Sociology Final Exam

STAGE 2 : PREOPERATIONAL STAGE

( 2 to 7 years) Children use words & symbols to distinguish objects and ideas Rapid development of language skills Egocentric - assumes others see things from their point of view. They can't put themselves in your position...not able to care Child takes information and changes it in his mind to fit his/her ideas. Cannot think abstractly Beaker experiment - Conservation Principle

1. According to Cooley, this process contains three steps:

(1) we imagine how we look to others; (2) we interpret others' reactions (how they evaluate us); and (3) we develop a self-concep

Sensorymotor

(birth to 2yrs) Young children use their senses to experiment and learn about their world. Example - They discover that hands are actually part of themselves Through physical interaction with environment, the child forms concepts about reality & how the world really works. If an object is out of sight, they don't think it exists...this changes within sensorimotor stage - "object permanence."

STAGE 4: FORMAL OPERATIONS STAGE

(typically 11-15 yrs. old) Occurs in adolescence Master abstract thought - deductive reasoning The child can deal with ideas Child can understand values This is when the child develops a sense of what is moral and what is not

STAGE 3: CONCRETE OPERATIONAL STAGE

(typically 7-11 yrs. old) Evidence of organized logical thought Can begin to think in the abstract - conceptualize Concentration on tangible objects and events Thinking is less egocentric...can now take on the "position" of another. Capable of more problem solving (arithmetic equations can be solved).

The Symbolic Interactionist Perspective

Differential association is Edwin Sutherland's term to indicate that those who associate with groups oriented toward deviant activities learn an "excess of definitions" of deviance and thus are more likely to engage in deviant activities.The key to differential association is the learning of ideas and attitudes favorable to following the law or breaking it. Some groups teach members to violate norms (e.g., families involved in crime may set their children on a lawbreaking path; some friends and neighborhoods tend to encourage deviant behavior; even subcultures contain particular attitudes about deviance and conformity that are learned by their members). 2. Symbolic interactionists stress that people are not mere pawns, because individuals help produce their own orientation to life and their choice of association helps shape the self

Controlled Experiment

Disadvantages: Difficult or impossible to measure large number of variables; may have an artificial quality. Advantages: Focuses on only two or three variables; able to study cause and effect.

The Survey (polls, questionnaires, interviews)

Disadvantages: Difficult to focus in great depth on a few variables; difficult to measure subtle nuances in people's attitudes. Advantages: Permits the study of a large number of variables; results can be generalized to a larger population if sampling is accurate.

GENIE'S BEHAVIORS AFTER FOUND

Bunny-like combination walk/hop Sniffed at clawed at things - animal like Spat continuously Did not vocalize Researchers were very interested

Generalized

Can researcher draw conclusions from the specific data and apply them to broader population. other questions researcher might ask.. -do result apply only to those being study? -does research define or refute existing theories?

Eric Lenneberg and critical period

Eric Lenneberg - There is a window period for learning language. If you don't know language by puberty you can't learn it. What happens to Genie could confirm or debunk Lenneberg's theory.

stigma

Erving Goffman used "stigma" to refer to attributes that discredit one's claim to a "normal" identity; These include violation of norms of appearance (a facial birthmark, a huge nose or ears) and norms of ability (blindness, deafness, mental handicaps). The stigma can define a person's master status, superseding all other statuses the person occupies

Consequences of socialization

Establishes self concept-who we are allows us to see ourselves from the perspective of other: role taking encourages us to act allows us to bearers of our culture

Preparatory (imitation) Stage (up to age 3)

Children copy what they see parents or siblings doing. Imitation Stage Kids have difficulty distinguishing themselves from others. (no real sense of self) Later children begin to understand and use symbols to communicate (gestures, objects, words). They learn symbols that are appropriate for their culture. Self can only emerge through use of language/symbols

conflict theorist

Conflict theorists note that power plays a central role in defining and punishing deviance. The group in power imposes its definitions of deviance on other groups, and then uses the law and criminal justice system to maintain its power and privilege over those other groups.

Controlled Experiments

Controlled Experiments A method of collecting data that can determine whether something actually causes something else.

Cooley VS. MEAD

Cooley's conceptualization of the "looking-glass self" shows how a person's sense of self is inextricably linked to that person's sense of others; an individual imagines how other people see him or her, interprets their reactions to his or her behaviors, and develops a self-concept based on those interpretations. Mead's insights into "taking the role of the other"—as well as how children learn through stages of imitation, play, and games—illustrate the process by which people learn to become cooperative members of the human community and internalize the "rules" of the game of life. Furthermore, his formulation of the self as subject (the "I") and object (the "me") shows how socialization is an active process and how the human mind, as well as the self, is a social product.

ISABELLE'S CONDITION

Couldn't speak - only made noises Communicated through gestures Feared strangers at first, then became apathetic when approached by people. Physically underdeveloped: malnutrition/bowed legs (Rickets) On tests of maturity, scored like an infant rather than 6 year old. Progressed rapidly after receiving training After 2 mos. she spoke in complete sentences. Just before her ninth birthday, she was ready to attend school with other children. By 14, she was doing well in school and was emotionally well adjusted.

EFFECTS OF LACK OF SOCIALIZATION ON HUMANS

ISABELLE 1938 - Ohio Illegitimate Mother could neither hear nor speak. Parents, ashamed of Isabelle's illegitimacy Kept in isolation at home of her mother's parents. Isabelle kept in total isolation -mostly in dark room Discovered (at age 6) after her mother escaped parents home.

superego

Internalized social controls social standards of society

feral children

Isolated children show what humans might be like if secluded from society at an early age. Isabelle is a case in point. Although initially believed to be retarded, a surprising thing happened when she was given intensive language training. She began to acquire language and in only two years she had reached the normal intellectual level for her age. Without language there can be no culture or shared way of living.

_________is the view that the labels people are given affect their own and others' perceptions of them, thus channeling their behavior either into deviance or into conformity

Labeling theory

BOTTOM LINE FOR GENIE

Lack of early interaction permanently stunted Genie's development. Learned some language Could express ideas through language Could not learn sentences or form understandable sentences. Added support for Lennenberg's theory but research methods were very bad

Secondary Groups

Larger groups Relationships are not permanent Members are interchangeable Get together for a specialized purpose Opinions of secondary group members are important to us, but not as important as opinions of primary groups

Id

Made up of basic drives -need for food sex etc. craves immediate gratification self centered

Science is empirical? What does that mean?

Meaning it's based on careful and systematic observations. NOT CONJECTURE.

Harry harlow and monkeys

Monkeys raised in isolation - fearful & easily frightened. Didn't mate Self mutilation Harlow provided monkeys raised in isolation with 2 "artificial mothers" (i.e., mother surrogates) One cloth covered replica of a monkey One made of wire -but it could give milk Bottom line - Lack of early socialization caused the rhesus monkeys to act unusually. Females became abusive mothers.

GENIE'S LACK OF SOCIALIZATION

NOVA Emmy Award Winning Story Not her real name - but just like a mythical genie she emerges into society past childhood. In Los Angeles, California - found in 1970 at age 13. Confined to a room -mostly tied to a potty chair by day By night bound in sleeping bag Father thought she was cognitively impaired. No one to talk to day after day Beaten for making noises Mother leaves husband, seeks social services Father commits suicide shortly after

What are the two things that typically make us what we are?

Nature (influence of our heredity - our genetic makeup) Nurture (the influence of our environment) Socialization is all about the "nurture" part. *it is society that makes people "human." People learn what it means to be and, consequently, become members of the human community through language, social interaction, and other forms of human contact.

DRINKING & SOCIALIZATION

No, according to McAndrew and Edgerton (1969). Book titled, "Drunken Comportment: A Social Explanation"Studies of ways that drinkers behave in different cultures Their conclusion: Different cultures act differently Therefore, cultures learn acceptable "drunken behavior."

FREUD'S THEORY OF SELF: PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY- UNCONSCIOUS MIND SHAPES BEHAVIOR

Our natural instincts are in conflict with societal constraints. A part of us wants limitless pleasure Another part of us needs social order Conflict results

MEAD'S STAGES OF SELF - STAGE 2

Play Stage (3 to 5) Children pretend to be other people. Role taking begins Role taking - mentally assuming the perspective of another Responding from an imagined viewpoint. During this stage, children begin to be able to predict how a significant other will react to them.

Primary Groups

Primary Groups Are most important to our self concept Are most important to our socialization Family Small groups that we have contact Enduring contact Face-to-face contact Contact that involves great cooperation Emotional Depth (write this in notes) "We" situation. Feelings of intimate belongingness

Distorted mirrors

Problem: These feelings about ourselves are not always accurate. Sometimes, the looking glass (interactions with society) gives us distorted images. The images the looking glass gives us are sometimes more subjective than objective Dyslexia Anorexia Nervosa Media contributes to distorted self images

ANTICIPATORY SOCIALIZATION

Process of socialization where person rehearses for future positions, occupations and relationships ex:You research colleges you might want to attend to see if you might fit in. You take on an internship to learn about a particular line of work

surveys

Surveys involve collecting data by having people answer a series of questions. 1. The first step is to determine a population (the target group to be studied) and select a sample (individuals from within the target population who are intended to represent the population to be studied). Random samples are those where everyone in the target population has the same chance of being included in the study.

What is sociological research?

The tool sociologist use to answer questions -involves vigorous observation and analysis

Travis Hirschi

Travis Hirschi noted that strong bonds to society, based on attachments, commitments, involvements, and beliefs, lead to more effective inner controls

MEAD'S THEORY OF SELF

We are not born with a self -we develop a self through interactions with others. Infants don't see themselves as separate from others As we mature, we become concerned about what others think of us. The ones whose opinions about us count most are called -significant others

Overt Participant Observation

When the members of the group being studied do know that they are being researched

"Going Native"

When the observer becomes so much a part of the group that she or he is no longer a scientific observer but rather a participant.

Informant

a person with whom the participant observer works closely in order to learn about the group `

Hypothesis

a prediction -what the sociologist must determine if its true or false.

Content Analysis

a way of measuring by examining the cultural artifacts of what people write, say, see and hear

variable

characteristic of a person or group that can have more than one value or score. -sociologists analyze how they influence each other.

Functionalists contend that deviance is functional for society

contributes to the social order by clarifying moral boundaries, promoting social unity, and initiating social change. Furthermore, according to "strain theory," people are likely to experience strain, which, in turn, can lead some people to choose deviant and/or criminal behavior rather than conforming to cultural goals and/or engaging in legitimate institutional means. In addition to strain theory, functionalists stress theories addressing illegitimate opportunity structure in society.

Different deviance theories

differential association theory (people learn deviance from the groups with whom they associate), control theory (people generally avoid deviance because of an effective system of inner and outer controls), and labeling theory (people are directed toward or away from deviance by the labels others pin on them).

Face-Work

efforts people make to avoid public embarrassment and maintain a proper image. Ways of keeping your public image acceptable. When we engage in face-work, we...

Most important agent?

family -initial teachers of language culture knowledge values social skills gender roles

Stage

front stage: behavior intended for others back stage: dialogue/behavior outside an audience off stage: no performers, no audience

Random sample

gives everyone in the population an equal chance of being selected.

Controlled Experiments

highly focused ways of collecting data and are especially useful for determining a pattern of cause and effect

reliability

if repeated would you get the same results? how can you achieve reliability? 1. have random samples 2. maybe repeat testing

Priority of sociology

since the beginning sociology has attempted to adhere to a scientific approach -sociology is a science

indicators

something that points to or reflects an abstract concept. -a way of seeing a concept

induction

start with empirical observations Then form theory •Starting with the specific and moving to the genera

What are the techniques used to collect data?

survey research, participant observation, controlled experiments, content analysis, historical research, and evaluation research.

Correlation

technique for analyzing the patterns of association; between pairs of variable; income/school

Validity

the degree to which it measures or reflects a concept. In other words, it measures what its intended to measure.

Dependent variable

the one which is presumed effect. X- may lead Y to change x=independent y=dependent *Intervening variables=variables fall between the independent and depend variables.

2.Creating a research design

the overall logic and strategy underlying a research project. In order words how do you plan to research? What specific group? When? What specifics? etc.

Covert Participant Observation

when members of the group being studied do not know that they are being researched

freuds Ego

Balances the urges of the id with the requirements of society

Inductive reasoning

-Arrives at conclusions from observations -observations to more generalized

MEAD'S STAGES OF SELF - STAGE 3 GAME STAGE

-In game stage children understand a generalized other -Generalized other: an internalized sense of total expectations others have of us in a variety of settings

SCHOOLS AS AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION

-There is a hidden curriculum ex: conformity to norms gender roles values beliefs of the larger society

What is the scientific method?

-includes several steps in a research process a. observation b. hypothesis c. testing d. analysis of data e. drawing conclusions

strain theory

1. Merton used "anomie" to refer to the strain people experience when they are blocked in their attempts to achieve those goals. 2. The most common reaction to cultural goals and institutionalized means is conformity (using lawful means to seek goals society sets). 3. He identified four types of deviant responses to anomie: innovation (using illegitimate means to achieve the goals of society); ritualism (giving up on achieving cultural goals but clinging to conventional rules of conduct); retreatism (rejecting both the cultural goals and the institutionalized means of achieving them); and rebellion (seeking to replace society's goals). According to strain theory, deviants are not pathogenic individuals but the products of society

1. Developing a research question

-one source of research might be past research. ex: sociologist might want to disagree with a finding and decide to carry further research -might derive from observation Literature review: developing a research question typically involves reviewing existing studies ex: past reports, research etc.

Reaching conclusions

-relating findings to sociological theory and past research -a question researchers might ask themselves is does their findings generalize? In other words, can they draw conclusions from the specific data and apply them to broader population.

Hawthorne effect

-the idea of the possible effect that a researcher might have on its subject. Originally noted in a Hawthorne plant in IL. Whenever the researcher was observing workers productivity would go up.

Entrance to a total institution often is called degredetation ceremony

-uniforms, numbers haircuts

Piaget

-we develop schema of how world works schema: mental categorization of how the world works. its modified as we mature

Deductive reasoning

-when sociologist uses deductive reasoning he or she creates a specific research question about a focused point that is based on a more general or universal principal.

Experiments

. Experiments are especially useful in determining causal relationships. 1. Experiments involve independent (factors that cause a change in something) and dependent variables (factors that are changed). 2. Experiments require an experimental group (subjects exposed to the independent variable) and a control group (subjects not exposed to the independent variable).

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) believed that personality consisted of three elements: the id, ego, and superego

1. The id—inherited drives that cause one to seek self-gratification—demands fulfillment of basic needs such as attention, safety, food, and sex. 2. The ego is the balancing force between the needs of the id and the demands of society. 3. The superego—the social conscience we have internalized from social groups— gives us feelings of guilt or shame when we break rules, and feelings of pride and self-satisfaction when we follow them. 4. Sociologists object to Freud's view that inborn and unconscious motivations are the primary reasons for human behavior, for this view denies the central tenet of sociology—that social factors shape people's behaviors. 5. Feminist sociologists have been especially critical of Freud. According to Freud, females are inferior, castrated males

Jean Piaget

1. The sensorimotor stage (0-2 years): Understanding is limited to direct contact with the environment (touching, listening, seeing). 2. The preoperational stage (2-7 years): Children develop the ability to use symbols (especially language), which allow them to experience things without direct contact. 3. The concrete operational stage (7-12 years): Reasoning abilities become much more developed. Children now can understand numbers, size, causation, and speed, but have difficulty with abstract concepts such as truth. 4. The formal operational stage (12+ years): Children become capable of abstract thinking, and can use rule

Cooley's 3 phases of developing

1. We imagine our appearance to another person 2.We imagine the other persons judgment 3. develop a feeling about ourselves

Independent variable

1. one that research wants to test as the presumed cause of something else.

Resocialization

A. Resocialization refers to the process of learning new norms, values, attitudes, and behaviors. Resocialization in its most common form occurs each time we learn something contrary to our previous experiences, such as going to work in a new job. It can be an intense experience, although it does not have to be. B. Erving Goffman used the term total institution to refer to places such as boot camps, prisons, concentration camps, or some mental hospitals, religious cults, and boarding schools—places where people are cut off from the rest of society and are under almost total control of agents of the institution. 1. A person entering the institution is greeted with a degradation ceremony, which may include fingerprinting, shaving the head, banning personal items, and being forced to strip and wear a uniform. In this way, his current identity is stripped away and a new identity is created. 2. Total institutions are quite effective in isolating people from outside influences and information; supervising their activities; suppressing previous roles, statuses, and norms and replacing them with new rules and values; and controlling rewards and punishments.

B. George H. Mead (1863-1931) agreed with Cooley but added that play is critical to the development of a self. In play, we learn to take the role of others—to understand and anticipate how others feel and think.

According to Mead, the development of the self goes through stages: (1)imitation (children initially can only mimic the gestures and words of others); (2)play (beginning at age three, children play the roles of specific people, such as a firefighter or the Lone Ranger); and (3) team games (in the first years of school, children become involved in organized team games and must learn the role of each member of the team). 3. He distinguished the "I" from the "me" in development of the self: the "I" component is the subjective, active, spontaneous, creative part of the social self (for instance, "I shoved him"), while the "me" component is the objective part— attitudes internalized from interactions with others (for instance, "He shoved me"). 4. Mead concluded that not only the self, but also the mind is a social product. We cannot think without symbols, and it is our society that gives us our symbols by giving us our language.

I. What is Deviance?

According to sociologist Howard S. Becker, it is not the act itself that makes an action deviant, but rather how society reacts to it

Participant Observation

Advantages: Studies actual behavior in its home setting; affords great depth of inquiry. Disadvantages: Is very time-consuming; difficult to generalize beyond the research setting.

Sample

Any subset of people of a population population=large collection of people (groups or categories) which the researcher studying and about to generalize. *must be representative!

MEAD'S THEORY OF SELF - THE "I" AND THE "ME"

I= How i am what i want spontaneous, reactionary self, how i act when I'm not worried about others Me:Concepts of me what others want and expect This is how I should be according to society passive, conforming self public me example-car accident

MEAD'S STAGES OF SELF - STAGE 3

Game Stage (early school years 6 to 9) Children begin to understand not only their role but the roles of others around them. Understand what people around them are supposed to be doing. Everyone has to perform a role. Baseball game. World requires cooperation RULES Understanding of multiple roles

Informed Consent

Getting agreement to participate from the respondents or subjects after the purposes of the study are explained in detail to them.

HOW IMPORTANT ARE OUR EARLY INTERACTIONS?

Harry Harlow - Early 1950's studies with rhesus monkeys and macaques. Studied monkeys raised away from mothers & other monkeys. Monkeys weren't socialized. Findings: Monkeys raised in isolation - fearful & easily frightened. Didn't mate Self mutilation Harlow provided monkeys raised in isolation with 2 "artificial mothers" (i.e., mother surrogates) One cloth covered replica of a monkey One made of wire -but it could give milk

Quantitative vs Qualitative

Quantitative: statistics, numbers etc. 1.reduces data into numbers Qualitative: Based on more interpretive observations 1.follows more interpretation -Nonetheless both are and depend on empirical underpinning!

how to explain data

Rate the same as parts per some number Mean the same as average Median midpoint in series of values arranged in numerical order Mode the value that appears mist frequently

RESEARCH ON GENIE

Researchers received a grant and worked with Genie for about 4 years. Grant discontinued - Researcher who Genie lived with gave Genie up. Returned to mother in 1975. Too difficult - given up to foster care Regressed - abused

William J. Chambliss's study

Saints (troubled boys from respectable middle class families) and the Roughnecks (boys from working class families who hang out on the streets) provides an excellent illustration of labeling theory, which is how labels given to people affect how others perceive them and how they perceive themselves, thus channeling their behavior into deviance or conformity. The study showed how labels open and close doors of opportunity for the individuals involved.

secondary analysis

Secondary analysis, which is the analysis of data already collected by other researchers, is used when resources are limited and/or existing data may provide excellent sources of information. However, because the researcher did not directly carry out the research, he or she cannot be sure that the data were systematically gathered, accurately recorded, and biases avoided.

___________________formulated personality in terms of the id (the inborn drives for self-gratification), the ego (the balancing force between the id and the demands of society that suppress it), and the superego (the conscience, representing culture within us). Many sociologists reject Freud's contention that inborn and unconscious motivations are the primary determinants of human behavior. However, many sociologists are attracted to Freud's notion that the superego represents the internalization of social norms. Feminists criticize Freud's theoretical assumption that "maleness" is "normal" and that females can be analyzed as inferior, castrated males.

Sigmund Freud

THE KEY FOR PIAGET

Social interaction is the key to development Because of interactions we can develop & mature

ARE WE ROBOTS?

Socialization doesn't make us into robots Socialization emphasizes adaptations people make as they learn to live in society. Our uniqueness derives from different experiences, different patterns of socialization, imperfect way we learn expectations, etc.

Participant observation

Sociological research technique to obtain an emic perspective. In order to gain insights about a particular group you participate.

deviance

Sociologists use the term deviance to refer to any violation of rules and norms. From a sociological perspective, deviance is relative. Definitions of "what is deviant" vary across societies and from one group to another within the same society. Howard S. Becker described the interpretation of deviance as "not the act itself, but the reactions to the act, that makes something deviant." This coincides with the symbolic interactionist view. In some cases, an individual need not do anything to be labeled a deviant. He or she may be falsely accused or discredited because of a birth defect, race, or disease. Even crime is relative when interpreting the deviance of the actor.

The Scientific Method

Sociology is committed to using the scientific method when studying society. •What is the Scientific Method? •Originally defined by Sir Francis Bacon (1561-1626) •Empirical - based on observation; not conjecture •Systematic, organized series of steps that ensures •Maximum objectivity •Maximum consistency in researching a problem (reliability).

Deduction

Start with theory •Form guess (hypothesis) •Make empirical observations & analyze data to support (or reject) hypothesis •Starting with the general and moving to the specific

Similar to what Cooley called "primary group."

The ones whose opinions about us count most are called -significant others

What about questionnaires?

The questionnaires can be administered either by asking respondents to complete the survey themselves (self-administered questionnaires) or by asking respondents the questions directly (interviews). The researcher must consider the effects that interviewers have on respondents that lead to biased answers (interviewer bias) and whether to make the questions structured (closed-ended questions in which the answers are provided) or unstructured (open-ended questions which people answer in their own words). 4

What does sociological research derive from?

The scientific research method originally defined and elaborated by Sir Francis Beacon.

significant other

The significant other is more important in the development of self (socialization) than the generalized other.

Analyzing data

after data collected (regardless of what it is) needs to be analyzed. Data analysis: the process by which sociologist organize collected data to discover the patterns and uniformities that the data reveals. Serendipity: findings that were not anticipated

degradation ceremony:

an attempt to remake the self by stripping away an individual's current identity and stamping a new one in its place (p. 85)

concept

any abstract characteristic or attribute that that can potentially be measured ex: social class and power are concepts

PEER GROUPS

peer Groups - Groups of those who are similar in age, social class and/or interests Interact on equal terms When do peer groups become particularly strong socialization agents? Peer groups become strong agents in adolescence. Peer groups start to become Mead's significant other

Agents of socialization

people, institutions or structures that pass on social expectations 1.family 2.media 3.peers 4.religion 5.sports 6.schools. 7.workplace 8.state

3. Gathering data

primary-original material being collected Secondary: research conducted by a different party(census data, opinion polls etc.)

re-socialization

process of discarding former behavior patterns and accepting new ones

taking the role of the other:

putting oneself in someone else's shoes; understanding how someone else feels and thinks and thus anticipating how that person will act (p. 70)

Total instution

regulates all aspects of a persons life

replication study

research that is done one a different time, area, group of people.