________ is a hormone released by the posterior pituitary ---Raises ____________by constricting blood vessels --- Helps to compensate for decreased water volume ---Also known as an antidiuretic hormone __________ ---Enables the _______ to reabsorb water and excrete highly concentrated urine
concentrated decreasing drinking vasopressin blood pressure ADH kidneys
The original function of sleep was probably to ________________ energy Conservation of energy is accomplished via: ___________in body temperature of about 1-2 Celsius degrees in mammals _____________ in muscle activity
conserve decrease decrease
Neurocognitive Hypothesis iii. Because the brain is getting little information from the sense organs, images are generated without ___________ or interference 1) Arousal cannot lead to action as the primary motor cortex and the motor neurons of the spinal cord are _____ 2) Activity in the ______ cortex is suppressed, which _____during dreaming Conditions: iv. Activity is _________________: 1) In the inferior (lower) part of the ______ cortex, an area important for visual-spatial perception -Patients with _____ report problems with binding body sensations with vision and have no dreams 2) In the hypothalamus and ___________, which accounts for the emotional and motivational content of dream —Summary 1) Either internal or external stimulation activates parts of the parietal, ________and temporal cortex 2) Lack of sensory input from ____ creates the ________________ perceptions
constraints suppressed prefrontal impairs working memory high parietal damage amygdala occipital V1 hallucinatory
_________and Sexuality a. social and cultural factors in sexuality? b. ______________: set of requirements, beliefs, symbols and _________regarding sexuality and its expression c. Influenced by culture, religion, ideals, politics and environment
culture sex and culture norms
Sex Differences in the Brain Hypothalamus—Hormone Release a. Parts of the female hypothalamus generate a ______________of hormone release b. The male hypothalamus releases hormones more _________________
cyclic pattern steadily
Sleep Characterized by a moderate ________ in _______activity and ________ response to stimuli Sleep______from the following states: i. __________ ii. vegetative state, iii. _________ iv. conscious state v. brain ________
decrease brain decreased differs coma minimally death
Sleep and the Inhibition of Brain Activity i. Functions of the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA are also important for: 1) ______________the temperature and metabolic rate ______________the
decreasing decreasing
Weight Loss a. _________by itself_______ considered reliably effective - Most people ___________stick to diet for long b. Lifestyle changes including increased exercise essential c. Some ___________are effective in weight loss d. _____________surgery e. Weight-loss is often difficult and specialists rarely agree. f. Successful treatments include change of lifestyle, increased __________ and decreased eating. g. Some appetite-suppressant drugs such as ___________________block reuptake of certain neurotransmitters to produce brain effects similar to that of a completed meal.*NOTE: side effects (__)
dieting, not do not drugs gastric bypass exercise fenfluramine and phentermine liver problems, death
Morning and Evening People? 1) Cycles can ______between people and lead to __________patterns of wakefulness and alertness 2) Change as a function of ________ 3) ________________are morning people 4) ____________are often night people 5) As an adult, it partially depends upon _______________
differ different age young children adolescents genetics
Organizing Effects of Sex Hormones—Estrogens a. Estradiol and other estrogens ________ modify male anatomy --They do modify various internal structures, including the prostate gland c. The ___________of sex hormones generally leads to ________-looking external genitalia d. Females lacking___________during early life do not develop normal sexual behavior
do not absence female-looking estradiol
The Lateral Hypothalamus and Axons i. Many axons containing___________ pass through the_________hypothalamus ii. Axon functions 1) Affect the taste sensation and salivation response to tastes 2) Cause cortical cells to ___ response to taste, smell, or sight of food 3) Increase pituitary gland's hormone secretion that increase insulin secretion 4) Control digestive secretions
dopamine lateral increase
Hunger and Food Animals vary in their _________ strategies i. ___ have large digestive systems adapted to huge, infrequent meal ii. Bears eat constantly iii. Small birds eat only what is needed at the moment --To preserve light ___ for flight ___ eat enough daily to increase body weight 10 percent --- Then lose it at night keeping warm
eating predators weight Chickadees
Controlling Body Temperature i. Poikilothermic (____________): idea that the body temperature matches that of the ______________ 1) Amphibians, reptiles, and most fish 2) The organism lacks the internal, physiological mechanisms of temperature regulation 3) Temperature regulation is accomplished via _______ locations in the environment 4) Although known as "cold-blooded," organism is cold only if environment is cold ii. Homeothermic (_____________): use of ____________physiological mechanisms to maintain an almost ___________body temperature 1) Characteristic of___________ and birds 2) Requires_____________and fuel 3) ______ and ____ decrease temperature 4) Increasing temperature is accomplished via _____________decreasing blood flow to the skin, and fluffing out fur to increase insulation
ectothermic environment choosing endothermic internal constant mammals energy sweating, panting shivering
Females—FSH and LH a. After the__________of a menstrual period: b. Anterior pituitary releases follicle-stimulating hormone_________ c. FSH promotes _______ of follicle in the ovary d. Follicle nurtures the _______and produces ____________ e. Towards the middle of the menstrual cycle, the follicle builds up receptors to FSH f. As a result, the follicle produces increasing amounts of ___________ g. Increased estradiol causes the anterior pituitary to increase release of FSH and _____________________ h. FSH and LH cause the follicle to release an ____________ i. The remnants of the follicle release the hormone _____________ j. Prepares the uterus for implantation of a_____________ovum k. _________ the further release of LH
end FSH growth estradiol Leutinizing Hormone (LH) ovum progesterone fertilized progesterone inhibits
Females—Pregnancy a. If woman is pregnant, ___________and ______________ levels increase gradually throughout pregnancy b. If ________levels of both _______and uterine lining is cast _______(menstruation) c. High levels of estradiol and progesterone produce heightened activity in the _____________receptor --Causes nausea associated with pregnancy
estradiol progesterone not, decline, off serotonin
____________ Factors controlling Hunger/Eating a. Aspects of the food itself b. ____________________ c. Appearance and smell d. Eating habits involving times, places, kinds of food you're used to can affect food ________ --includes cultural differences in eating customs e. Food ______ can trigger eating as well, even when a person does not physically need food --includes sight, smell, past associations f. ____________rules and cultural traditions --Food culture (learning influence)
external flavor choices cues social
LEPTIN "leptos" (slender) a. The body's _____cells produce the peptide ______,which signals the brain to increase or decrease eating b. Possibly by indicating _____________ levels c. Low levels of leptin (low nutrition) _____________ hunger/eating behavior d. High levels ??? High nutrition? Stop eating?______ e. Leptin: the wonder weight loss peptide?? i. _______________ 1) Most people who needed to lose weight were already_________(i.e. high ____ cell content) 2) More likely _________________to leptin ii. High levels could lead to diabetes and other medical problems iii. Conclusion: High levels of leptin ___________necessarily decrease hunger. iv. *Although introduction of leptin to those who
fat leptin nutrition increase nope converse is not true NOT! obese fat not sensitive do not (but low levels DO produce hunger) If someone is unable to produce leptin... they are hungry more often --> obesity (fat mouse is an example of a mouse unable to produce leptin)
Organizing Effects of Sex Hormones—Androgens a. _______rats exposed to __________during sensitive periods become partly ___________in anatomy and behavior - Clitoris grows larger than normal -Sexual behavior becomes masculinized d. If a male rat ___androgen receptors or is castrated, it develops ____________ anatomy and behavior
female testosterone masculinized lacks female-like
Homeostasis a. Various biological processes that keep body variables within a__________range. i. Examples: temperature, levels of water, oxygen, glucose, calcium, protein, fat, and acidity in the body ii. _________a single value that the body works to maintain iii. ____________processes that reduce discrepancies from the set point Much of motivated behavior can be described as negative feedback
fixed set point negative feedback
Other weight loss remedies..... i. ____________surgeryis the removal or sewing off of part of the stomach. ii. Decreased stomach size allows greater distention of the stomach to produce satiety. j. Weight loss aids? i. MANY weight loss aids available ii. What about Sugar Substitutes? -- Fructose? _________________ k. ________/Calorie signaling i. Important in regulation of _________________ ii. ______ -sugar that does not increase insulin or leptin iii. Less _____________predictor of satiety iv. Saccharin? (Swithers and Davidson, 2008) v. Naturally sweetened vs. Saccharin vi. Which group gained more weight?? vii. _________________why?? 1) "lost ability to ________calorie intake and more likely to _________& less ________"
gastric bypass saccharin glucose feeding & satiety fructose accurate saccharin predict overeat active
Genes and Sex Differences a. Hormones do not account for all the biological differences between males and females b. __________on the X and Y chromosomes also produce sex differences c. At least ______genes on the ___chromosome are active in specific brain areas d. At least _____ gene on the X chromosome is active only in the female brain
genes 3 1
Genes of the Circadian Rhythm __________that produce certain proteins a) Two types of genes are responsible for generating the circadian rhythm i) ______: produce proteins called ______ ii) _______: produce proteins called _____ One. PER and TIM proteins_____ the activity of certain kinds of neurons in the SCN that regulate ___________________ Two. _________in the PER gene result in odd circadian rhythms or decreased alertness if deprived of a good night's sleep
genes period, PER Timeless, TIM sleep and waking mutation
Evolutionary Interpretations of Mating Behavior a. Darwin's theory of evolution: i. Individuals whose __________help them survive will produce more children, and the next generation will have more of these genes ii. _______________: genes that make an individual more appealing to the opposite sex will _____________the probability of reproduction -Must be balanced between attractiveness and survival b. Interest in Multiple Mates i. _________are more likely to seek multiple sex partners, especially for short-term encounters ii. Evolutionary explanation -Two methods for success in spreading a man's genes - Loyal to one woman and devoting energies toward helping in child rearing -Mate with many women and hope some can raise babies without help _________can also gain from having multiple sexual partners - Multiple mates increase resources available to her child and herself ______direct evidence suggests that specific ________influence whether people prefer single or multiple mates
genes sexual selection increase men women no genes
Prenatal Hormones i. ______born to women with high___________ levels while pregnant show a slightly elevated preference for typical boys' toys ii. ______ born to women with high_________(found in perfumes, food packaging, etc.) levels while pregnant showed more interest in typical girls' toys iii. Toy preferences are a result of ______ prenatal hormones and child-rearing experiences
girls, testosterone boys, phthalate both
Glucose, Insulin, and Glucagon a. _____________________ i. Main product of digestion ii. Important source of energy for the body iii. Nearly the only fuel used by the brain b. ________and __________regulate the flow of glucose into cells c. Excess glucose enters the ____ and fat cells insulin i. ______________hormone that enables glucose to enter the cell ii. After a meal: 1) Blood glucose levels__________ 2) Insulin levels ____________ 3) Glucose enters cells more slowly 4) Hunger ___________(glucose is not replenished yet) 5) Pancreas releases E. Glucagon a. _______________released by the pancreas when glucose levels fall i. Stimulates the liver to convert some of its stored ___ to ___ b. To replenish low supplies in the blood
glucose insulin, glucagon liver pancreatic fall drop increases hormone glycogen to glucose
Females—The Menstrual Cycle a. In women, the ___________and _________interact with the__________to produce the ______________________ b. The menstrual cycle Periodic variation in hormones and fertility over the course of about ___________
hypothalamus pituitary ovaries menstrual cycle 28 days
Brain Activity in REM Sleep i. During REM sleep: 1) Activity _________in the pons and the limbic system 2) Activity _____________in the primary visual cortex, the motor cortex, and the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex 3) REM sleep is also associated with a distinctive pattern of high-amplitude electrical potentials known as_____waves a) Waves of neural activity are detected first in the pons, then in the lateral geniculate of the hypothalamus, and then the occipital cortex b) REM _________ results in a high density of PGO waves during uninterrupted sleep 4) Cells in the pons send messages to the spinal cord, which _______ motor neurons that control the body's large muscles a) Prevents motor movement during REM sleep 5) REM is also regulated by __________and _____________________ a) Drugs that stimulate acetylcholine receptors quickly move people to ____ b) ________________interrupts REM
increases decreases PGO (Pons, geniculate, and occipital lobe) deprivation inhibits serotonin acetylcholine REM serotonin
Brain Mechanisms of Wakefulness and Arousal—GABA and Acetylcholine i. Cells of the basal forebrain release the __________ neurotransmitter GABA ii. Inhibition provided by GABA is __________ for sleep iii. Other axons from the basal forebrain release acetylcholine, which is excitatory and increases arousal can consume ____ to increase GABA
inhibitory essential alcohol
___________is a sleep disorder associated with inadequate sleep. i. Caused by a number of factors including noise, ____________pain medication ii. Can also be the result of disorders such as epilepsy, Parkinson's disease, depression, anxiety or other psychiatric conditions. iii. Dependence on ___________and shifts in the circadian rhythms can also result in insomnia.
insomnia stress sleeping pills
Females—Birth Control Pills a. Birth control pills prevent pregnancy by __________ with the usual feedback cycle between the ovaries and pituitary b. The combination-pill contains estrogen and progesterone c. _________the surge of FSH and LH that would _________an ovum d. Thickens the mucus of the cervix e. More____________forsperm to reach the egg _____________egg from implanting in uterus
interfering prevents release difficult prevents
Why would caffeine make you sleepy?
it makes you not have enough adenosine receptors -it is a duretic.. kidneys and adrenal organs are responding to a lack of water... caffeine takes away water from cells
Differences in _______________ i. Women-'jealous' about _________ties, flirting ii. Men-'jealous' about __________ ties; other men staring at their 'woman' iii. Men are more jealous at indications of a wife's infidelity iv. Evolutionary explanation: -Man needs to be sure that the children he supports are his own - Unfaithful wives threaten this certainty Cultural attitudes towards infidelity vary --No known culture exists where infidelity is more acceptable for women
jealousy emotional physical
Sleep also plays an important role in enhancing__________and strengthening ________________ Performance on a newly learned task is often better the next day if ________sleep is achieved during the night __________brain activity occurs in the area of the brain activated by a_______ learned task while one is ____________ Patterns of activity in the___________ during learning were similar to those shown during sleep -Suggests that the brain replays its daily experiences during sleep -The brain ____________some synapses and weakens others during sleep Sleep spindles increase in number after new learning: correlated with nonverbal IQ
learning memory adequate increased newly asleep hippocampus strengthens
Retino-Hypothalamic Path _______resets the SCN via a small branch of the optic nerve called the _______________________path Travels ______ from the _____to the SCN The retinohypothalamic path comes from a special population of________cells that have their own photopigment called _______________ The cells respond ______to light and ________require any input from the rods or cones Why blind people still have circadian rhythms.. This pathway has its own photoreceptors even though they can't see light
light retino-hypothalamic directly retina ganglion melanopsin directly do not
Periodic _____________disorder is the repeated ____*movement of the legs and arms while sleeping. i. Legs kick once every 20 to 30 seconds for periods of minutes to hours. 1) Usually occurs during NREM sleep. 2) * __________restless leg syndrome
limb movement involuntary NOT
What is the issue with the Biggest Loser
losing a lot of weight too fast -losing a key hormone -regained weight -slower metabolism -constantly battle hunger/cravings -started w/ normal levels of leptin -by finale--- almost no leptin (which tells you about nutrition and when you are full) ---so if never full.. keep eating.. =feel hungry all the time
Falling in ________ a. ____________________across cultures i. Universally desired characteristics: 1) ______________________ 2) ______________________ 3) ______________________ 4) ______________________ 5) ______________________
love attractiveness kind & understanding intelligent exciting personality good health religious
The Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) a) The ______control center of the circadian rhythms of sleep and temperature i) Located above the optic chiasm and part of the ___________________ b) ________to the SCN results in less consistent body rhythms that are___longer synchronized to environmental patterns of light and dark c) Generates circadian rhythms in a __________ controlled, ________manner i) _______extracted from the SCN and raised in tissue culture _______to produce action potentials in a _________pattern ii) Various cells communicate with each other to sharpen the circadian rhythm
main hypothalamus damage no genetically unlearned single cell continues rhythmic
Treatment for sleep disorders, jet lag, insomnia etc... (cont'd) i. OTC: ____________ insomnia -Tylenol PM, Advil PM, .....diphenhydramine---Like _______________causes drowsiness - may Not get______________sleep.....
mild anti-histamine good
Genetics and Body Weight a. Thin parents tend to have thin children and heavy parents tend to have heavy children b. People with a___________gene for the receptors for ______ overeat: melanocortin responsible for satiety c. ______________syndrome: genetic condition marked by intellectual disability, short stature, and obesity: high blood levels of ____
mutated melanocortin Prader-Willi ghrelin (signals hunger)
_______________is a sleep disorder characterized by frequent periods of sleepiness. i. Four main symptoms include: 1) Gradual or ___________attack of sleepiness. 2) Occasional ____ -muscle weakness triggered by strong emotions. 3) Sleep paralysis-inability to move while asleep or waking up. 4) ____________hallucinations-dreamlike experiences the person has difficulty distinguishing from reality. ii. Seems to run in families although no gene has been identified. iii. Caused by lack of _____ cells that produce and release __________________
narcolepsy sudden cataplexy hypnagogic hypothalamic orexin
What Determines a Person's Weight? a. Set point: _______________body weight b. Weight loss___________a person's set point is often regained c. Number of _________, d. _________ rate may contribute to set point e. Can be _____________
natural below fat cells metabolic flexible
Sleep disorders ___________are experiences of intense anxiety from which a person awakens screaming in terror -Usually occurs in NREM sleep. ii. ____________occurs during both REM and NREM sleep. "_____________"runs in families, mostly occurs in young children, and occurs mostly in stage 3 or 4 sleep.
night terrors sleep-talking sleep-walking
What is the neurotransmitter released by the locus coeruleus and its effect on behavior?
norepinephrine increases information storage during wakefulness; suppresses REM sleep
Temperature Regulation a. Temperature regulation is vital to the __________functioning of many behavioral processes b. Maintaining temperature requires_________ as much energy as all other activities combined c. ___________________ d. Energy used to maintain a ________body temperature while at rest
normal twice basal metabolism constant
Shift work? 1) Sleep duration depends on when one goes to sleep 2) Working at night does ______ reliably change the circadian rhythm 3) Even after long periods of working at night, people_____ still feel groggy, sleep ______during the day, and body temperature peaks while sleeping instead of while working 4) People adjust best to night work if they sleep in a ________room during the day and work under very ______________at night
not can poorly very dark bright lights
________________ = excessive __________(based on height) ii. considered a __________ in the United States iii. STATISTICS: More than 78 million adults (or 35.7%) and more than 12.5 million children (or 16.9%) in the U.S. are classified as obese. Obesity is officially defined as having body fat above _____for women,____for men, ______for girls and 25% for boys. Obesity can also be a function of _________interacting with changes in the environment. 1) Example: Diet changes of Native American Pimas of Arizona and Mexico. Obesity has become common in the United States and has increased sharply since the 1970's. --Attributed to life-style changes, increased fast-food restaurants, increased portion sizes, and high use of fructose in foods.
obesity body fat disease 32% 25% 30% genes
Short-and Long-Term Regulation of Feeding a. ________________factors i. The desire to taste and chew are also motivating factors in hunger and satiety ii. Chewing gum from 4500 B.C. discovered b. ________________experiments i. Everything an animal eats leaks out of a tube connected to the stomach or esophagus ii. Do not reliably produce ___
oral sham feeding satiety
what is the neurotransmitter released by the hypothalamus that maintains wakefulness
orexin
I. _____________ a. Additional pathway from paraventricular nucleus - Cells in the lateral hypothalamus release orexin b. Orexin ______________animals' persistence in ______________food i. Influences response to incentives and reinforcement in general J. The___________Hypothalamus a. Feeding-related functions of the lateral hypothalamus b. Controls insulin secretion c. Alters taste responsiveness d. ____________of the lateral hypothalamus ______________ the drive to eat i. Damage to this area causes _____ to food
orexin increases seeking lateral stimulation increases aversion
Brain Mechanisms of Wakefulness and Arousal—Orexin i. The lateral and posterior nuclei of the hypothalamus releases ____________ ii. Orexin is a _________neurotransmitter and is sometimes also called__________________ iii. Needed to ______________rather than wake up iv. Orexin is released by cells into the basal forebrain to stimulate neurons responsible for wakefulness and arousal v. the basal forebrain is an area just anterior and dorsal to the hypothalamus
orexin peptide hypocretin stay awake
________Behavior—Hormonal Changes a. _________changes prepare a female mammal to provide ___________ b. And to prepare her to care for young c. ________________ -- Necessary for milk production --Enables mother to eat more than usual -- Responsible for some maternal behavior
parental hormonal, milk prolactin
Brain Mechanisms of Wakefulness and Arousal—The ____ i. The ________________a part of the reticular formation in the midbrain, contributes to cortical arousal ii. Axons extend to the hypothalamus, thalamus, and basal forebrain, which release acetylcholine, glutamate, or dopamine iii. Produce ___________effects to widespread areas of the cortex iv. Stimulation of the pontomesencephalon ________sleeping individuals and increases alertness in those already awake
ponto-mesencephalon (x2) excitatory awakens
Brain Mechanism (Temperature) i. Body temperature regulation is predominantly dependent upon areas in the _________________ ii. POA/AH receives input from temperature receptors throughout the body -Heating the POA/AH leads to ___ or ___; _____ leads to shivering --Receives input from the_________system
preoptic area/anterior hypothalamus (POA/AH) panting, sweating; cooling immune
Brain Mechanisms- The Immune System i. Immune system delivers _____ and __________________ 1) Causes shivering, increased metabolism, and fever ii. POA/AH is not the only brain area involved in temperature regulation 1) Primary area for controlling sweating or shivering i. ____________ i. Reflects an increased body temperature set point, directed by the ____________ j. Benefits: i. Certain bacteria grow________vigorously ii. Immune system works_____vigorously k. Fever of above 39˚C (103˚F) does the body more _______than good l. Fevers above ____ (109˚F) are __________________
prostaglandins histamines fever hypothalamus less more harm 41F life threatening
Rhythms of Sleeping/Waking 1) The___________of the circadian rhythm is to keep our internal workings ___________with the outside world. 2) _____________ rhythmis a rhythm that occurs when no stimuli resets it. 3) A ___________is a german term used to describe any stimulus that resets the circadian rhythms. a) _______________is the primary one. b) Exercise, noise, meals, and temperature are other zeitgebers. c) Depression, irritability, and impaired job performance are effects of using something ____________sunlight as a zeitgeber
purpose in phase free-running zeitgeber light other than
Parental Behavior—Hormones and the Quality of Care a. Hormones play initial role in_____________of maternal care b. Experience replaces hormonal influences as hormone levels decline c. Correlation exists between father's hormones and level of interaction with their child d. Fathers with_________testosterone and___________prolactin levels spent most time playing with and caring for child
quality lower, higher
REM sleep i. ______________sleep(REM) are periods characterized by rapid eye movements during sleep. ii. Also know as__________sleep: why? iii. is ______ sleep in some ways, but ____sleep in other ways. iv. EEG waves are irregular, low-voltage and fast. v. Postural muscles of the body are more __________than other stages.
rapid eye movement paradoxical deep, light relaxed
Organizing Effects of Sex Hormones a. Occur at__________ periods of development (_________ birth and at _______ in humans) b. Determine whether the brain and body will develop male or female characteristics c. Activating effects of sex hormones -Occur at any time of life and temporarily activate a particular response -Examples: pregnancy, menstruation e. Distinction between the activating and organizing effects of hormone is not absolute f. Hormones early in life can exert __________effect During puberty, hormones can also induce _____________structural changes
sensitive before, puberty temporary long-lasting
what is the neurotransmitter released by dorsal raphe and pons and its effect on behavior?
serotonin interrupts REM sleep
Introduction to Sex Hormones a. Rising levels of ____________during puberty activate interest in sexual behavior b. Sexual motivation can be regulated by _______________: sex hormones c. Sexual reproduction between two individuals increases variation in the gene pool Sex and Hormones a. ________sexual differentiation begins with the _________________ b. Female mammal has two X chromosomes and a male has an X and a Y c. During an early stage of prenatal development, both male and female have a set of______________ and a set of ____________, as well as ____________gonads
sex hormones physiology prenatal chromosomes mullerian ducts wolfian ducts undifferentiated
Weight Loss remedies i. _________**has replaced fenfluramine and decreases _________and binge eating by blocking reuptake of serotonin and norepinephrine ii. **NOTE: _____________ available.....cardiovascular risk! iii. _________is drug that prevents the intestines from absorbing up to 30% of _________ in the diet. Non-prescription orlistat is ___________
sibutramine (meridia) meal size no longer orlistat (xenical) fat alli; blocks the enzyme that breaks down fat; makes you have oily poop
Sleep as a Local Phenomenon i. Sleep can be localized within the brain 1) ______________awake in one part of the brain and asleep in others 2) ______________dreaming but aware of being asleep and dreaming 3) The pons remaining in _______while other brain areas wake up: causes the___________ to move 4) may be the cause of _____/playing online games could be correlated to more lucid dreams
sleepwalkers lucid dreaming REM inability sleep paralysis
Stage 3 and 4 sleep i. Stage 3 and stage 4 together constitute ____________(SWS)and is characterized by: ii. EEG recording of slow, large amplitude wave. iii. __________ of heart rate, breathing rate, and brain activity. Highly synchronized neuronal activity.
slow wave sleep slowing
The Intestines (digestion) i. Enzymes in the _____________digest proteins, fats, and carbohydrates -- Digested food absorbs into the bloodstream ii. The large intestine _______________and minerals --Lubricates the remaining materials to pass as ___
small intestine absorbs feces
Alpha Waves and Stage 1 sleep i. Alpha waves are present when one begins a state of relaxation. ii. ___________sleep is when sleep has just begun. iii. the EEG is dominated by irregular, jagged, low voltage waves. iv. brain activity begins to _____________
stage 1 decline
Hunger REVIEW: What happens? a. STIMULATE: i. VMH-______eating ii. LH-_______ eating b. DESTROY i. VMH-_________ eating ii. LH-___________eating
stop continue continue stop
Treatment for sleep disorders, jet lag, insomnia etc... i. Identify___________factors ii. Utilize ____________of circadian rhythms iii. Have a __________________ iv. Jet lag : stay in the ____________ v. Don't_______________ vi. __________________ vii. Avoid ___________________at night viii. Avoid/Turn _____ any source of ___________
stress knowledge routine sun sleep until it is the right time to sleep (nighttime) exercise caffeine/nicotine off, "night lights"
Eating Disorders-weight gain a. Availability of_____________foods makes animals (and people) obese, and they find other rewards less rewarding b. Psychological distress does________cause weight gain c. A high-fat diet before birth can result in the offspring being born with a larger than average _____
tasty, high calorie NOT lateral hypothalamus
Sexual Differentiation a. Depends mostly on the level of ____________ during a sensitive period b. The human sensitive period for genital formation occurs during the _________ of pregnancy c. At first, the external genitals of males and females look the ___________
testosterone 1st trimester same
Males—Sexual Arousal a. _____________increases touch sensitivity in the penis b. Sex hormones bind to receptors in the hypothalamus, including the ventromedial nucleus, the medial preoptic area (_____), and anterior hypothalamus c. Testosterone triggers the release of _______________by the MPOA and other areas -hence can trigger ____ Effects of Neurotransmitters: i. _____________ stimulation of D1and D5receptors is associated with sexual arousal ii. Facilitates erection of the penis and sexually receptive postures in females _________________ iii. Higher concentrations of dopamine stimulate D2receptors and lead to orgasm iv. Neurotransmitter ____________ decreases sexual activity by blocking dopamine release Testosterone Levels: i. Testosterone levels correlate ___________with sexual arousal and the drive to seek sexual partners ii. _______ men or those in a committed relationship generally have______testosterone levels --. High testosterone levels result in greater than average desire to seek additional sexual partners, even if in a committed relationship Sexual Interest: i. Research on testosterone levels and sexual interest show direct correlation ii. Castration generally ___________ sexual interest and activity iii. Low testosterone is _______ the typical reason for impotence iv. Usual cause is impaired blood circulation v. Viagra® increases ______________which increases _____________to the penis and brain.
testosterone MPA dopamine sexual activity dopamine Lordosis in rats serotonin positively married, lower decreases not Nitric Oxide (NO) blood flow
Variations in Sexual Behavior a. People _________in frequency of sexual behavior, preferred types of sexual activity, and sexual orientation b. Evolutionary explanations are _________________ in explaining mating behavior
vary controversial
Parental Behavior—Hormonal Changes a. ____________________ - Hormone synthesized by the hypothalamus -Secreted by the posterior _____ gland - Associated with social behavior in many species -Facilitates______ recognition Mice (and humans) can adopt normal maternal behavior without the hormonal changes of going through pregnancy
vasopressin
REM behavior disorder is associated with _______________movement during REM sleep. i. Usually associated with __________dreams. ii. Occurs mostly in the elderly and in older men with brain diseases such as Parkinson's. iii. Associated with damage to the ____ (inhibit the spinal neurons that control large muscle movements)
vigorous acting out pons
Brain Mechanisms of Wakefulness and Arousal—The Reticular Formation i. Various brain mechanisms are associated with _____________and ___________ ii. The ______________is a part of the midbrain that extends from the medulla to the forebrain and is responsible for arousal
wakefulness, arousal reticular formation
Wolffian and Müllerian Ducts a. ________ducts are the precursors to other __________reproductive organs b. Develop into the vas deferens and seminal vesicles __________ducts are precursors to the __________oviducts, uterus, and upper vagina
wolffian male mullerian female
