Sociological Theory - Exam 2

Theories of Identity: Queer Theory

- Arising from texts, conferences and organizations in the 1990s - All social life and institutions are structured through performative sexuality

Conflict Theory

- Attempt to fuse structural functionalism with Marxian focus on conflict - Marxian analysis at level of structures and institutions -popular in 1960s and 1970s -Hard time in 1990s (with fall of USSR) -Became theory without practice (e.g., concrete political change) - Some resurgence due to globalization (e.g., Immanuel Wallerstein's world systems theory)

what are china's barriers to capitalism according to weber?

- Confucianism; literary knowledge over technical skill and adjustment to the world as is) -taoism; traditional, not innovative, knowledge and achieving the proper state of mind, not working to demonstrate a state of grace - structural barriers; rigid kinship, patrimonial state, and pictorial language

Theories of Identity: Critical Theories of Race and Racism

- Race is a social construction - Racism is structural (not just individual prejudice or discrimination) - Intersections of race/racism and agency, structure, technology, political economy, globalization, nationalism, colonialism, neocolonialism, decolonization, etc.

Phenomenology

- Study of how objects appear to the human consciousness - People create social reality and are constrained by previously existing social reality within the lifeworld

how does simmel relate money to social life?

- To understand money is to understand social life.

what are india's barriers to capitalism according to weber?

- caste system - hinduism; belief in reincarnation which limits concept of working for change in this life

W.I. Thomas (1863-1947)

- chicago school - Promoted empirical research with theoretical framework (rather than abstract philosophizing) - Book with Dorothy Thomas: "If men define situations as real, they are real in their consequences."

George Herbert Mead (1863-1931)

- chicago school - Studied consciousness through lens of behaviorism (actors motivated by rewards and costs)

Robert Park (1864-1944)

- chicago school -Studied with Simmel, -focused on urban ecology, -secretary to Booker T. Washington

describe class according to weber

- economic - a group acting on a shared economic situation - based on property or lack thereof

the protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism:

- explains how one ethos (Set of ideas) influenced another - how innerwordly ascetic protestanism (Calvinism) influenced the ideas behind (spirit of) capitalism - god predestines people to heaven or hell and uncertainty regarding predestination was managed with 'signs' that came in the form of economic success + calvinism requires thrift and self control = combination framed self-interest + accumulation as ethical duty

what is weber's verstehen?

- german for understanding - belief that social scientists have advantage over natural scientists because they can understand the "why" behind human behavior

George Homans (1910-1989)

- harvard - Wealthy, drawn to Pareto as defense against Marx in the 1930s - Critiqued Parsons's approach as not theoretical (just vast system of categories for social world) Suggested theory should not be deductive but inductive (ground up based on observations) -Created exchange theory based on behaviorism

describe party according to weber

- political - highly organized structures struggling for power

weber's causality:

- probability that one event follows another (not certainty) - one way causal model - causality is multidimensional

Post modern theory:

- rejects grand narratives, -embrace interdisciplinary study, -would rather shock than inform, -focus on peripheral (rather than core) issues

formal rationality and religion:

- religion can prompt rationality and become rationalized - in the west, religion prompted rationality; around the world religion is impediment to formal rationality - religion became rationalized through the professionalization of leaders

describe status according to weber

- social - community with shared level of honor and shared consumption goals

Bureaucracy

- the purest structural form of rational legal authority - ideal type is high efficacy, reliability, and calculability - too much threatens individual freedom

Structural Functionalism:

- was popular during 1940s—1950s: during period of US dominance following WWII

formal rationality and art:

- western art developed in rational direction - music has understandable rules and mathematical patterns - painting/sculpture/ architecture have predictable distribution of spaces, lines and perspectives

W.E.B. Du Bois (1868-1963)

-First African American PhD from Harvard -Public intellectual - taught in sociology department at Harvard -Helped found NAACP -pioneered ethnography The Philadelphia Negro

Albion Small (1854-1926)

-Founded sociology department Chicago (1892), -collaborated first sociology textbook (1894), -founded American Journal of Sociology (1895), -founded American Sociological Society (1905)

simmel's view on secrecy as a form of interaction:

-Secrecy = person 1 hides something that person 2 wants to uncover. - We can never know another absolutely - People reveal and conceal, reporting only fragments. -Excessive self-revelation = uninteresting, lacking unexpected

provide important details of the frankfurt school:

-Shifted attention from economy to culture industry = added Max Weber to Karl Marx -Moved from Germany to Columbia University (during WWII) and back to Germany

what are the characteristics of the chicago school?

-Strong religion (Protestant) -Social reform -Scientific research

Theories of Science/Technology

-Studies how sci/tech influences social, cultural, and personal worlds -Many adopt constructionist outlook (science doesn't describe reality but structures social life and generates meaning) -Posthuman and postsocial = people are involved in networks with human and nonhuman components (Internet, artificial intelligence)

what were the major themes of study in early women's sociology?

-Women's lives and work are of equal importance to men's -situated and embodied standpoint (lacking men's tone of imperious objectivity) -Inequality (gender, race, class) = the major social problem -Aimed at social reform

Charles Horton Cooley (1864-1929)

-chicago school -Looking-glass self (consciousness shaped by social interaction)

Feminist Theory

-interdisciplenary and international movement of thinkers inside and outside academic institutions -Work from vantage point of women on gender stratification and its effects on larger world -Often challenge and criticize classical sociological theory (as male dominated domain)

Talcott Parsons (1902-1979)

-worked at harvard -The Structure of Social Action (1937) introduced grand European theorizing to Americans (focus on Durkheim, Weber, Pareto, but not Marx or Simmel) - The Social System (1951): structural functionalist theory = dynamic equilibrium between social structures; focus on order, cohesion, consensus, positive functions Critiqued for interpretations of Europeans, ignoring Marx, and white middle-class bias

name the 3 sociologies of everyday life:

1. Dramaturgical 2. Phenomenology 3. Ethnomethodology

name the 5 acts of later sociological history:

1. Early American 2. Chicago School 3. Early Women 4. Race Theory 5. To Midcentury

name and describe the 4 criticisms of simmel:

1. Forms: order where none exists 2. Social Structure: can't be both just a form of interaction and external and coercive to individuals. 3. No critical theory: No solution to objective culture overtaking subjective culture 4. No coherent theory: fragmentary academic work, hard to be Simmelian

Theories of Globalization: what are the 3 parts of Cultural globalization?

1. Globalization cannot overcome cultural differences 2. Globalization causes homogeneity among cultures (though differences remain) 3.Globalization creates hybrids of global and local culture (glocalization, hybridization, creolization)

what are the 4 main concepts of 21st century theory?

1. Identity 2. Consumption 3. Globalization 4. Science/Technology

name and describe the 3 major emphasizes of Theories of Identity

1. Identity construction = gender, race, dis(ability), orientation, etc. 2.Intersection of identity and state = citizenship, human rights, social justice 3. Multicultural theories = empower the marginalized, inclusive of disempowered groups, not value-free, attempt to disrupt

name and describe the 3 types of subordination

1. Subordination to a single leader = tightly knit group. 2.Subordination to a number of people, groups, or things = uneven situation 3. subordination to impersonal law or object= Most dehumanizing: (such as an icon)

what are the 6 characteristics of formal rationality

1. calculability, 2.efficiency, 3.predictability, 4. control, 5. replaces human technology with nonhuman technology, 6. irrational consequences

what are the 4 characteristics of cities according to weber?

1. closed settlement 2. large area 3. possesses a marketplace 4. partial political autonomy

what does simmel say are the 4 benefits of money?

1. expanded marketplace, 2. limited obligations, 3. more gratifications, 4.greater freedom

name and describe the 4 ideal types

1. historical ; found in a specific historical period (modern capitalist marketplace) 2. general sociological; found in a number of places and periods (bureaucracy) 3. action; pure types of individually motivated actions 4. structural; causes and consequences of social action (traditional domination)

according to simmel, what 4 things happen when money becomes the ultimate goal?

1. impersonal = everyone is a position not a person 2. reduced = human values reduced to dollars (ex. prostitution) 3. cynical, everything can be bought/sold 4. blase = everything is colorless

name and describe the 4 ideal types of action

1. means-ends rationality; motivated by an actor's desire to achieve a calculated outcome 2. value rationality; motived by achieving an outcome for its own sake (ethical, religious) 3. affectual action; motivated by an actor's emotional state 4. traditional action; motivated by actor's habits and customs

what are the two forms of culture according to simmel?

1. objective; ideas and systems that people make (art, science, philosophy) 2. subjective; ability of individuals to create, consume, and control objective culture conflict arises when objective culture overrides subjective culture

name the 2 topics of simmel's pure sociology

1. psychology/ mentality of individuals 2. forms and types

what are the 3 levels of sociological study and how do they interact according to simmel ?

1. pure sociology (micro) 2. general sociology 3. philosophical sociology (macro) they have a dialectic relationship

describe weber's 3 bases of authority

1. rational-legal ; belief in the legality of laws and leaders 2. traditional; sanctity of established traditions and leaders 3. charismatic; devotion to a leader based upon some characteristic that leader possesses

name and describe the 4 types of rationalization according to weber

1. theoretical; mental effort to understand reality using logic, induction and deduction 2. substantive; means-ends calculation for something valued: which may change in a different value system 3. practical; means-ends calculation for pragmatic egoistic goal 4. formal; means-ends calculation for universal goal

what are the 4 main criticisms of weber?

1. verstehen isnt objective; how can researchers be objective in interpreting individual subject meanings? 2. no real microsociology; class structure reduced to groups with same economic situation + political structure reduced to acceptance of one of the authority types 3. no critical theory; no theorizing on opportunities for social resistance to rationalization 4. crushing pessimism; "we are trapped in an increasingly meaningless and disenchanted world"

Thorstein Veblen (1857-1929)

Central problem = Business (owners who focus on profits) vs. Industry (skilled workers who operated system and focused on general welfare) - Theory of the Leisure Class (1899) critiquing business people who engage in conspicuous leisure and conspicuous consumption.

explain the difference between forms and content

Content = world filled with innumerable idiosyncratic events, actions, relationships, etc. Form = people order this bewildering array into a number of patterns based on commonalities

simmel vs. marx on history:

Contra Marx on history: Marx: alienation of worker from products = specific to historical capitalism, CAN be overcome through revolution. Simmel: alienation of objective culture from subjective culture = human condition, CAN'T be stopped.

simmel vs. marx on value:

Contra Marx on value Marx: Value = workers put species being into object through labor. Money allows surplus value (and exploitation). Simmel: Value = achieve proper distance from objects (not too close or far). Money makes objects distant (need money to buy) and overcomes distance (purchasing).

Theories of Globalization: whats the difference between Economic globalization and Political globalization

Economic globalization = both celebrated (by neoliberals) and criticized (by Marxists) Political globalization = both celebrate and criticize political systems that protect free markets

Exchange Theory: Peter Blau (1918-2002)

Exchange theory at the structural and cultural level; how exchange at individual level produces structures and how structures engage in exchange

simmel vs. marx on reification:

Extension of Marx on reification Marx: Reification = humanly created social forms (capitalism) seem natural, universal, objective, absolute. Simmel: Money = HOW objective culture becomes external to and coercive of individuals

Lester F. Ward (1841-1913)

First president of ASS (American Sociological Society), for social reform

describe simmel's philosophical sociology

Fundamental nature and inevitable fate of humanity

Who was in the Frankfurt School?

Horkheimer Adorno Fromm Marcuse Habermas Mannheim

where is society on a micro level according to simmel?

Individual consciousness: Society is external to individuals but also within their representations. People must conceptualize social structures, norms, and values to be influenced by them. Association Simmel sees society as the sum of interactions (reductionism) Synthesis of social interaction is society (social geometry)

William Graham Sumner (1840-1910)

Influenced by Spencer's Social Darwinism, survival of the fittest, against government help to those who "fail"

Erving Goffman (1922-1982)

Last major thinker with Chicago School most influential 20th century theorist Presentation of Self in Everyday Life (1959): social performance is like theater production (fragility, roles, costumes, front region, back region)

how does simmel oppose marx in views on the macro dialectic?

Marx: fetishism of commodities = separation of people and products (esp. under capitalism) ⁃ Simmel: ALL of human life exhibits this type of separation

name and describe the 3 parts of social geometry

Number, -dyad v. triad -Social roles emerge (competition, conflict, mediation, stratification, authority), become external to and coercive of individuals Group size - as group size grows so does individual freedom Distance Stranger must be close and far away (dialectic!) Determines value

Exchange Theory: George Homans (1910-1989)

Opted for Skinnerian Behaviorism as a theoretical basis for exchange theory (rather than structural functionalism) Sociology at the level of individual behavior and interaction (understood on the basis of costs and rewards) To understand a person, you must understand their history of costs and rewards

whats the difference between ethnomethodology and Phenomenology?

Phenomenology = what people think vs. Ethnomethodology = what people do

define types according to simmel

Positions in the structure of interactions and orientations to the social world (miser, spendthrift, stranger, adventurer, competitor, coquette)

Ethnomethodology

Study of common sense knowledge and everyday practices of ordinary members of society

give examples of simmel's forms

Subordination, superordination, exchange, conflict, sociability

what were the US vs Europe concerned with in sociology in the late 20th century?

US: attempt to theorize the integration of micro and macro levels of social reality Europe: attempt to theorize integration of agency and structure

2 major concepts of Du Bois:

Veil = separation between whites and blacks, but visibility between them Double Consciousness = two-ness of African Americans seeing themselves through others' eyes

describe the concept of fashion according to simmel

a form of social interaction that simultaneously enables conformity to the group and deviation from the norm

How does weber define sociology?

a science concerning itself with the interpretive understanding of social action and thereby with a causal explanation of its course and consequences

describe subordination/ superordination according to simmel

a social form in which one person, group, or objective force is in charge; others are under their authority.

define poverty according to simmel

being aided or having right to be aided by others (NOT lack of money)

formal rationality and cities:

cities arise in the west as an alternative to feudal land cities are necessary for the development of capitalism

what is stratification based on according to weber?

class, status, party

define weber's ideal types

concepts capturing the essential features of a social phenomenon used to build theoretical models

weber thought _____ was the best hope to generate political leaders

democracy

Micro-Macro Integration: Pierre Bourdieu

dialectical relationship between habitus (internalized mental structure used to navigate the social world) and field (network of relationships between objective positions)

according to simmel: its easier to accept lies from ______ people than _____

easier to accept lies from distant people than intimates

formal rationality and economics:

economy: modern capitalism defined by calculability

give the characteristics of rationalization according to weber

efficient, regular, and reliable patterns of action within civilizations, strata, institutions or groups

weber rejected large scale _____ accounts of society

evolutionary

simmel vs. weber on rationalization:

extension of Weber on rationalization Weber: Formal rationality (calculable, efficient, etc.) decreases substantive rationality (means-ends for something valued). Simmel: Money reduces quality to quantity, increases intellectuality, and decreases irrational aspects of life (e.g., emotions, faith).

Pitirim Sorokin (1889-1968)

founded sociology department at Harvard in 1930 and hired Talcott Parsons

according to weber what did the development of capitalism require?

free market, labor force, accounting techniques, shares and stocks, modern state, rational law, and science + technology

how does weber feel about capitalism?

he is highly critical of it but advocated for gradual reform rather than revolution

what did weber derive his concept of verstehen from?

hermeneutics: from interpretation of texts to interpretation of social life

what determines the value of an object according to simmel?

how easy it is to acquire; Value of an object goes down if too easy to get or too hard to get.

what was webers methodology?

identify generalized uniformities from empirical research

what was weber interested in studying?

large scale structures and meaning formation at the individual level

how does weber define authority?

legal form of domination

early women in sociology were: highly ______ (marginalized/ accepted) in academic circles of the times and were considered _______ rather than sociologists

marginalized activists

describe simmel's general sociology

meso; Structures and changes in sociocultural products/group spirit throughout history

what was simmel's method?

methodological relationist: everything is interacting with and influential of everything else

Structuralism and Poststructuralism: Freud: structures of _____ determine people's actions Marx: structures of ______ determine people's actions Strauss: _______ relationship between structures of mind and structures of society Baudrillard and Foucault: _______ (giving rise to postmodern)

mind society dialectical poststructuralist

define more-life and more-than-life according to simmel

more-life: creative capacity that allows people to transcend themselves by making objects more-than-life: these objects take on a life of their own and oppose their maker

what are the 4 paths to salvation according to weber?

mysticism; contemplation, emotion, and incantation while away from the world or while still within the world Asceticism; denying self worldly pleasures while away from the world or still within the world of the 4 types, ONLY inner worldly asceticism contributed to the development of capitalism, the others inhibit it

according to simmel secrets are:

one of man's greatest achievements

weber reduced collective concepts to ______ and _____

patterns, regularities

georg simmel was orginally trained as a what?

philosopher

formal rationality and law:

primitive law: irrational, undifferentiated system of norms formalized law: rational, systematic rules developed through professionalization

most modern theories of consumption focus on ___________

production

what is reactive behavior according to weber

purely automatic, involving no thought process

rationalization as social progress:

rationalization is causal and the cultural system of formal rationality embedded in the structures and individual thoughts/actions is a major cause of social outcomes

Preservation: every _____ ________ contributes to survival of the ____ _____ Equilibrium: best social change = _______ (major/no) social change

social pattern, larger system no

social action involves: _____ -> _______ -> ________

stimulus -> thought -> meaningful response

what is simmel's legacy?

symbolic interactionism, exchange theory, small group research

What does Weber teach about values in science?

that research should be value free; a researcher may allow their values to guide their topic choice but not data gathering or analysis that values cannot be chosen scientifically

what is the paradox of leadership in fashion?

the leader of a fashion trend is actually its best follower

overspecialization according to simmel:

the modern division of labor increases power of objective culture (over subjective culture) individuals become isolated from broader culture, and labor meaningless.

how does weber define domination?

the probability that commands will be obeyed

Micro-Macro Integration: Jurgen Habermas

the system (independent network of structures) colonizes the life-world (micro level interaction and communication)

what is fashions dialectic according to simmel?

thesis (everyone accepts a fashion) -> antithesis (mavericks deviate from norm) -> synthesis ( the fashion of the mavericks becomes the new accepted style)

what is the fourth level of social study according to simmel and what does it do?

ultimate metaphysical principles of life; shapes the other three levels

weber placed emphasis on _____ over intuition and empathy

vigorous empirical research

what is simmel's surplus value of wealth?

wealthy people derive advantages beyond just buying power from their wealth

how is simmel similar to weber in views on the macro dialectic?

⁃ More-Than-Life comes to dominate More-Life like an iron cage ⁃ Objective Culture comes to dominate Subjective Culture like a steel-hard shell