SOCI 101 Exam 1
superego
consists of the conscience and the ego-ideal. develops as a result of parental guidance, particularly from rewards and punishment. inhibits urges of id and encourages the ego to find morally acceptable forms of behavior
role strain
contradictory expectations within one role that a person plays
cultural leveling
cultures that were once unique and distinct become increasingly similar
ego
deals with the real world. operates on the basis of reason and helps to mediate and integrate the demands of both the id and superego
labeling theory
deviance is not inherent in any act, belief, or condition. instead, it is determined by the social context
cultural diffusion
different groups share their material and nonmaterial culture with each other
social sciences
disciplines that examine the natural or physical world
achieved status
earned through our own efforts or has been acquired in some other way
ethnocentrism
evaluation of other cultures according to preconceptions originating in the standards and customs of one's own culture
positivism
identify laws that describe the behavior of a reality
Thomas theorem
if people define situations as real, they are real in their consequences
objectivity
impartiality
coprescence
individuals are in one another's face-to-face physical company
grounded theory
inductive method of generating theory from data by creating categories in which to place data and then looking for relationships among categories
deviance avowal
initiating the labeling process against oneself or provoking others to do so
sanctions
means of enforcing norms -positive: approval -negative: disapproval
compliance
mildest form. going along with something because you expect to gain rewards or avoid punishment. when people comply, they don't actually change their own ideas or beliefs
market research
most common of all nonacademic uses of sociological research. the action or activity of gathering information about consumers' needs and preferences.
stereotype threat
negative stereotypes lead to negative performance outcomes
rebellion
new goals and new means
ideal culture
norms and values that members of a society believe should be observed in principle
positive deviance
norms are broken in the name of good
mores
norms that carry a greater moral significance and are more closely related to the core values of a cultural group. everyone is expected to conform
practical knowledge
not necessarily coherent, clear, or as consistent as it could be
advantages of ethnography
-tells richly detailed stories -challenges notions about groups people thought they knew about -helps reshape stereotypes -has developed methodological innovation of the last half-century
self-fulfilling prophecy
Merton concept that stated if men define situations as real, they are real in their consequences
deviance
a behavior, trait, or belief that departs from a norm and generates a negative reaction in a particular group
sociological group
a collection of at least two people who not only share some attributes but also identify with one another and have ongoing social relations
social construction
a concept or practice is created and maintained by participants who collectively agree that it exists
subculture
a culture within a culture
secondary deviance
a deviant identity or career
society
a group of people who shape their lives in aggregated and patterned ways that distinguish their group from others
counterculture
a group within a society that openly rejects or actively opposes society's values and norms
paradigm shift
a new model for understanding self and society
culture shock
a sense of disorientation that occurs when entering a radically new social or cultural environment
paradigm
a set of assumptions, theories, and perspectives that makes up a way of understanding social reality
role conflict
a situation in which two or more roles have contradictory expectations
theories
abstract propositions about how things are as well as how they should be
conformity
accept cultural goals, accept institutionalized means
ritualism
accept cultural goals, reject institutionalized means
deterrence
an approach to punishment that relies on the threat of harsh penalties to discourage people from committing crimes
total institution
an institution in which one is totally immersed and that controls all the basics of day-to-day life. complete resocialization occurs
group
any collection of two or more people who have something in common
material culture
any physical object to which we give social meaning
stigma
any physical or social attribute that devalues a person or group's identity and that may exclude those who are devalued from normal social interaction
beginner's mind
approaching the world without preconceptions in order to see things in a new way
social loafing
as more individuals are added to a task, each one takes it a little easier
coercive power
backed by the threat of force
id
biological drives, source of instinctive, psychic energy. main goal is to achieve pleasure and to avoid pain in all situations
ascribed status
born with and unlikely to change
nature vs. nurture debate
ongoing discussion of the respective roles of genetics and socialization in determining individual behaviors and traits
folkways
ordinary conventions of everyday life about what is acceptable or proper are not always strictly enforced
intervening variable
other variable that could explain the relationship between the two variables being observed
self
our experience of a distinct, real, personal identity that is separate and different from all other people
looking glass self
our reflection of how we think we appear to others
master status
overrides all other identities
modernism
paradigm that places trust in the power of science and technology to create progress, solve problems, and improve life
symbolic interactionism
paradigm that sees interaction and meaning as central to society and assumes that meanings are not inherent but are created through interaction
aggregates
people who happen to find themselves together in a particular physical location
category
people who share one or more attributes but who lack a sense of common identity or belonging
status
position in a social hierarchy that comes with a set of expectations
stereotype promise
positive stereotypes lead to positive performance outcomes
saturated self
postmodern idea that the self is now developed by multiple influences chosen from a wide range of media sources
sapir-whorf hypothesis
principle of linguistic relativity. language structures thought
Groupthink
process by which highly cohesive groups demand absolute conformity and punish those who threaten to undermine the consensus
applied research
puts into action what is learned
role-taking emotions
require that we are able to see things from someone else's point of view
qualitative research
research with nonnumerical data such as texts, written field notes, interview transcripts, videos, or photographs
quantitative research
research with numerical data
inductive approach
researcher gathers data before formulating a theory
covert research
researcher is not open about sociological intentions
overt research
researcher is open about sociological intentions
triad
slightly more stable because of addition of a third person
dyad
smallest possible social group, consisting of only two members
dramaturgy
social life is analyzed in terms of its similarities to theatrical performance
agents of socialization
socializing forces that provide structured situations in which socialization takes place
feeling rules
socially constructed norms regarding appropriate feelings and displays of emotion
agency
the ability for the individual to act freely and independently
power
the ability to control the actions of others
spurious correlation
the appearance of causation produced by an intervening variable
hawthorne effect
the desired effect is the result of the research itself, not the independent variable
culture
the entire way of life of a group of people
impression management
the idea that we work at controlling the impressions others have on us
cultural imperialism
the imposition of one's cultural beliefs and practices on another culture through media and consumer products rather than by military force
manifest functions
the obvious, intended functions of a social structure for the social system
real culture
the patterns of behavior that actually exist
group dyamics
the patterns of interaction between groups and individuals
tertiary deviance
the person labeled deviant rejects the notion of deviance entirely and attempts to redefine their "deviant" attributes or behavior as normal
socialization
the process of learning and internalizing the values, beliefs, and norms of our social group, by which we become functioning members of a society
reflexivity
the researcher's presence may affect the interactions and relationships in the group they are observing
basic research
the search for knowledge without an agenda or practical goal in mind
Mead's Mind, Self, and Society
the self is something which has a development; it is not initially there, at birth, but arises in the process of social experience
group cohesion
the sense of solidarity or team spirit that members feel toward their group
front
the setting that helps establish a particular meaning
region
the specific social setting, which provides more elements that help establish boundaries of the interactional context
the scientific method
the standard procedure for acquiring and verifying empirical knowledge
sociology
the systematic or scientific study of human society and social behavior, from large-scale institutions and mass culture to small groups and individual interactions
primary deviance
the thing that gets someone labeled as deviant in the first place
crime
the violation of a norm that has been codified into law, for which you could be arrested and imprisoned
reactivity
the ways people and events respond to being studied
social network
the web of direct and indirect ties connecting an individual to other people who may also affect the individual
expressions of behavior
tools we use to project our definition of the situation to others
taboos
type of mores that are the most powerful of all norms. extremely serious
bureaucracy
type of secondary group designed to perform tasks efficiently, characterized by specialization, technical competence, hierarchy, written rules, impersonality, and formal written communication
existing sources
unobtrusive measures because they don't require the researcher to intrude upon or disturb the people in a social context or setting that they are studying in
differential association theory
we learn to be deviant through our interactions with others who break the rules
reference group
when a group provides standards by which a person evaluates his own personal attributes
social influence
when members are influenced by their group members
backstage
where we prepare or rehearse role and perform for an audience of others
crowd
temporary gathering of people in a public place
deviance conflict theory
-deviance is caused by the weakening of social bonds -inequalities are present in our definitions of deviance -rules are applied unequally -unmooring of a social construction leads to deviant behavior -four bonds prevent people from engaging in deviance (attachment, commitment, involvement, belief)
disadvantages of ethnography
-lacks replicability -does not allow for representativeness (larger group) -personal bias
conflict theory
-macro-level approach -emphasis on social inequality as the basic characteristic of society -Marxism believed that problems during Industrialization were a result of capitalism. Argued that only way to change the status quo is for revolution of the oppressed -conflict and tension are basic facts of social life -suggests that people have disagreements over goals and values -people are involved in struggles over resources and power -materialistic view of society
ethnography/participant observation
-one of the most commonly used research methods in the social sciences -qualitative method that allows for the study of a wide variety of people and places -fieldwork (occurs in naturally occurring social environments) -researchers actively insert themselves into the social setting
stages of self development
-preparatory stage: children imitate or mimic others around them without fully understanding the meaning of their behaviors -play stage: pretend to be something -game stage: self-awareness increases through games
structural functionalism
a paradigm based on the assumption that society is a unified whole that functions because of the contributions of its separate structures. -Emile Durkheim. -macro-level approach -society is conceived as a stable, ordered system made up of interrelated parts or structures -each structure has a function that contributes to the continued stability of the equilibrium of the unified whole -any disorganization or dysfunction leads to change and a new equilibrium -attempts to provide a universal social theory -static model of society
postmodernism
a paradigm that suggests that social reality is diverse, pluralistic, and constantly in flux
role exit
a person leaves behind a role they once occupied
pragmatism
a perspective that assumes organisms make practical adaptations to their environments; humans do this through cognition, interpretation, and interaction
multiculturalism
a policy that involves honoring the diverse, racial, ethnic, national, and linguistic backgrounds of various individuals and groups
the sociological imagination
a quality of mind that allows us to understand the relationship between our individual circumstances and larger social forces
experiment advantages and disadvantages
advantages: -way to manipulate and control the social environment they seek to understand -best for establishing causality -can theoretically be repeated disadvantages: -applicable only to certain types of research that can be constructed measured in a control setting -not good at describing more complex processes and interactions
open-ended questions
allow for variety of responses
midrange theory
an approach that integrates empiricism and grand theory
feral children
children who have lived in isolation from a young age
culture wars
clashes with mainstream society over the values and norms that should be upheld
passing
concealing stigmatizing information
expressive leadership
concerned with maintaining harmony within a group
conversation analysis
how we create meaning in naturally occurring conversations
interviews
face-to-face, information-seeking conversations that gather qualitative data from research subjects advantages: -respondents can speak their own words -help researcher dispel certain preconceptions and discover issues that might have otherwise been overlooked disadvantages: -respondents are not always forthcoming or truthful -not much representativeness
autoethnography
feelings and emotions of the researcher become a focal point of the study
rehabilitation
form of punishment that attempts to reform criminals as part of their penalty
out-group
group that member feels a certain distinctness from or even hostility toward
in-group
group that member identifies and feels loyalty toward
primary groups
groups in which we are intimately associated with the other members
social theories
guiding principles or abstract models that attempt to explain and predict the social world
stereotyping
judging others based on preconceived generalizations about groups or categories of people
secondary groups
larger and less intimate groups
close-ended questions
limit on response
embodied status
located in our physical selves
rationalization
logical procedures are the focus, rules and regulations are paramount, and an individual's unique personal qualities are unimportant
social network analysis
looking at networks of people and who people refer to when asked certain questions regarding those in their lives advantages: -can trace the route of just about anything -contributes to the production of large data sets disadvantages: -fundamentally quantitative, which glosses over important details and diversity -big data is expensive to collect and analyze -large social network
emotion work
maintaining a bright, perky, happy demeanor in-flight, no matter what they actually felt
surveys
questionnaires that are administered to a sample of respondents selected from a target population advantages: -one of the best methods for gathering original data on a population that is too large to be studied by other means -relatively quick and economical -can provide a vast amount of data -strong reliability -less concern for interviewer or observer bias disadvantages: -lacks qualitative data -weak validity because not all respondents are honest in self-reports -problems with sampling process, especially with self-selection/volunteer -might make a claim or support a point of view rather than used for pure scientific discovery
nonmaterial/symbolic culture
reflects the ideas and beliefs of a group of people. includes gestures, signs, language
innovation
reject cultural goals, accept institutionalized means
retreatism
reject cultural goals, reject institutionalized means
in-group orientation
rejecting the standards that mark the group as deviant and may even actively propose new standards in which their special identities are well within the normal range
content analysis
researchers look for recurrent themes or count the number of times that specific variables, such as particular words or visual elements, appear in a text, image, or media message, then analyze the variables and relationships among them advantages: -researchers can work with information they couldn't obtain on their own -learn about many social worlds in different time periods -use same data to replicate projects that have been conducted before disadvantages: -researchers seek answers to questions that weren't originally asked -content analysis does not illuminate how messages are interpreted
norms
rules and guidelines regarding what kinds of behaviors are acceptable. develop directly out of a culture's value system
cultural relativism
seeing each culture as different yet on its own
comparative historical research
seeks to understand relationships between elements of society in various regions and time periods
role
set of behaviors expected from a particular status position
values
set of shared beliefs that a group of people considers to be worthwhile or desirable in life
structural strain theory
some deviance is inevitable in society, but an individual's position in the social structure will affect their experience of deviance and conformity
identification
stronger form. induced by a person's desire to establish or maintain a relationship with a person or group
internalization
strongest form. when individuals adopt the beliefs of a leader or group as their own
ethnomethodology
study of "folk methods" and background knowledge that sustain a shared sense of reality in everyday interactions
influential power
supported by persuasion
sociological perspective
taking a sociological approach or thinking sociologically
instrumental leadership
task or goal-oriented
authority
the legitimate right to wield power
latent functions
the less obvious, perhaps unintended functions
microsociology
the level of analysis that studies face-to-face and small-group interactions in order to understand how they affect the larger patterns and structures of society
macrosociology
the level of analysis that studies large-scale social structures in order to determine how they affect the lives of groups and individuals
social identity theory
the need for individuals to feel a sense of belonging
incapacitation
the notion that criminals should be confined to even executed to protect society from further injury
retribution
the notion that society has the right to "get even"