SOCI 101 Exam 1

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superego

consists of the conscience and the ego-ideal. develops as a result of parental guidance, particularly from rewards and punishment. inhibits urges of id and encourages the ego to find morally acceptable forms of behavior

role strain

contradictory expectations within one role that a person plays

cultural leveling

cultures that were once unique and distinct become increasingly similar

ego

deals with the real world. operates on the basis of reason and helps to mediate and integrate the demands of both the id and superego

labeling theory

deviance is not inherent in any act, belief, or condition. instead, it is determined by the social context

cultural diffusion

different groups share their material and nonmaterial culture with each other

social sciences

disciplines that examine the natural or physical world

achieved status

earned through our own efforts or has been acquired in some other way

ethnocentrism

evaluation of other cultures according to preconceptions originating in the standards and customs of one's own culture

positivism

identify laws that describe the behavior of a reality

Thomas theorem

if people define situations as real, they are real in their consequences

objectivity

impartiality

coprescence

individuals are in one another's face-to-face physical company

grounded theory

inductive method of generating theory from data by creating categories in which to place data and then looking for relationships among categories

deviance avowal

initiating the labeling process against oneself or provoking others to do so

sanctions

means of enforcing norms -positive: approval -negative: disapproval

compliance

mildest form. going along with something because you expect to gain rewards or avoid punishment. when people comply, they don't actually change their own ideas or beliefs

market research

most common of all nonacademic uses of sociological research. the action or activity of gathering information about consumers' needs and preferences.

stereotype threat

negative stereotypes lead to negative performance outcomes

rebellion

new goals and new means

ideal culture

norms and values that members of a society believe should be observed in principle

positive deviance

norms are broken in the name of good

mores

norms that carry a greater moral significance and are more closely related to the core values of a cultural group. everyone is expected to conform

practical knowledge

not necessarily coherent, clear, or as consistent as it could be

advantages of ethnography

-tells richly detailed stories -challenges notions about groups people thought they knew about -helps reshape stereotypes -has developed methodological innovation of the last half-century

self-fulfilling prophecy

Merton concept that stated if men define situations as real, they are real in their consequences

deviance

a behavior, trait, or belief that departs from a norm and generates a negative reaction in a particular group

sociological group

a collection of at least two people who not only share some attributes but also identify with one another and have ongoing social relations

social construction

a concept or practice is created and maintained by participants who collectively agree that it exists

subculture

a culture within a culture

secondary deviance

a deviant identity or career

society

a group of people who shape their lives in aggregated and patterned ways that distinguish their group from others

counterculture

a group within a society that openly rejects or actively opposes society's values and norms

paradigm shift

a new model for understanding self and society

culture shock

a sense of disorientation that occurs when entering a radically new social or cultural environment

paradigm

a set of assumptions, theories, and perspectives that makes up a way of understanding social reality

role conflict

a situation in which two or more roles have contradictory expectations

theories

abstract propositions about how things are as well as how they should be

conformity

accept cultural goals, accept institutionalized means

ritualism

accept cultural goals, reject institutionalized means

deterrence

an approach to punishment that relies on the threat of harsh penalties to discourage people from committing crimes

total institution

an institution in which one is totally immersed and that controls all the basics of day-to-day life. complete resocialization occurs

group

any collection of two or more people who have something in common

material culture

any physical object to which we give social meaning

stigma

any physical or social attribute that devalues a person or group's identity and that may exclude those who are devalued from normal social interaction

beginner's mind

approaching the world without preconceptions in order to see things in a new way

social loafing

as more individuals are added to a task, each one takes it a little easier

coercive power

backed by the threat of force

id

biological drives, source of instinctive, psychic energy. main goal is to achieve pleasure and to avoid pain in all situations

ascribed status

born with and unlikely to change

nature vs. nurture debate

ongoing discussion of the respective roles of genetics and socialization in determining individual behaviors and traits

folkways

ordinary conventions of everyday life about what is acceptable or proper are not always strictly enforced

intervening variable

other variable that could explain the relationship between the two variables being observed

self

our experience of a distinct, real, personal identity that is separate and different from all other people

looking glass self

our reflection of how we think we appear to others

master status

overrides all other identities

modernism

paradigm that places trust in the power of science and technology to create progress, solve problems, and improve life

symbolic interactionism

paradigm that sees interaction and meaning as central to society and assumes that meanings are not inherent but are created through interaction

aggregates

people who happen to find themselves together in a particular physical location

category

people who share one or more attributes but who lack a sense of common identity or belonging

status

position in a social hierarchy that comes with a set of expectations

stereotype promise

positive stereotypes lead to positive performance outcomes

saturated self

postmodern idea that the self is now developed by multiple influences chosen from a wide range of media sources

sapir-whorf hypothesis

principle of linguistic relativity. language structures thought

Groupthink

process by which highly cohesive groups demand absolute conformity and punish those who threaten to undermine the consensus

applied research

puts into action what is learned

role-taking emotions

require that we are able to see things from someone else's point of view

qualitative research

research with nonnumerical data such as texts, written field notes, interview transcripts, videos, or photographs

quantitative research

research with numerical data

inductive approach

researcher gathers data before formulating a theory

covert research

researcher is not open about sociological intentions

overt research

researcher is open about sociological intentions

triad

slightly more stable because of addition of a third person

dyad

smallest possible social group, consisting of only two members

dramaturgy

social life is analyzed in terms of its similarities to theatrical performance

agents of socialization

socializing forces that provide structured situations in which socialization takes place

feeling rules

socially constructed norms regarding appropriate feelings and displays of emotion

agency

the ability for the individual to act freely and independently

power

the ability to control the actions of others

spurious correlation

the appearance of causation produced by an intervening variable

hawthorne effect

the desired effect is the result of the research itself, not the independent variable

culture

the entire way of life of a group of people

impression management

the idea that we work at controlling the impressions others have on us

cultural imperialism

the imposition of one's cultural beliefs and practices on another culture through media and consumer products rather than by military force

manifest functions

the obvious, intended functions of a social structure for the social system

real culture

the patterns of behavior that actually exist

group dyamics

the patterns of interaction between groups and individuals

tertiary deviance

the person labeled deviant rejects the notion of deviance entirely and attempts to redefine their "deviant" attributes or behavior as normal

socialization

the process of learning and internalizing the values, beliefs, and norms of our social group, by which we become functioning members of a society

reflexivity

the researcher's presence may affect the interactions and relationships in the group they are observing

basic research

the search for knowledge without an agenda or practical goal in mind

Mead's Mind, Self, and Society

the self is something which has a development; it is not initially there, at birth, but arises in the process of social experience

group cohesion

the sense of solidarity or team spirit that members feel toward their group

front

the setting that helps establish a particular meaning

region

the specific social setting, which provides more elements that help establish boundaries of the interactional context

the scientific method

the standard procedure for acquiring and verifying empirical knowledge

sociology

the systematic or scientific study of human society and social behavior, from large-scale institutions and mass culture to small groups and individual interactions

primary deviance

the thing that gets someone labeled as deviant in the first place

crime

the violation of a norm that has been codified into law, for which you could be arrested and imprisoned

reactivity

the ways people and events respond to being studied

social network

the web of direct and indirect ties connecting an individual to other people who may also affect the individual

expressions of behavior

tools we use to project our definition of the situation to others

taboos

type of mores that are the most powerful of all norms. extremely serious

bureaucracy

type of secondary group designed to perform tasks efficiently, characterized by specialization, technical competence, hierarchy, written rules, impersonality, and formal written communication

existing sources

unobtrusive measures because they don't require the researcher to intrude upon or disturb the people in a social context or setting that they are studying in

differential association theory

we learn to be deviant through our interactions with others who break the rules

reference group

when a group provides standards by which a person evaluates his own personal attributes

social influence

when members are influenced by their group members

backstage

where we prepare or rehearse role and perform for an audience of others

crowd

temporary gathering of people in a public place

deviance conflict theory

-deviance is caused by the weakening of social bonds -inequalities are present in our definitions of deviance -rules are applied unequally -unmooring of a social construction leads to deviant behavior -four bonds prevent people from engaging in deviance (attachment, commitment, involvement, belief)

disadvantages of ethnography

-lacks replicability -does not allow for representativeness (larger group) -personal bias

conflict theory

-macro-level approach -emphasis on social inequality as the basic characteristic of society -Marxism believed that problems during Industrialization were a result of capitalism. Argued that only way to change the status quo is for revolution of the oppressed -conflict and tension are basic facts of social life -suggests that people have disagreements over goals and values -people are involved in struggles over resources and power -materialistic view of society

ethnography/participant observation

-one of the most commonly used research methods in the social sciences -qualitative method that allows for the study of a wide variety of people and places -fieldwork (occurs in naturally occurring social environments) -researchers actively insert themselves into the social setting

stages of self development

-preparatory stage: children imitate or mimic others around them without fully understanding the meaning of their behaviors -play stage: pretend to be something -game stage: self-awareness increases through games

structural functionalism

a paradigm based on the assumption that society is a unified whole that functions because of the contributions of its separate structures. -Emile Durkheim. -macro-level approach -society is conceived as a stable, ordered system made up of interrelated parts or structures -each structure has a function that contributes to the continued stability of the equilibrium of the unified whole -any disorganization or dysfunction leads to change and a new equilibrium -attempts to provide a universal social theory -static model of society

postmodernism

a paradigm that suggests that social reality is diverse, pluralistic, and constantly in flux

role exit

a person leaves behind a role they once occupied

pragmatism

a perspective that assumes organisms make practical adaptations to their environments; humans do this through cognition, interpretation, and interaction

multiculturalism

a policy that involves honoring the diverse, racial, ethnic, national, and linguistic backgrounds of various individuals and groups

the sociological imagination

a quality of mind that allows us to understand the relationship between our individual circumstances and larger social forces

experiment advantages and disadvantages

advantages: -way to manipulate and control the social environment they seek to understand -best for establishing causality -can theoretically be repeated disadvantages: -applicable only to certain types of research that can be constructed measured in a control setting -not good at describing more complex processes and interactions

open-ended questions

allow for variety of responses

midrange theory

an approach that integrates empiricism and grand theory

feral children

children who have lived in isolation from a young age

culture wars

clashes with mainstream society over the values and norms that should be upheld

passing

concealing stigmatizing information

expressive leadership

concerned with maintaining harmony within a group

conversation analysis

how we create meaning in naturally occurring conversations

interviews

face-to-face, information-seeking conversations that gather qualitative data from research subjects advantages: -respondents can speak their own words -help researcher dispel certain preconceptions and discover issues that might have otherwise been overlooked disadvantages: -respondents are not always forthcoming or truthful -not much representativeness

autoethnography

feelings and emotions of the researcher become a focal point of the study

rehabilitation

form of punishment that attempts to reform criminals as part of their penalty

out-group

group that member feels a certain distinctness from or even hostility toward

in-group

group that member identifies and feels loyalty toward

primary groups

groups in which we are intimately associated with the other members

social theories

guiding principles or abstract models that attempt to explain and predict the social world

stereotyping

judging others based on preconceived generalizations about groups or categories of people

secondary groups

larger and less intimate groups

close-ended questions

limit on response

embodied status

located in our physical selves

rationalization

logical procedures are the focus, rules and regulations are paramount, and an individual's unique personal qualities are unimportant

social network analysis

looking at networks of people and who people refer to when asked certain questions regarding those in their lives advantages: -can trace the route of just about anything -contributes to the production of large data sets disadvantages: -fundamentally quantitative, which glosses over important details and diversity -big data is expensive to collect and analyze -large social network

emotion work

maintaining a bright, perky, happy demeanor in-flight, no matter what they actually felt

surveys

questionnaires that are administered to a sample of respondents selected from a target population advantages: -one of the best methods for gathering original data on a population that is too large to be studied by other means -relatively quick and economical -can provide a vast amount of data -strong reliability -less concern for interviewer or observer bias disadvantages: -lacks qualitative data -weak validity because not all respondents are honest in self-reports -problems with sampling process, especially with self-selection/volunteer -might make a claim or support a point of view rather than used for pure scientific discovery

nonmaterial/symbolic culture

reflects the ideas and beliefs of a group of people. includes gestures, signs, language

innovation

reject cultural goals, accept institutionalized means

retreatism

reject cultural goals, reject institutionalized means

in-group orientation

rejecting the standards that mark the group as deviant and may even actively propose new standards in which their special identities are well within the normal range

content analysis

researchers look for recurrent themes or count the number of times that specific variables, such as particular words or visual elements, appear in a text, image, or media message, then analyze the variables and relationships among them advantages: -researchers can work with information they couldn't obtain on their own -learn about many social worlds in different time periods -use same data to replicate projects that have been conducted before disadvantages: -researchers seek answers to questions that weren't originally asked -content analysis does not illuminate how messages are interpreted

norms

rules and guidelines regarding what kinds of behaviors are acceptable. develop directly out of a culture's value system

cultural relativism

seeing each culture as different yet on its own

comparative historical research

seeks to understand relationships between elements of society in various regions and time periods

role

set of behaviors expected from a particular status position

values

set of shared beliefs that a group of people considers to be worthwhile or desirable in life

structural strain theory

some deviance is inevitable in society, but an individual's position in the social structure will affect their experience of deviance and conformity

identification

stronger form. induced by a person's desire to establish or maintain a relationship with a person or group

internalization

strongest form. when individuals adopt the beliefs of a leader or group as their own

ethnomethodology

study of "folk methods" and background knowledge that sustain a shared sense of reality in everyday interactions

influential power

supported by persuasion

sociological perspective

taking a sociological approach or thinking sociologically

instrumental leadership

task or goal-oriented

authority

the legitimate right to wield power

latent functions

the less obvious, perhaps unintended functions

microsociology

the level of analysis that studies face-to-face and small-group interactions in order to understand how they affect the larger patterns and structures of society

macrosociology

the level of analysis that studies large-scale social structures in order to determine how they affect the lives of groups and individuals

social identity theory

the need for individuals to feel a sense of belonging

incapacitation

the notion that criminals should be confined to even executed to protect society from further injury

retribution

the notion that society has the right to "get even"


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