Social Psych Final

POSTSCRIPT: Making Love Two facts of contemporary life seem beyond dispute:

First, close, enduring relationships are hallmarks of a happy life. Second, close, enduring relationships are in decline. Increased migration and mobility mean that more people are disconnected from extended family and childhood relationships. Compared with a half-century ago, people today more often move, live alone, divorce, and have a succession of relationships.

Cialdini's 6 principles of persuasion

reciprocity, consistency, consensus, authority, liking, scarcity

ostracism

(acts of excluding or ignoring). Ostracized people show deficits in brain mechanisms that inhibit unwanted behavior (Otten & Jonas, 2013). Outside of the laboratory, rejected children were, two years later, more likely to have self-regulation issues, such as not finishing tasks and not listening to directions (Stenseng et al., 2014). In lab experiments, socially rejected people also became more likely to disparage or blast unpleasant noise at someone who had insulted them, were less likely to help others, and were more likely to cheat and steal

Fischer, Krueger, et al. Meta Analysis on Bystander Effect

1) Found that passive bystanders in critical situations reduce helping responses 2) The bystander effect tends to diminish, disappear, or reverse when the situation involves a dangerous emergency involving physical risk 3) Men more likely to intervene in physically risky situations. Women tend to intervene with children

What happens when people lack Empathy

1) Low Empathy = More Prejudice 2) Low Empathy = More Aggression 3) Low Empathy = More Bullying (in adolescent boys) 4) Low Empathy (in Parents) = More Child Abuse 5) Low Empathy (in Men) = More Sexual Harassment 6) Low Empathy (in Men) = More child molestation

What happens when you have empathy?

1) More Empathy (in Children) = Reduce Aggression and Prejudice 2) More Empathy = More Marital satisfaction 3) More Empathy = More Animal Protection 4) More Empathy towards Animals harmed by Pollution = More concern for Environment 5) More Empathy = More Helping during Bystander Intervention 6) More Empathy = More Intervention against FB posts about bullying

Reservations on Bystander effect

1) Reluctance to intervene is determined by situational factors such as the number of others present (Diffusion of responsibility) - Solution: Single out someone when calling for help in a crowd 2) Intervention goes up when with friends

Is Empathy always beneficial?

1) Too much Empathy can make you distressed E.g- If you care too much about the feelings of your friends and they are always sad, it may make you depressed. 2) Sometimes you need to reduce Empathy E.g- Doctors when they have to do a painful surgery on a patient

The changes in Empathy throughout time

1) US is ranked 7th in Empathy amongst 63 countries 2) College students in US have shown decreasing levels of Empathy

equity

A condition in which the outcomes people receive from a relationship are proportional to what they contribute to it. Note: Equitable outcomes needn't always be equal outcomes. Therefore, our society teaches us to exchange rewards by the equity principle of attraction: What you and your partner get out of a relationship should be proportional to what you each put into it (Hatfield et al., 1978). If two people receive equal outcomes, they should contribute equally; otherwise one or the other will feel it is unfair. If both feel their out- comes correspond to the assets and efforts each contributes, then both perceive equity. Don't we sometimes give in response to a loved one's need, without expecting anything in return? Indeed, those involved in an equitable, long-term relationship are unconcerned with short-term equity.

peace

A condition marked by low levels of hostility and aggression and by mutually beneficial relationships. Genuine peace is more than the suppression of open conflict, more than a fragile, superficial calm. Peace is the outcome of a creatively man- aged conflict. "Social psychologists who study conflict are in much the same position as the astronomers," noted conflict researcher Morton Deutsch (1999). "We cannot conduct true experiments with large-scale social events. But we can identify the conceptual similarities between the large scale and the small, as the astronomers have between the planets and Newton's apple. That is why the games people play as subjects in our laboratory may advance our understanding of war, peace, and social justice."

passionate love

A state of intense longing for union with another. Passionate lovers are absorbed in each other, feel ecstatic at attaining their partner's love, and are disconsolate on losing it. "We are never so defenseless against suffering as when we love," observed Freud. Passionate love preoccupies the lover with thoughts of the other. "I love you, but I'm not in love with you," means to say, "I like you. I care about you. I think you're marvelous. But I don't feel sexually attracted to you." I feel friendship but not passion.

need to belong

A motivation to bond with others in relationships that provide ongoing, positive interactions. Satisfy the need to belong in balance with two other human needs—to feel autonomy and competence—and the typical result is a deep sense of well-being Aristotle called humans "the social animal." Indeed, we have what today's social psychologists call a need to belong—to connect with others in enduring, close relationships.

altruism

A motive to increase another's welfare without conscious regard for one's self-interests. These are this chapter's primary questions. Altruism is selfishness in reverse. An altruistic person is concerned and helpful even when no benefits are offered or expected in return. Jesus' parable of the Good Samaritan provides the classic illustration

conflict

A perceived incompatibility of actions or goals.

egoism

A self-serving motive (supposedly underlying all behavior) to increase one's own welfare. The opposite of altruism, which aims to increase another's welfare. If someone volunteers for the Big Sister tutor program, it is tempting to "explain" her compassionate action by the satisfaction it brings her. But such after-the-fact naming of rewards creates a circular explanation: "Why did she volunteer?" "Because of the inner rewards." "How do you know there are inner rewards?" "Why else would she have volunteered?" Because of this circular reasoning, egoism—the idea that self-interest motivates all behavior—has fallen into disrepute.

social trap

A situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing its self- interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior. Examples include the Prisoner's Dilemma and the Tragedy of the Commons. social trap—a situation when conflicting parties are caught in mutually destructive behavior: the Prisoner's Dilemma and the Tragedy of the Commons.

Genetic Variability of Empathy

About 1/3 of variability of Empathy is genetic

Men & Dangerous Situations

Alice Eagly and Maureen Crowley (1986) reported that when faced with potentially dan- gerous situations in which strangers need help (such as with a flat tire or a fall in a sub- way), men more often help. Eagly (2009) also reports that among recipients of the Carnegie medal for heroism in saving human life, 91 percent have been men.

social-responsibility norm

An expectation that people will help those needing help. With people who clearly are dependent and unable to reciprocate, such as children, the severely impoverished, and those with disabilities, another social norm motivates our help- ing. The social-responsibility norm decrees that people should help those who need help, without regard to future exchanges (Berkowitz, 1972; Schwartz, 1975).

reciprocity norm

An expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them. One universal moral code is a reciprocity norm: To those who help us, we should return help, not harm (Gouldner, 1960). This norm is as universal as the incest taboo. We "invest" in others and expect dividends. Politi- cians know that the one who gives a favor can later expect a favor. Mail surveys and solicitations sometimes include a little gift of money or personalized address labels, assuming some people will reciprocate the favor.

Do opposites attract?

Are we not also attracted to people who in some ways differ from ourselves? We are physically attracted to people whose scent suggests dissimilar enough genes to prevent inbreeding (Garver-Apgar et al., 2006). But what about attitudes and behavioral traits?

Two-factor theory of emotion

Arousal * its label = emotion. Proponents of the two-factor theory of emotion, developed by Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer (1962), argue that when the revved-up men responded to a woman, they easily misattributed some of their own arousal to her.

Theft Study on bystander intervention

At a store where beer gets stolen. Confederate comes in and steals case of beer 65% of lone customers informed 56% of pairs had one person who informed

anxious attachment

Attachments marked by anxiety or ambivalence. An insecure attachment style. Approximately 1 in 10 infants and adults exhibit the anxiousness and ambivalence that mark anxious attachment, the second type of insecure attachment. In the strange situation, infants are more likely to cling anxiously to their mother. If she leaves, they cry; when she returns, they may be indifferent or hostile. As adults, insecure individuals are less trusting, more fretful of a partner's becoming interested in someone else, and therefore more possessive and jealous.

avoidant attachment

Attachments marked by discomfort over, or resistance to, being close to others. An insecure attachment style. Approximately 2 in 10 infants and adults exhibit avoidant attachment, one of the two types of insecure attachment. Although internally aroused, avoidant infants reveal little dis- tress during separation and little clinging upon reunion. Avoiding closeness, avoidant adults tend to be less invested in relationships and more likely to leave them.

secure attachment

Attachments rooted in trust and marked by intimacy. Approximately 7 in 10 infants, and nearly that many adults, exhibit secure attachment (Baldwin et al., 1996; Jones & Cunningham, 1996; Mickelson et al., 1997). When placed as infants in a strange situation (usually a laboratory playroom), they play comfortably in their mother's presence, happily exploring this strange environment. If she leaves, they become distressed; when she returns, they run to her, hold her, then relax and return to exploring and playing

Dan Ariely

Author of Ted Talk on Illusions and how they can relate to financial decisions, etc.

Group selection

Back-scratching groups survive.

When Conformity turns Deadly

Based on classic bystander intervention study by Latane & Darley

Key to reciprocity persuasion

Be first to give, give unexpected and personalised gift

Similarity

Because similarity is conducive to liking, and liking is conducive to helping, we are more empathic and helpful toward those similar to us

Attractiveness & Social Comparison

But the lingering effect of exposure to perfect "10s," or of unrealistic sexual depictions, is to make one's own partner seem less appealing—more like a "6" than an "8." It works the same way with our self-perceptions. After viewing a very attractive person of the same gender, people rate themselves as being less attractive than after viewing a homely person

Types of Empathy

Cognitive Empathy - Thinking or understanding another's feelings Affective Empathy - Feeling another's emotions Then a mix of both

Johnson and Goldstein paper from Ariely Ted Talk

Dan Ariely shows how two sets of countries in Europe (who are very similar culturally) show different levels of organ donation drive. It is because of the two forms given being different by one word

Guilt

Distress is not the only negative emotion we act to reduce. Throughout recorded history, guilt has been a painful emotion that people avoid and seek to relieve. To examine the consequences of guilt, social psychologists have induced people to transgress: to lie, to deliver shock, to knock over a table loaded with alphabetized cards, to break a machine, to cheat. Afterward, the guilt-laden participants may be offered a way to relieve their guilt: by confessing, by disparaging the one harmed, or by doing a good deed to offset the bad one. The results are remarkably consistent: People will do whatever can be done to expunge the guilt, relieve their bad feelings, and restore their self-image.

Empathy and Video Games

Empathy can be increased with empathy-building games but can be decreased by violent games

Empathy and Parenting styles

Empathy depends on parenting styles

Empathy and children

Empathy is stable and measurable in children under age 2

non-zero-sum games

Games in which outcomes need not sum to zero. With cooperation, both can win; with competition, both can lose (also called mixed-motive situations).

Ariely study on Economist Ad

Gave students three options to subscribe to the Economist and then two options. At first experiment, students chose dominant option (Print&Web for $125 was 84%, Web for $59 was for 16%). During second experiment, students chose inferior option (Print&Web for $125 was 32%. Web for $59 was 68%)

proximity

Geographical nearness. Proximity (more precisely, "functional distance") powerfully predicts liking.

Video on expressing gratitude

Gratitude helps increase happiness

How to improve your marriage in 30 seconds

Honour your partner's dream. If you don't know what it is, then ask biatch

Indirect reciprocity

I'll scratch your back, you scratch someone's, and someone will scratch mine.

Reduce Ambiguity, Increase Responsibility

If Latané and Darley's decision tree (see Figure 5) describes the dilemmas bystanders face, then helping should increase if we can prompt people to correctly interpret an incident and to assume responsibility.

REGULATION.

If taxes were entirely voluntary, how many would pay their full share? Modern societies do not depend on charity to pay for schools, parks, and social and military security. We also develop rules to safeguard our common good

Attractiveness Research

In a worldwide BBC Internet survey of nearly 220,000 people, men more than women ranked attractiveness as important in a mate, whereas women more than men assigned importance to honesty, humor, kindness, and dependability (Lippa, 2007). The researchers gave each student personality and aptitude tests but then matched the couples randomly. On the night of the dance, the couples danced and talked for 21⁄2 hours and then took a brief intermission to evaluate their dates. How well did the personality and aptitude tests predict attraction? Did people like someone better who was high in self-esteem, or low in anxiety, or different from themselves in outgoingness? The researchers examined a long list of possibilities. But so far as they could determine, only one thing mattered: how physically attractive the person was (as previously rated by the researchers). The more attractive a woman was, the more the man liked her and wanted to date her again. And the more attractive the man was, the more the woman liked him and wanted to date him again. Pretty pleases. Bernard Murstein (1986) and others, they get real. They pair off with people who are about as attractive as they are.

Babies and Attractiveness (ew)

Judging by how long they gaze at someone, even 3-month-old infants prefer attractive faces (Langlois et al., 1987).

LIKENESS BEGETS LIKING.

Likeness produces liking not only for college students but also for children and the elderly, for people of various occupations, and for those in various cultures. The likeness-leads-to-liking effect has been tested in real-life situations: ∙ At two of Hong Kong's universities, Royce Lee and Michael Bond (1996) found that roommate friendships flourished when roommates shared values and personality traits, but more so when they perceived their roommates as similar. Perceived similarity also mattered more than actual similarity during speed- dating (Tidwell et al., 2013). Reality matters, but perception matters more.

Key to Consistency persuasion

Looking for and asking for voluntary active plus public small initial commitments that can be made

Meditation and Empathy

Meditation increases empathy

Empathy Deficit Disorder (EDD)

Not an actual clinical term but some people do lack empathy

The Power of a Uniform

People comply with anyone in a uniform (even if it's bogus) and do ridiculous things such as litter, and jump up and down.

Consistency in persuasion

People like to be consistent with things they have said before.

Authority in persuasion

People tend to follow credible knowledgeable experts

Liking in Persuasion

People tend to say yes to people they like. (Simple route to persuasion)

Scarcity in persuasion

People want more of what they can have less of. Ex. When British Airways said that twice daily NYC-LON flight was uneconomical. Sales went up.

Consensus in Persuasion

People will look to the actions and behaviours of others to determine their own

self-disclosure

Revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others. Deep, companionate relationships are intimate. They enable us to be known as we truly are and to feel accepted. We discover this delicious experience in a good marriage or a close friendship—a relationship where trust displaces anxiety and where we are free to open ourselves without fear of losing the other's affection (Holmes & Rempel, 1989). Such relationships are characterized by self-disclosure (Derlega et al., 1993).

Smoke Study on bystander intervention

Subject sat in waiting room, smoke was poured in. 75% reported smoke when alone 10% when two passive confederates present 38% when in a group of three subjects There's a bit of math. Check Outline.

Bystander Intervention in NYC subway

Study 1: Two experimenters went on the subway. Experimenter B asked a question to either (1) Experimenter A, (2) Subway rider or (3) Both of them together. When Experimenter A was asked, he provided wrong info to B and the subway rider didn't intervene unless asked directly. Study 2: Variation of previous study. It found that bystanders were reluctant to intervene if there are any risks involved. Experimenter A's persona was varied from (1) Low threat e.g "You might need to go uptown but I don't know", (2) Control group e.g Do Nothing, (3) Social Threat e.g legs stretched with muscle building magazine, to (4) Physical Threat e.g "watch where you're going!" 82% intervened with low threat. Intervention dropped as threat level went up.

Crash Study on bystander intervention

Subjects sat in room. Heard someone fall and scream. 70% helped when alone 40% of two-person groups helped when the subjects were unacquainted 7% offered help with a passive confederate

Ariely study on Attractiveness

Subjects were told to choose between three different computer generated faces. Two of them were two different faces, the third one was varied into two conditions. The two conditions were that the third face was just an uglier version of either the two faces. When an uglier version was there of a face, the subjects chose the attractive version of the face and completely ignored the different face.

Key to Scarcity persuasion

Telling people about benefits of proposition is not enough, one should point out what's unique and what they stand to lose if they don't accept your proposition

Tragedy of the Commons

The "commons" is any shared resource, including air, water, energy sources, and food supplies. The tragedy occurs when individuals consume more than their share, with the cost of their doing so dispersed among all, causing the ultimate collapse—the tragedy—of the commons.

companionate love

The affection we feel for those with whom our lives are deeply intertwined. If a close relationship is to endure, it will settle to a steadier but still warm afterglow called companionate love. The passion-facilitating hormones (testosterone, dopamine, adrenaline) subside, while the hormone oxytocin supports feelings of attachment companionate love The affection we feel for those with whom our lives are deeply intertwined. and trust (Taylor et al., 2010). Unlike the wild emotions of passionate love, companionate love is lower key; it's a deep, affec- tionate attachment. It activates different parts of the brain (Aron et al., 2005). And it is just as real. Nisa, a !Kung San woman of the African Kalahari Desert, explains: "When two people are first together, their hearts are on fire and their passion is very great. After a while, the fire cools and that's how it stays. They continue to love each other, but it's in a differ- ent way—warm and dependable"

bystander effect

The finding that a person is less likely to provide help when there are other bystanders. Latané and Darley surmised that as the number of bystanders increases, any given bystander is less likely to notice the incident, less likely to interpret the incident as a problem or an emer- gency, and less likely to assume responsibility for taking action (Figure 5).

Marrying a Stranger

The idea of authority in a uniform also can be extended to authority due to the situation (a marriage registrar has an authority during a wedding)

Kin selection

The idea that evolution has selected altruism toward one's close relatives to enhance the survival of mutually shared genes. If you carry my genes, I'll favor you. Thus, one form of self-sacrifice that would increase gene survival is devotion to one's children, the primal altruism with its neural systems enabling other forms of altruism You share one-half your genes with your brothers and sisters, one-eighth with your cousins. Kin selection— favoritism toward those who share our genes—led the evolutionary biologist J. B. S. Haldane to jest that although he would not give up his life for his brother, he would sacrifice himself for three brothers—or for nine cousins.

social capital

The mutual support and cooperation enabled by a social network. Reciprocity within social networks helps define the social capital—the supportive con- nections, information flow, trust, and cooperative actions—that keep a community healthy.

moral exclusion

The perception of certain individuals or groups as outside the boundary within which one applies moral values and rules of fairness. Moral inclusion is regarding others as within one's circle of moral concern.

complementarity

The popularly supposed tendency, in a relationship between two people, for each to complete what is missing in the other. Some complementarity may evolve as a relationship progresses. Yet people seem slightly more prone to like and to marry those whose needs, attitudes, and personalities are similar (Botwin et al., 1997; Buss, 1984; Rammstedt & Schupp, 2008; Watson et al., 2004). Perhaps one day we will discover some ways in which differences commonly breed liking. Dominance/submissiveness may be one such way (Dryer & Horowitz, 1997; Markey & Kurtz, 2006). But as a general rule, opposites do not attract.

physical-attractiveness stereotype

The presumption that physically attractive people possess other socially desirable traits as well: What is beautiful is good. Added together, the findings define a physical-attractiveness stereotype: What is beautiful is good. Children learn the stereotype quite early—often through stories told to them by adults. "Disney movies promote the stereotype that what is beautiful is good," Though interviewers may deny it, attractiveness and grooming affect first impres- sions in job interviews—especially when the evaluator is of the other sex The teachers perceived the attractive child as more intel- ligent and successful in school

overjustification effect

The result of bribing people to do what they already like doing; they may then see their actions as externally controlled rather than intrinsically appealing. When the justification for an act is more than sufficient, the person may attribute the act to the extrinsic justification rather than to an inner motive.

matching phenomenon

The tendency for men and women to choose as partners those who are a "good match" in attractiveness and other traits. The asset-matching process helps explain why beautiful young women often marry older men of higher social status (Elder, 1969; Kanazawa & Kovar, 2004). The richer the man, the younger and more beautiful the woman.

mere-exposure effect

The tendency for novel stimuli to be liked more or rated more positively after the rater has been repeatedly exposed to them. Mere exposure to all sorts of novel stimuli—nonsense syllables, Chinese calligraphy characters, musical selections, faces—boosts people's ratings of them. Do the supposed Turkish words nansoma, saricik, and afworbu mean something better orsomething worse than the words iktitaf, biwojni, and kadirga? University of Michigan students tested by Robert Zajonc (1968, 1970) preferred whichever of these words they had seen most frequently. The more times they had seen a meaningless word or a Chinese ideograph, the more likely they were to say it meant something good (Figure 2).

disclosure reciprocity

The tendency for one person's intimacy of self-disclosure to match that of a conversational partner. For those in love, deepening intimacy is exciting. "Rising intimacy will create a strong sense of passion," note Roy Baumeister and Ellen Bratslavsky (1999). This helps explain why those who remarry after the loss of a spouse tend to begin the new marriage with an increased frequency of sex, and why passion often rides highest when intimacy is restored following severe conflict.

social-exchange theory

The theory that human interactions are transactions that aim to maximize one's rewards and minimize one's costs. We exchange not only material goods and money but also social goods— love, services, information, status (Foa & Foa, 1975). In doing so, we aim to minimize costs and maximize rewards. Social-exchange theory does not contend that we consciously moni- tor costs and rewards, only that such considerations predict our behavior. Rewards that motivate helping may be external or internal. The New Yorker who, to prevent a train delay, jumped onto subway tracks to save a man who had fainted ("I was thinking, if he gets hit, I can't go to work"), was motivated by the external rewards of his time-and- a-half Sunday pay

reward theory of attraction

The theory that we like those whose behavior is rewarding to us or whom we associate with rewarding events. "I like Carol because she's warm, witty, and well-read." What that explanation leaves out—and what social psychologists believe is most important— is ourselves. Attraction involves the one who is attracted as well as the attractor. Thus, a more psychologically accurate answer might be, "I like Carol because of how I feel when I'm with her." The point can be expressed as a simple reward theory of attraction: Those who reward us, or whom we associate with rewards, we like. If a relationship gives us more rewards than costs, we will like it and will want it to continue. "Romantic dinners, trips to the theatre, eve- nings at home together, and vacations never stop being important. . . . If your relationship is to survive, it's important that you both continue to associate your rela- tionship with good things."

ingratiation

The use of strategies, such as flattery, by which people seek to gain another's favor. Our reac- tions depend on our attributions. Do we attribute the flattery to ingratiation—to a self- serving strategy? Is the person trying to get us to buy something, to acquiesce sexually, to do a favor?

empathy

The vicarious experience of another's feelings; putting oneself in another's shoes. But especially when we feel securely attached to some- one, report both Batson and a team of attachment researchers led by Mario Mikulincer (2005), we also feel empathy.

SMALL IS BEAUTIFUL

There is another way to resolve social dilemmas: Make the group small. In a small commons, each person feels more responsible and effective (Kerr, 1989). As a group grows larger, people become more likely to think, "I couldn't have made a difference anyway"—a common excuse for noncooperation (Kerr & Kaufman-Gilliland, 1997).

Perspective taking component of Empathy

This component can be learned and it helps eliminate actor-observer biases in attribution

THE PRISONER'S DILEMMA

This dilemma derives from an anecdote concerning two suspects being questioned sepa- rately by the district attorney (DA) (Rapoport, 1960). The DA knows they are jointly guilty but has only enough evidence to convict them of a lesser offense. So the DA creates an incentive for each one to confess privately: ∙ If Prisoner A confesses and Prisoner B doesn't, the DA will grant immunity to A and will use A's confession to convict B of a maximum offense (and vice versa if B confesses and A doesn't). ∙ If both confess, each will receive a moderate sentence. ∙ If neither prisoner confesses, each will be convicted of a lesser crime and receive a light sentence.

Marrying for Love & Arranged Marriage

Those who married for love reported diminish- ing feelings of love after a 5-year newlywed period. By contrast, those in arranged marriages reported more love after 5 years

Attractiveness & Averageness

To be really attractive is, ironically, to be perfectly average (Rhodes, 2006). Computer-averaged faces and bodies also tend to be perfectly symmetrical—another characteristic of strikingly attractive (and reproductively successful) people (Brown et al., 2008

Key to consensus persuasion

Use Descriptive normitive messages such as "80% don't litter" compared to "Please do not litter"

Dissimilarity Breeds Dislike

We have a bias—the false consensus bias— toward assuming that others share our attitudes. We also tend to see those we like as being like us (Castelli et al., 2009).

Key to liking in persuasion

We like those similar to us, those to pay us compliments, and those who cooperate with us towards mutual goals

Direct reciprocity

We scratch each other's backs.

Redelmeier and Shafir paper from Ariely Ted Talk

When physicians were told by the experimenters that patient didn't try either one medication or two medication, those which were in the experimental condition of two medication decided to let the patient go to hip replacement as it was an easier decision to make than going through the two trials of medication

Key to Authority persuasion

When trying to get customers, make sure you let someone else introduce you as the expert and then proceed

Emotional Matching

When you empathize, the emotion can also lead to physical changes. E.g- Study showed that when subjects were told to empathize (just by watching) with confederates, they experienced sweating just like the confederates when put into stressful situations.

God & Helpfulness

With God on their minds—after unscrambling sentences with words such as spirit, divine, God, and sacred—people become much more generous in their donations (Pichon et al., 2007; Schumann et al., 2014; Shariff et al., 2015). Follow-up studies have found that religious priming increases other "good" behaviors, such as per- sistence on an assigned task and actions consistent with one's moral beliefs (Carpenter & Marshall, 2009; Toburen & Meier, 2010). But "religion" and "God" have somewhat dif- ferent priming effects. "Religion" primes helpfulness toward ingroup members and "God" toward outgroup members (Preston & Ritter, 2013).

Zajonc & the Mere Exposure Effect

Zajonc (1980) argues that emotions are often more instantaneous than thinking. Zajonc's rather astonishing idea—that emotions are semi-independent of thinking ("affect may precede cognition")—has found support in recent brain research. Emotion and cognition are enabled by distinct brain regions. The mere-exposure effect has "enormous adaptive significance," notes Zajonc (1998). It is a "hardwired" phenomenon that predisposes our attractions and attachments. It helped our ancestors categorize things and people as either familiar and safe or unfamiliar and possibly dangerous.

Helping's boost to self-worth

do-good/feel-good effect. One month- long study of 85 couples found that giving emotional support to one's partner was posi- tive for the giver; giving support boosted the giver's mood (Gleason et al., 2003). Jane Piliavin (2003) and Susan Andersen (1998) reviewed studies that showed that youth who engaged in community service projects, school-based "service learning," or tutoring children develop social skills and positive social values. Other research confirms that giving increases happiness: ∙ A survey of more than 200,000 people in 136 countries found that, virtually everywhere, people report feeling happier after spending money on others rather than on themselves (Aknin et al., 2013). Givers are also less prone to depression than nongivers (Smith & Davidson, 2014).

Reciprocity in persuasion

the obligation to return in kind what another has done for us Ex. Waiters who gave mints received 3% more tips, those who gave 2 mints saw a 14% increase in tips. When waiters got the bill and proceeded to walk away but then turned back saying "for y'all here's an extra mint", the tips increased by 23%

Kitty Genovese

woman whose murder in front of witnesses led to research on bystander effect. 38 witnesses saw the entire murder

People usually stay married if they

∙ married after age 20, ∙ both grew up in stable, two-parent homes, ∙ dated for a long while before marriage, ∙ are well and similarly educated, ∙ enjoy a stable income from a good job, ∙ live in a small town or on a farm, ∙ did not cohabit or become pregnant before marriage, ∙ are religiously committed, ∙ are of similar age, faith, and education.