Social Psych Exam 2 (ch. 4-6)

Different social groups evoke different emotions

-Degree and types of emotions -Different social groups -Varying emotional profiles

Why self-control can be difficult to achieve

-Difficulties of long-range goals: lack of commitment and the lure of immediate rewards -Self-control: refraining from enjoyable actions and performing actions we prefer not to if they help us move toward key goals (studying). -Ego-depletion: the diminished capacity to exert subsequent self-control after previously doing so. Can affect us negatively •following efforts to self-regulate can make it more difficult to exert self-control subsequently. •Self-control is most likely to be achieved when we focus on our abstract goals rather than the details of what we are doing right now. •Prior efforts to exert self-control had negative consequences for subsequent self-control efforts including greater subjective fatigue, perceived difficulty of achieving self-control, and lowered blood glucose levels. EX: we have to remind ourselves of our overall goals and plan (e.g., desire to lose weight) rather than the details of what we are doing right now (e.g., not diving into that chocolate cake). - self-control is possible, but it takes practice!!!

classical conditioning cont...

-Direct route: positive attitudes develop as a result of being exposed to positive stimuli associated with certain products (budweiser girls) ^^positive stimuli (e.g., images of different women) are repeatedly paired with the product, with the aim being to directly transfer the affect felt about the women to the brand. -Subliminal conditioning: classical conditioning that occurs in the absence of conscious awarenes of stimuli (is the subliminal conditioning the indirect route??) alzheimer's example (similar to priming????)

Prejudice persists when it serves our group's interests

-Effects of threat to self-esteem -Leads to derogation of threat -Self-esteem restoration -Group maintains dominant position

•Modern Racism: More Subtle but Just as Harmful

-Extreme expressions of prejudice appear to be eliminated (limiting seating on bus, etc.) -Prejudice more subtle and disguised today -Measuring implicit racial attitudes (attitudes that we are unaware of that are automatically elicited -Confronting our group's behavior; elicit collective guilt -------- •Point 1 - Modern racism •Subtle forms of racism •Replaced blatant feelings of superiority •Concealing prejudice in public •Expressing bigoted attitudes in private •Point 2 - Measuring implicit racial attitudes •Priming (people shown a pictue of a black man are more likely to press "shoot" instead of "don't shoot" in a simulation) •Bona fide pipeline???? •Point 3 - Prejudiced people and "unprejudiced" self-image •Many prejudiced people don't admit prejudice •Social comparison with extreme bigots •Perception of not matching prototype •Point 4 - Confronting our group's behavior •Torture •Perceive torture as justifiable? •Long-standing practice vs. something new •Collective guilt •Moral disengagement

•Stereotyping: Beliefs About Social Groups

-Gender stereotypes: beliefs concerning male/female characteristics -The glass ceiling: barrier that prevents reaching top positions -The glass cliff: women given precarious leadership positions that have a greater risk of failure -Tokenism: meeting a quota so as not to appear gender biased ------ •Point 1 - Gender stereotypes •Beliefs concerning male, female characteristics •Positive and negative traits •Female traits and high-status positions •Point 2 - The "glass ceiling" •Barrier preventing reaching top positions •"Think manager-think male" bias •Outcomes after breaking glass ceiling •Point 3 - The "glass cliff" •Women given precarious leadership positions •Greater risk of failure •Example: company with poor stock performance •Point 4 - Token women in high places •Tokenism •Effective in deterring collective protest •Negative perception of tokens •Tokens marginalized •Perception of quota •Point 5 - Responses to speaking about discrimination •Can be useful •Draw attention to unfairness •Can also be negatively perceived •Seen as escaping personal responsibility

Observational Learning: Learning by Exposure to Others

-Observational learning-acquiring attitudes by observing others and imitating their behaviors (modeling) EX: watching pilate videos of our favorite pilates influencer & imitating what they do • **how much an individual identifies with someone else or with a certain group, can impact the attitudes and behaviors that they imitate from that person *** -Social comparison-comparing ourselves with others to determine if our view is correct or not • determines "accuracy" of social reality EX: confirming or disconfirming our belief that red nail polish is seen as "sexy" and "elegant" -Reference groups-people we value and identify with so we tend to adjust our attitudes to match with theirs •^^can create new attitudes PHOTO: **Men formed more positive attitudes toward the new product when they thought other men liked it, but women formed more positive attitudes toward the product when they thought other women liked it.**

The Self Across Time: Past and Future Selves (3)

-Self-change over time is inevitable. Important to reflect on past memories to recognize improvement -Improved self over time "better self" through maturity and exploration -Recognizing criticism of the distant "past self" -Role models: people we admire/respect that we can imitate, & will inspire us -Figure out how to avoid negative and feared future possible selves (our new self needs to be attainable) •Point 1 - Self-change over time •Autobiographical memory •Perception of improvement over time •Influence on self-perception •Point 2 - Possible selves •Thinking of improved future self •Can help to achieve goals •Bringing about "better self" •Point 3 - Role models •People one imitates •Can inspire long-term achievements •Possible self must be attainable

self-presentation tactics (4)

-Self-promotion: demonstrating our favorable aspects; emphasizing certain traits and even getting ourselves to believe what we say is true! •Influence others' impressions/conclusions •Tactics sometimes successful EX: "I am awesome" -Self-verification perspective: getting others to agree with our own self-views •Involves negotiation EX: Right that the purple dress is actually better than the green dress?? -Ingratiation tactic: convey positive regards (or aspects) towards others. OR share positive aspects of the other individual. Do not overdo it! •Can be successful •Possible to overdo it •present yourself to others as someone who particularly values or respects them EX: Have I ever told you that you are such a kind and honest friend? THANKYOU THANKYOU -Self-deprecation: implying inadequacy compared to others; this may communicate admiration and respect towards others • putting yourself down to make others feel better •Achieves same effect as ingratiation EX: You are so good at math, I could never solve that

Social Modeling and Eating Behavior

-What and how much we eat-strongly influenced by others •We typically eat around others •Others influence acceptable/unacceptable foods -Social norms: guidelines/rules that influence what and how much we eat; obesity and eating disorders linked to culture, society and other social factors •Influence what we eat •Influence how much we eat •Obesity linked to social networks EX: if most of my friends eat salads for lunch, I might eat salads instead of eating burritos

Measuring Gendered self-perceptions around the world

-gendered self perceptions -level of insecure self -intragroup vs. intergroup -intragroup: same group or team -intergroup: different group or team **women only saw themselves as being insecure when being compared to men not women. When men compared themselves to women they said they were less insecure, but nothing changed when they compared themselves to other men***

How Much Do We Like Another who Performs Better or Worse than the Self?

-high performing other is liked better in intergroup comparison -lower performing other is liked better in interpersonal comparison

The Rosenberg Scale

1. On the whole, I am satisfied with myself. Strongly Agree/Agree/ Disagree/ Strongly Disagree 2. At times I think I am no good at all. Strongly Agree/ Agree/ Disagree/ Strongly Disagree 3. I feel that I have a number of good qualities. Strongly Agree/ Agree/ Disagree/ Strongly Disagree

Cognitive Dissonance: What is it and How do we Manage it?

Cognitive dissonance theory: attitude discrepancy. The unpleasant state that occurs when we feel differently than our actions suggest (we lie so that we can avoid offending someone; we praise something to be polite). -attitudes & behaviors are inconsistent ***Dissonance will be stronger when there are few reasons to engage in attitude-discrepant behavior and there is little justification for it*** -------------------- •Point 1 - Cognitive dissonance theory •Few reasons for attitude-discrepant behavior •Little/insufficient justification •Leads to stronger dissonance •Point 2 - Less-leads-to-more effect •Less reasons, rewards for action •Leads to greater attitude change ----- cognitive dissonance can sometimes lead us to change our own attitudes—to shift them so that they are consistent with our overt behavior, even in the absence of any strong external pressure to do so. •cognitive dissonance theory predicts that it will be easier to change individuals' attitudes by offering them just enough to get them to engage in attitude-discrepant behavior. PHOTO: When individuals have strong reasons for engaging in attitude-discrepant behavior, they experience relatively weak dissonance and do not change their attitudes. In contrast, when they have little apparent justification for engaging in the attitude-discrepant behavior, they will experience stronger dissonance and greater pressure to change their attitudes. The result—less justification leads to more dissonance and more change following attitude-discrepant behavior. strong, weak, small & weak, strong, large

interpersonal vs intergroup

Intergroup conflicts can cause changes within the group. These changes can be negative and in some cases they can be effective. Interpersonal conflict can cause problems between individuals. Conflict between yourself and other individual can be very harmful by increasing conflict.

Attitudes towards ourselves & self esteem: cont...

Perceived Discrimination and Psychological Well-Being Meta-Analysis: Type of Discrimination and level of Distress: 1.Physical Illness/Disability 2.Weight (Obesity) 3.STD (such as HIV +) 4.Unemployment 5.Mental Illness 6.Sexual Orientation 7.Racism 8.Sexism

group membership & satisfaction levels:

Personal Self-Esteem is Higher When More Groups are Highly Identified With

Personal vs Social Identity Continuum (3 things that influence this)

Personal-versus-social identity continuum: -Personal end: we think of ourselves as an individual -Social end: we think of ourselves as members of a specific social group -Salience: the part of our identity that is the focus of our attention; affects how we perceive ourselves and respond to others ^^ Who I think I am depends on the social context

Is prejudice evere legitimate & acceptable?

Prejudice legitimized against rapists; child abusers; child molesters; wife beaters; terrorists; racists; KKK members; drunk drivers; nazi party members; pregnant women who drink alcohol Prejudice illegitimized against blind people; homemakers; deaf; mentally impaired; farmers; family men; male nurses; librarians; dog owners; bowling league members

Why do people form & use stereotypes?

Schemas: cognitive frameworks to help us organize, interpret, and recall information. Stereotypes allow us to make automatic and effortless perceptions. -Provide us with a sense that we can predict others' behavior -Can help us feel positive about our own group identity -Stereotypes tend to remain stable; difficult to change -We may "subtype" someone who appears different then what our stereotypes hold. Place someone in a special category ———— Point 1 - Schemas Cognitive frameworks Organize, interpret, recall information Stereotypes function as schemas Point 2 - Stereotype operation Typical traits of groups Traits automatically come to mind Stereotypes as guiding theories Speed of information processing Subtypes Point 3 - Do stereotypes ever change? Common theory Stereotypes remain stable Relationship between groups remains stable

Self Esteem: Attitudes toward ourselves

Self-Esteem: the overall attitude people hold toward themselves. Seems to gradually increase over time but is dependent on life events. -Measuring self-esteem: 10-item Rosenberg scale; specific measures for specific domains. Each item with an asterisk is reverse-scored. Higher numbers indicate greater self-esteem •Rosenberg measures explicit attitudes •Implicit Associations Test -Positive thinking: highly recommended! Increases self-esteem and overall contentment and satisfaction •Assessing efficacy of positive thinking •Effectiveness for high self-esteem people •Effectiveness for low self-esteem people

Can We Be Victims of Stereotyping and Not Even Recognize It? Yes!

Singlism: negative stereotypes and discrimination towards single people versus married. Singles are described negatively (immature; insecure; unhappy; self-centered; lonely) as opposed to those married (mature; stable; loving; giving; happy). Affected by age. Atheists: negative stereotypes about those with varying religious beliefs ———- Point 1 - Singlism Negative stereotyping and discrimination Directed toward single people Stark contrast to married stereotyping Point 2 - Singles and singlism Lack of awareness of singlism Some people/victims feel singlism's legitimacy

classical conditioning cont..

The process of classical conditioning has to do with learning based on association. When an unconditioned stimulus (US) which is a stimulus that can evoke a biological reaction precedes a neutral stimulus, the neutral stimulus (NS) eventually becomes a conditioned stimulus and comes to evoke a response when paired with the unconditioned stimulus various times and learning has occurred. The unconditioned response (UR) is a biological response, and after this the conditioned response (CR) is either similar or identical to the (UR) which occurs after learning. A way that classical conditioning can affect attitude formation is for example when cancer patients have undergone chemotherapy (US) many times, they can begin to associate the waiting room to nausea and feeling sick (CR), because they have learned that every time they receive chemotherapy they vomit (UR). When learning hadn't occurred, merely being in the waiting room (NS) would not cause feelings of nausea and sickness to the same patient. After learning the waiting room became a conditioned stimulus (CS) and it alone could induce the feeling of nausea. ----- •Affects attitudes via two pathways •1) Direct route •2) Indirect route???? ^indirect route= seeing Brad Pitt and immediately associating him w/ a brand (Rolex) that he models for •Attitude formation without stimuli awareness

what is Instrumental/Operant conditioning?

The process of instrumental/operant conditioning has to do with rewards & punishment that can influence our attitudes. •People's attitudes tend to shift depending on who their audience is and whether that attitude has been rewarded or punished in the past

The Origins of Prejudice: Contrasting Perspectives (3 theories)

Threats: can be material or symbolic 1. Threats to self-esteem 2. Competition for scarce and valued resources (such as jobs and territory/land). Realistic conflict theory (Robber's Cave: classic study by Sherif et al 1961) Robber's Cave study: ???? 3. Social categorization: Us versus Them theory. Threats to our social group that can produce powerful hatred and discrimination. If identity is formed and connected to the group, extreme forms of self-sacrifice to protect the group may arise ——— Point 1 - Threats -Cause of prejudice, prejudice's persistence -Can be material or symbolic Point 2 - Threats to self-esteem -Threats and group value perception -Retaliation = derogating threat source -Prejudice and increased group membership -Bolstering of own group's image -Shared inclusive identity = reduced prejudice Point 3 - Competition for resources -Source of prejudice -Zero-sum outcomes -Realistic conflict theory -Subordinate goals Point 4 - Cognitive effects of social categorization -Us vs. them = people in distinct categories -Emotional and social significance -Social identity theory -Identity fusion -Existential threat

Conscious decision making & introspection

When the behavior in question is actually based on a conscious decision-making process—and is NOT based on unconscious emotional factors—thinking about those reasons might well lead to accurate self-judgments. On the other hand, when we fail to take into account factors that really do influence how we feel (e.g., giving to others can make us happy), introspection is unlikely to lead to accurate self-inferences. So, while looking inward can be helpful, it may lead us astray under plenty of circumstances.

when dissonance is a tool for beneficial changes in behavior

publicly advocating some attitude, and then making salient to the person that they have acted in a way that is inconsistent with their own attitudes. Such feelings might be sufficiently intense that only actions that reduce dissonance directly, by inducing behavioral change, may be effective. These predictions concerning the possibility of dissonance-induced behavior change have been tested in several studies. ^^Most of us know these statements are true, and our attitudes are generally favorable toward using seat belts, quitting smoking, and engaging in safe sex.. EX: wearing seatbelts

Self-Presentation: Managing the self

•All of us are faced with the task of presenting ourselves to a variety of audiences, and we play different roles in different contexts. Are we being honest about ourselves (social media)? Is it possible that others might know more about us, and be better at predicting our behavior, than we are ourselves? •May be easier to conceal important information about ourselves on the internet than in face-to-face encounters. •others may be more accurate in predicting our behavior because they lack access to our intentions and are merely reporting on behavior frequency. ^^they also don't have access to our internal mental states ^^ others may seem to know us better than we know ourselves

How Members of Different Groups Perceive Inequality

•At some point in time, everyone comes face to face with prejudice •Prejudice: negative emotional responses or dislikes based on group membership. •Can occur as a result of being the target, observing others engage in prejudicial treatment, or when we recognize prejudice in ourselves and discover that we are less positive towards people of different groups compared to our own •May be perceived as legitimate and justified

why do attitudes influence behavior?? (4 variables)

•Attitude Extremity (1): the extent to which individuals feel strongly about something -Is there a vested interest? (tobacco companies)??? •Attitude Certainty (2): The importance of clarity and correctness -The attitude is the valid and proper one to hold -Increased clarity usually increases correctness •Role of Personal Experience (3): -Attitudes formed by direct experiences are stronger -Attitudes formed by personal relevance are more accessible to us -Attitudes formed by direct and relevant experiences create involvement with an issue (ECAP) ------------------------------ •Point 1 - Attitude extremity •Extent individual feels strongly •One direction or the other •Influence of vested interest •Point 2 - Attitude-consistent thoughts •Occur when issue made salient •Attitudes thought about carefully •Attitudes resistant to change •Attitudes accessible guide for behavior 5.2.4: Attitude Certainty: Importance of Clarity and Correctness •Point 1 - Attitude certainty components •Attitude clarity •Attitude correctness •Point 2 - Interaction of components •If consensus high, greater perceived correctness •Increased clarity = increased correctness •High clarity, correctness predicts behavior 5.2.5: Role of Personal Experience •Point 1 - Attitudes formed by direct experience •Stronger •More likely to come to mind •Creates involvement with an issue •Point 2 - Attitudes formed by personal relevance •More supporting arguments •Resistant to change •Point 3 - Factors affecting attitude-behavior link •Situational constraints •Influence of attitude extremity •Attitude clarity and correctness

how do attitudes guide behavior? (3 mechanisms affecting attitude formation)

•Attitudes Arrived at Through Reasoned Thought: -The behavior comes from a rational process of thought -The various behavior options are considered -Outcome consequences are evaluated •Attitudes and Spontaneous Behavioral Reactions: -We have to act quickly at times and reactions are more spontaneous -When we perform a specific behavior repeatedly, a habit is formed, and the behavior becomes automatic ----------------------------- •Point 1 - Theory of planned behavior •Behavior comes from rational process •Behavioral options considered •Outcome consequences are evaluated •Decision to act or not •Behavior intentions •Point 2 - Intention-behavior relationship •Stronger when people form plan •Translate intentions to behavior •Implementation plan •Point 3 - Intention formation •Three factors •1) Attitudes toward the behavior •2) Subjective norms •3) Perceived behavioral control 5.3.2: Attitudes and Spontaneous Behavioral Reactions •Point 1 - Attitude-to-behavior process model •Some event activates our attitude •Activated attitude influences object perception •Knowledge of what's appropriate activated •Together, these shape definition of event •Point 2 - Mechanisms affecting attitude formation •1) Deliberate thought processes EX: someone deciding whether or not to get that gym membership •2) Spontaneous thought processes •3) Habits (whenever same situation is encountered, there is am automatic response)?? ^^^ how attitudes can influence behavior by affecting the interpretation given to the situation. EX: different interpretations to someone cutting you off in traffic."Gee this person is in such a hurry" or "who does this person think he/she is? What nerve!"

Attitude Formation

•Attitudes: refer to people's evaluations of almost every aspect of the world. People develop both favorable and unfavorable reactions to various issues. Some attitudes are stable and resistant to change while others are unstable and show variability depending on the situation. •Some attitudes are held with certainty while others are unclear or uncertain •Attitudes affect virtually every aspect of our experiences

why prejudice is not inevitable cont....

•Can We Learn to "Just Say No" to Stereotyping and Biased Attributions? -Break the stereotype habit by saying no to stereotypic traits we associate with a specific group. •Social Influence as a Means of Reducing Prejudice -Combating prejudice with social influence -We can learn to be aware that our views are "out of line" with those of most others, especially if we respect and trust the peers we are surrounded by -------------- •Point 1 - Activity breaking the stereotype habit •Possible to not use stereotypes? •Research says yes •Point 2 - Research •Kawakami, Dovidio, Moll, Hermsen, Russin (2000) •Stereotype maintaining condition •Stereotype negation condition •Results •Negation training 6.5.6: Social Influence as a Means of Reducing Prejudice •Point 1 - Combating prejudice with social influence •Show people their ingroup lacks prejudice •Can weaken negative reactions •Opposite also occurs •Point 2 - Evidence of social influence effects •Stangor, Sechrist, Jost (2001) •Methodology •Findings and implications

Determining who we are: INTROSPECTION

•Introspection: A way to gain self-knowledge. Looking Inward to discover the causes of our own behavior. -Introspection: Engaging in a private sense of self-awareness and reflection • useful to learn about self • touted as successful practice •research complicates claim of success -Obstacles to introspective success: (1)not understanding the causes of our feelings. (2)We do not always have conscious access to the reasons for our actions. This may redirect us from the quest for self-knowledge. We may try to predict our future feelings •lack of access to behavioral reasons •Inaccuracy of affective forecasting •Example: spending money on self, others

The self as a target of prejudice

•Concealing Our Identity: How Well-Being Can Suffer -Identity and negative treatment: due to sexual orientation, disabilities, weight, health conditions, etc. •Sexual orientation •Mental, physical disabilities •Obesity •Health conditions -Hiding one's identity: our attempt to avoid negative treatment. A substantial burden, lowers self-esteem, and causes psychological distress •Attempt to avoid negative treatment •Can be a substantial burden •Lower self-esteem •Psychological distress •Point 1 - Identity and negative treatment •Sexual orientation •Mental, physical disabilities •Obesity •Health conditions •Point 2 - Hiding one's identity •Attempt to avoid negative treatment •Can be a substantial burden •Lower self-esteem Psychological distress

discrimination & stereotyping

•Discrimination: differential treatment based on group membership •Stereotyping: beliefs about what members of a social group are like. Often times, the terms prejudice, discrimination, and stereotypes are used interchangeably. More accurately: - stereotype: cognitive component -prejudice: affective (emotional) component -discrimination: behavioral component

Self Esteem: Attitudes towards ourselves

•Do Women and Men Differ in Their Level of Self-Esteem? -Assumptions: men have higher self-esteem -Testing assumptions: women with a stronger self concept will have higher self-esteem -When women feel devalued in society, self-esteem decreases •What Research says about Perceived Discrimination and Self-Esteem -Discrimination and emotional consequences -Reasons why discrimination negatively affects our well-being. It threatens us; excludes us; devalues us; disrespects us •Point 1 - Assumptions •Men have higher self-esteem •History and social status implications •Point 2 - Testing assumptions •Williams and Best (1990) •Findings on women's self-concepts •Status difference and labor participation What Research Tells Us About...Perceived Discrimination and Self-Esteem •Point 1 - Discrimination and emotional consequences •Addressed frequently in research •Correlational studies •Experiments permitting causal inferences •Point 2 - Reasons discrimination negatively affects well-being •Exclusion •Devaluing and disrespect •Threatens feelings of control •Most evident with disadvantaged groups

Self-Presentation: Managing the self cont...

•Do we really know ourselves best? Basic problem with trying to predict ourselves: we are both the experiencer and the predictor. Others may be more accurate at predicting our behavior because they lack access to our intentions and are reporting on behavior frequency. -When people are routinely late, do they realize this about themselves? Their intentions are to be on time, so they may not realize it. -We appear not to be so accurate about ourselves, but we tend to recognize when we rate ourselves too highly once we can consider our biases. -Biases: routinely occur in self-perceptions.

Classical Conditioning: Learning Based on Association

•Elements of classical conditioning: -Unconditioned stimulus (US)-stimulus that evokes a biological reaction -Unconditioned response (UR)-biological response -Neutral stimulus (NS)-a neutral stimulus unassociated with the unconditioned stimulus -Conditioned stimulus (CS)-previously neutral stimulus that comes to evoke a reaction through association with the unconditioned stimulus -Conditioned response (CR)-learned response that is similar or identical the UR

examples of classical conditioning in everyday life :

•Examples of Classical Conditioning in everyday life: -Attitudes associated with a controversial political topic -Attitudes associated with fear or phobias -Attitudes associated with happiness -Attitudes associated with drug cravings or substance abuse -Attitudes associated with taste aversions

Explicit vs implicit attitudes

•Explicit Attitudes: conscious and reportable EX: you can tell your best friend whether or not you liked the new sushi roll you guys tried out for the first time. •Implicit Attitudes: less controllable and potentially not consciously accessible EX: we may automatically be attracted only to people with blonde hair but not to those with brown hair without consciously being aware of it. •Attitudes will most likely influence our behaviors when they are strong & accessible. They influence decision-making (such as getting the covid vaccine) *****Attitudes are formed mostly through the process of social learning*********

subliminal conditioning

•Form of classical conditioning •Unaware of stimuli involved •Mere exposure •Illusion of truth effect having seen an object before, but too rapidly to remember having seen it—can result in attitude formation EXAMPLE?????

resisting persuasion attempts.... pt 2

•Individual Differences in Resistance to Persuasion: -We differ in vulnerability -We may be more likely to counterargue -We resist to bolster our own beliefs •Ego Depletion Can Undermine Resistance: -When we are tired or lack willpower we will be less likely to resist --------------------- •Point 1 - Personal differences and strategies •People differ in persuasion vulnerability •Some resist because of counterarguing •Some resistant to bolster own beliefs •Point 2 - Predictive power of strategies •Strategies can predict attitude change •Strategies can predict thoughts 5.5.6: Ego Depletion Can Undermine Resistance •Point 1 - Resisting persuasion •Successfully counterarguing •Consciously deciding your attitude is best •Point 2 - Factors that limit success •Ego-depletion •Limited capacity to self-regulate •Tiredness PHOTO: **When people were not ego-depleted, they differentiated between weak and strong arguments, and were only persuaded by strong arguments. In contrast, when people were suffering from ego-depletion, they failed to differentiate between strong and wßeak arguments, and were therefore equally persuaded by both.**

Instrumental/Operant Conditioning: Rewards and Punishment

•Instrumental/Operant Conditioning: Rewards and Punishment (rewards can be subtle, psychological: a smile) •Types of Consequences: -Positive Reinforcement: reward for good behavior or attitude (praise) EX: praising child with a cookie for finishing his/her homework -Negative Reinforcement: reward by taking something unpleasant away EX: mom giving candy to kid who is crying and wants candy (mom wants the crying to stop so she gives the candy) -Positive Punishment: punish by giving something unpleasant (parental dissapointment) EX: punishing kid by showing parental dissapointment and anger -Negative Punishment: punish by taking away something pleasant (social media privilege) EX: mom punishes kid by taking away their ipad

Social Comparison: How we evaluate ourselves

•Intelligence •Gender/Sex •Standards •Motives •Similarities/Differences •Mood/Emotions •Morality •Trustworthiness •Honesty

•Is Stereotyping Absent If Members of Different Groups Are Rated the Same?

•Is Stereotyping Absent If Members of Different Groups Are Rated the Same? -Shifting standards: people use different standards (but the same words) to describe things. We are not being compared in the same way -Standards as scales: objective versus subjective; differing outcomes. Ten-year old basketball player compared to others his age may be a "great" player, but will we label a professional NBA player "great" in the same way? ---- •Point 1 - Shifting standards •Stereotypes influence group evaluation ratings •Ratings don't translate to behavioral expectations •Different standards, same words •Point 2 - Standards as scales •Objective scales •Subjective scales

Why Prejudice is not Inevitable: Techniques for Countering its Effects

•Learning Not to Hate -Childhood and hate: break the cycle of hate; children learn/acquire prejudice views (social learning perspective) -Beyond childhood: stay away from prejudiced institutions and organizations •The Potential Benefits of Contact -Contact hypothesis: exposure to other social groups decreases stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination --------------- •Point 1 - Childhood and hate •Social learning view •Children acquire prejudiced views •Hear views from significant others •Praised for adopting views •Role of parents •Point 2 - Beyond childhood •People continue to be socialized •Consequences of joining prejudiced institutions •Institutions can value diversity or prejudice •Institutions exert influence on adults 6.5.2: The Potential Benefits of Contact •Point 1 - Contact hypothesis •Increased contact between different groups •Effective at reducing prejudice •Reduction of "antioutgroup" norms •Increased cross-group friendship •Point 2 - Examples •Northern Ireland: Catholics and Protestants •Different linguistic groups throughout Europe •Differing sexualities 6.5.3: Recategorization: Changing the Boundaries •Point 1 - Recategorization •Shift boundary between us, them •Reduces prejudice •Point 2 - Common ingroup identity model •Supports recategorization •Effect of single social identity view •Point 3 - Increasing single social identity views •Increased cooperation •Shared or superordinate goals •Reduces hostile feelings 6.5.4: The Benefits of Guilt for Prejudice Reduction •Point 1 - Collective guilt •Guilt by association •No involvement in prejudice actions •Point 2 - Benefits of guilt •Feeling collective guilt = racism reduction •Combine guilt with social change push •Leads to antidiscrimination behavior - Framing inequality - White advantage, black disadvantage - Levels of collective guilt, racism

perception of discrimination theories

•Perception of discrimination legitimacy: different perceptions among whites and blacks. Whites perceive less racism in many everyday events than do blacks. •Prospect theory: weighing possible losses; Whites may be more concerned with the loss of greater racial equality because of their privileged position throughout history???? •Affirmative action: perceived as white privilege loss and a gain for minorities •Election of Barack Obama: unimaginable in the past; perceived as increased racial progress but may affect future progress --- •Point 1 - Perception of discrimination legitimacy •Depends on if experiencing, perpetrating •Different perceptions among whites, blacks •Point 2 - Prospect theory •People are risk averse •Weighing possible losses more heavily •Example: losing dollar compared to gaining dollar •Point 3 - Risk aversion and social change •Zero-sum outcomes •"We are losing" and racial inequality •"Minority gains and white losses" •Point 4 - Affirmative action •Perceived white privilege loss •Gain for minorities •Point 5 - Election of Barack Obama •Unimaginable in the past •Increased racial progress perception of whites •Decreased perceived need for racial equality

Perceptions of discrimination

•Perceptions of discrimination: different perceptions among whites and blacks. Michael Brown Case (2014). 80% of African Americans perceived the shooting to involve problems with race relations. 50% of White Americans believe racial issues receive more attention than they deserve. •Arguments for and against "peaceful protests." Could be an excuse to vandalize and loot demonstrating a threat to the safety and security of businesses and townspeople •Police may go too far

The Science of Persuasion: How Attitudes are Changed

•Persuasion: Efforts to change our attitudes through the use of various kinds of messages. Part of our daily lives. -Communicator (speaker): affected by credibility, physical appearance, subtlety and value of their message -Messages: emotions aroused (fear), level of appeal, one or two sided • positive framed message is more effective: "The peace of mind you'll get or you won't have to worry that you could spread the virus") than when the message was framed in terms of potential losses they would otherwise experience (e.g., "You won't have peace of mind or you could spread the virus unknowingly to those you care about"). Positive framing can be effective in inducing change •EX of positive vs negative messages -Audience: intelligence level, ignorance level, desire for acceptance and avoiding of rejection ----------------- •Point 1 - Persuasion research: key findings •Communicator credibility •Physical attractiveness of communicators •Communicators in our social network •eWOM electronic word of mouth) •Subtlety vs. "sales pitch" •Point 2 - Fear appeals •Messages intended to arouse fear •People argue against threat •Dismiss applicability to themselves •Usage of fear-based ads •Generally not effective

Personal vs Social Identity Continuum cont... (4 things)

•Point 1 - Differing self-descriptions?? •Depends on question type •Specific situation vs. open-ended •People differ across time, place •Influence of social context •Point 2 - Gender differences in self-construal •Gender must be salient •Depends on gender group as comparison •Point 3 - Determiners of salience •Contextual relevance •Identity aspect forming self-perception •Personal trait, social identity categorization •Personal-versus-social identity terms •Point 4 - Different selves •Different salient selves at different times •Emotional consequences •Example: satisfaction, regret over choice made "DGDSDS" •Personal-versus-social identity continuum MORE NOTES: -Differing self-descriptions (1): what questions are being asked? Are they specific situations and open-ended questions (I am a ___________ person) -Are there gender differences? (2)Women may appear more insecure when compared to men -What are the determiners of salience (relevance)? (3) Am I a "fun" person at a party but a "hard worker" at work? -Do we experience feelings of satisfaction versus regret? (4)

The Self from the observer's standpoint

•The Self from the Observer's Standpoint -Observer perspective: sometimes observers are more accurate; helpful; difference in focus of attention • observer focuses directly on actor -Gaining self-insight with observer perspectives • standard acting vs method acting????? -Is all introspection misleading? NO! Depends on focus of introspection and whether the decision is conscious versus unconscious. Are emotions involved?

Resisting Persuasion Attempts (4 types)

•Reactance: Protecting Our Personal Freedom -Our negative reaction to efforts by others to change our attitudes -Seen as direct threats on personal freedom -We are more likely to adopt an opposite view •Forewarning: Prior Knowledge of Persuasive Intent -Advanced knowledge of a message -Reduces effect of persuasion because there is more time to recall refuted information -EX: we know a political member is giving a speech so that we side with his party. ------------ •Point 1 - Reactance •Resist persuasion •Negative reaction •Adopt opposite views as persuader's •Point 2 - Occurrence •Hard-sell attempts at persuasion •Direct threats on personal freedom 5.5.2: Forewarning: Prior Knowledge of Persuasive Intent •Point 1 - Forewarning •Advance knowledge of persuasive intent •Reduces effect of persuasion •Point 2 - Reasons for forewarning's effects •Ability to form counterarguments •More time to recall refutation information 5.5.3: Selective Avoidance of Persuasion Attempts •Point 1 - Selective avoidance •Avoid information challenging existing attitudes •Another way to resist persuasion •Point 2 - Television viewing •Illustration of selective avoidance effects •No passive absorption of content •Selectively "tuning out" contrary information •Point 3 - Selective exposure •Ignore information contradicting our attitudes •Attend to information supporting attitudes 5.5.4: Actively Defending our Attitudes: Counterarguing Against the Competition •Point 1 - Counterarguing •Active strategy to resist persuasion •Reduces impact of opposing views •But makes them more memorable •Point 2 - Pro-life/pro-choice study •Eagly, Kulesa, Brannon, Shaw, Hutson-Comeaux (2000) •Methodology •Results and implications

When and Why do attitudes influence behavior??

•Role of the Social Context in the Link Between Attitudes and Behavior -Attitude and behavior: are they real attitudes? Look at social context. Are we just trying to avoid hurting others' feelings (such as telling a friend you like their new tattoo even if u don't) •Strength of Attitudes: -Whistle-blowing: insider takes risks and tells the outside world of any wrong-doings (facebook insider complaints come forward to tell the truth) •It was Jeffrey Wigand who blew the whistle on the practices of the tobacco industry in general and his former employer in particular -Attitude strength: are the attitudes strong, certain and justified? •Point 1 - Attitude and behavior •Gaps exist •Social context affects connection •Not acting on true attitude •Example: hurting someone's feelings •Point 2 - Recent research focus •When consistency can be expected •How attitudes influence behavior •Point 3 - Pluralistic ignorance •Believing others' attitudes different than ours •Erroneous belief 5.2.2: Strength of Attitudes •Point 1 - Whistle-blowing •The Insider •Reasons for such risky action •Attitudes based on moral convictions •Intense emotion •Point 2 - Attitude strength 1.Extremity of attitude 2.Certainty of attitude 3.Extent attitude based on personal experience 4.Attitude accessibility??? •Determines how attitudes drive behavior

Resisting Persuasion Attempts cont...

•Selective Avoidance: avoiding information that challenges our existing attitudes -We direct our attention away from the message and "tune out" any contrary information •Counterarguing: argue against the competition -Good strategy to resist persuasion -Reduces the impact of opposing views -Makes opposing views more memorable

Self presentation cont...

•Self Presentations are not always honest •Discrepancy between our ideal self and our actual self: -Actual self: the person I think I am -Ideal self: the person I wish I was How much consistency is there? How much self-enhancement occurs on social media?

•Self-Serving Biases and Unrealistic Optimism

•Self-Serving Biases and Unrealistic Optimism -Above average effect: we think we are better than the average person on almost every dimension •Occurs to those with low trait levels -Futility of negative feedback: we tend to forget (repress) negative feedback; we tend to favor positive perceptions (unrealistic optimism). This increases the tendency to refute arguments and critically assess negative outcomes •People forget contradictory feedback •Emphasize favored positive self-perceptions •Critically assess negative outcome responsibility •High ability to refute arguments •Easily accept success responsibility

Social Comparison Theory:

•Social Comparison Theory: we compare ourselves to others because there is NO objective yardstick to evaluate ourselves. -Downward social comparison: we compare ourselves to someone who is less capable (makes us feel better) -Upward social comparison: we compare ourselves to to someone who is more capable, like an expert (makes us feel threatened)

stereotypes associated w/ women and men

•Stereotypes Associated With Women and Men •Female traits: warm; emotional; kind; sensitive; follower; weak; friendly; fashionable; gentle •Male traits: competent; stable; tough; self-confident; leader; strong; accomplished; nonconformist; aggressive • Women and men are stereotyped in positive and negative ways. Women are seen as nurturing, kind, and considerate (positive) but dependent, weak, and overly emotional (negative)

the nature & origins of stereotyping

•Stereotyping: Beliefs About Social Groups -Can be positive or negative -Can be accurate or inaccurate -May be agreed with or rejected by members of the stereotyped group

The Cognitive Processes Underlying Persuasion (2 processes)

•The Cognitive Processes Underlying Persuasion -Systematic processing (central route): involves careful consideration of a message -Heuristic processing (peripheral route): using mental short-cuts; requires less effort and less time to think -More likely to use heuristic processing when there is less capacity for information and the message has less relevance to us --------------- •Point 1 - Systematic versus heuristic processing •Systematic processing / central route to persuasion •Heuristic processing / peripheral route to persuasion •Elaboration-likelihood model •Heuristic-systematic model •Point 2 - Engaging in systematic processing •High motivation •High capacity for relevant information •Occurs with knowledge of topic •Occurs with time to think •Occurs if issue is important •Point 3 - Engaging in heuristic processing •Less effort •Less time to think •Less capacity for information •Less relevance/importance to us •Point 4 - Effect on persuasion •Systematic: argument strength matters •Heuristic: peripheral cues matter •Example: communicator attractiveness, expertise •Caffeine and audience persuasion

The power of positive thinking!

•The Power of Positive Thinking! Tell yourself that you can do anything, and you will. Can this backfire? •Self-Esteem is affected by self-efficacy (the sense that we are capable) and social support

•What Research Tells Us About Biases in Our Beliefs About Inequality:

•What Research Tells Us About Biases in Our Beliefs About Inequality: -Factors contributing to increasing inequality: decreased tolerance for ethnic diversity; increased prejudice toward minorities -Mechanisms that mask inequality: limited experiences; comparing to people that are similar to us; unperceived differences -Inequality is substantial and growing, yet surveys worldwide reveal that existing inequality is dramatically underestimated by large numbers of people ------ •Point 1 - Factors contributing to increasing inequality •Decreased tolerance for ethnic diversity •Increased prejudice toward minorities •Point 2 - Inequality misperceptions •Differential outcomes are just •"Greed is good" and creates growth •Point 3 - Mechanisms that mask inequality •Limited experiences •Comparisons among relatively similar people •Unperceived differences

Personal vs. Social Identity cont...

•What Research Tells Us About The Importance of Belonging and Group Ties -Belonging: critical for good psychological and physical health. Being close to peers is more indicative of good overall health then health predictors. •Consequences of not belonging •Relationship to age -Implications for self-esteem: belonging boosts self-esteem; especially critical during the experimentation years (adolescence and young adulthood) -Group memberships provide people with meaning and is the basis for self-esteem •Belonging promotes positive social identities •Group memberships crucial •Group memberships and self-satisfaction levels

Personal vs. Social Identity

•Who I Am Depends on Others' Treatment -Impact of others' treatment: do we anticipate acceptance or rejection? We may emphasize traits that we know others will be more likely to accept -Do we choose to reveal our identity or not? •Influences self-perception •Responses in anticipation of rejection •To reveal identity or not -Identity markers: do we dress and communicate ourselves to the world in a certain way with noticeable clothing, tattoos, body piercings, etc.? •Dress, body modification •Communicates identity to world •Viewed as acceptable or antinormative •Discrimination and increased self-definition

Self-perception bias

•most have awareness of bias •bias occurs routinely in self-perceptions EX: A student gets a good grade on a test and tells herself that she studied hard or is good at the material. She gets a bad grade on another test and says the teacher doesn't like her or the test was unfair EX: "traffic", & being constantly late