Sociology Mid-Term Exam

Emile Durkheim

(1858-1917) Society consists of interrelated social structures that function to meet basic needs of individuals Argued that a new form of sociological integration is what defined the modern world Key concepts: social structure, social facts, social solidarity, anomie, function/dysfunction

What are the advantages and disadvantages of asking open-ended and closed-ended questions?

*Open-ended questions: allows for a wide variety of responses *Closed-ended questions: imposes a limit on possible responses Open ended questions allow you to better understand the respondent's true feelings and attitudes about the survey subject. Close ended questions, due to their limitations, do not give respondents the choice to truly give their opinions. Both closed and open ended questions used in surveys have their benefits.

Exploitation

-Capitalists have all the power over the production and labor decisions workers must sell their labor and compete for jobs This unequal power dynamic creates conditions of exploitation

In about a paragraph, identify at least three historical developments that shaped the emergence of sociology during the early 19th century and describe how they influenced the discipline.

-Democratic revolution -Enlightenment -Modern Science -Industrial Revolution

Structural functionalism

-Society is composed of structures -- regular patterns of behavior and organized social arrangements that persist through time and the functions they serve -- the biological and social needs of individuals who make up society. Disorganization or dysfunction leads to social change and new equilibrium.

Historical developments that shaped the development of sociology

-The enlightenment -Democratic revolutions -The industrial revolution -Modern science

Historical Materialism

-To understand the social order, we must first understand how society produces the things it needs. -The system by which people produce material goods is the mode of production -The dominant mode of production determines who has what (inequality)

Types of Authority

-Traditional: based in custom, birthright, divine right, and is usually associated with monarchies and dynasties. -Charismatic: based in the remarkable personal qualities of the leader. Neither rules nor traditions are necessary for the establishment of a charismatic leader, indeed, the leader can be revolutionary, breaking rules and defying traditions. -Legal-rational: Based in laws and rules, not in the lineage of any individual leader. EX; modern presidencies and parliaments

In about a paragraph, describe George Ritzer's theory of "the McDonaldization of society." Do you agree with Ritzer's evaluation of McDonaldization? Use examples to defend your answer.

-Trickle down rationalization process -Ritzer argued that other sectors of society, from education to health care, are becoming more like Mc Donalds Only care about efficiency and the amount of money being made for the corporations. Irrationality of rationality; there is an unfairness with the entirety of the system; dehumanization.

Karl Marx

-Was a German political economist, and was the inspiration for conflict theory. -Economic relations key to understanding society -Groups with different resources, interests and always in conflict -Capitalism leads to conflict between social classes - worker (proletariat) and owner (bourgeoise) - and exploitation Marx's Theory Class Relations: -Historical change emerges from the contradictions between agnostic class relations. -Capitalist society is defined by the relationship between worker (proletariat) and owner (bourgeoisie) Mass exploitation will lead to class consciousness and revolution But first, workers must overcome false consciousness - capitalist ideology that leads them to accept an unfair system.

Common errors of causal knowledge

1. False consensus; assume everyone thinks like you do 2. Halo effect; accept knowledge of those with status or prestige 3. Premature closure; end investigation before gathering enough evidence 4. Causal observation; no systematic process for observing or assessing accuracy 5. Selective observation; we see only the patterns we want to see; we assume that only patterns we experienced directly exist. 6. Overgeneralization: assume broad patterns when observations are limited.

The scientific method

1. Identify a problem or ask a question 2. Conduct a literature review 3. Form a hypothesis; give operational definitions to variables 4. Choose a research design or method 5. Collect data 6. Analyze data 7. Disseminate findings

in-group

A group; a member identifies with a feels loyalty towards

bureaucracy

A specific type of secondary group, are everywhere in your life - your university, employer, internet service provider, fast-food restaurant, and even a church.

Anomie

A state of normlessness coined by Durkheim. A feeling of being disconnected from group life

The sociological perspective

Also referred to as taking a sociological approach or thinking sociologically. looking at the world in a unique way and seeing it in a new light.

Cooley "looking glass self" theory

Cooley's theory of the self concept; our sense of self is derived from how we imagine others see us, and from our feelings about our self based on the perceived judgements of others.

Cultural change: Technology, cultural diffusion, cultural imperialism

Cultural diffusion; cultural change can occur when different groups share their material and nonmaterial culture with each other. -Since each culture has its own tools, beliefs, and practices, exposure to another culture may mean that certain aspects will then be appropriated. EX: McDonalds style restaurants are built in cultures where fast food has previously been unknown. Cultural Imperialism: the exercise of domination in cultural relationships in which the values, practices, and meanings of a powerful foreign culture are imposed upon one or more native cultures. Cultural leveling: occurs when cultures that were once distinct become increasingly similar to one another.

Subculture and counterculture: Culture

Culture: the entire way of life of a group of people; can include language and gestures to style of dress and standards of beauty, from customs and rituals to tools and artifacts, from music and child-rearing practices to the proper way for customers to line up in the grocery store. It forms basic beliefs and assumptions about the world and the way things work, and it defines the moral parameters of what is right and wrong, good and bad. Subculture; a culture within a culture. A particular social group that has a distinctive way of life, including its own set of values and norms, practices and beliefs, but that exists harmoniously within the larger mainstream culture. Counterculture: Another kind of subgroup, in that its norms and values are often incompatible with or in direct opposition to the mainstream.

Deductive vs. inductive approaches

Deductive Approach: Researchers form a hypothesis first and then test to see whether it is accurate Inductive Approach: begin with specific observations and then form broad theoretical generalizations from those observations Both approaches are systematic, scientific ways to link data with theory.

In about a paragraph, identify and describe the most essential elements of the theories of the classical sociological thinkers—Marx, Durkheim, and Weber. How do their visions of modernity differ?

Durkheim; functionalist theory; Durkheim believed that society exerted a powerful force on individuals. According to Durkheim, people's norms, beliefs, and values make up a collective consciousness, or a shared way of understanding and behaving in the world. The collective consciousness binds individuals together and creates social integration. Marx: He believed all countries should become capitalist and develop that productive capacity, and then workers would naturally revolt, leading communism whereby the workers would become the dominant social class and collectively control the means of production. Weber: Weber believed that modern societies were obsessed with efficiency - modernizing and getting things done, such that questions of ethics, affection and tradition were brushed to one side - this has the consequence of making people miserable and leading to enormous social problems.

In about a paragraph or less, describe how ethnocentrism has affected your lived experiences? What do you think a more culturally relativist approach to your lived experiences would look like? Answers should demonstrate a clear understanding of the concepts ethnocentrism and cultural relativism.

Ethnocentrism is thinking of one's own culture as the normal one. Cultural relativism; which means seeing each different culture as simply different. Not better or worse, not right or wrong, but on its own terms.

Alienation

Everything of value is the result of human labor (our creative power) Capitalists extract value from workers by paying them less than the true value of what they produce Thus, workers are estranged from the fruits of their labor.

Max Weber

Father of sociology. Argued that in a capitalist society inequalities would lead to conflict, but that there would be more than one source of conflict. Argued that there were several factors that moderated people's reaction to inequality.

Aggregates

Generally, quite temporary Form more organically and end in and of themselves People who find themselves together in a particular location DO NOT form lasting social relations

McDonaldization

George Ritzer's term describing the spread of bureaucratic rationalization and the accompanying increases in efficiency and dehumanization

Goffman The Thomas theorem Impression management Frontstage and backstage

Goffman; in the group of symbolic interactionists; micro-level Dramaturgy; explores issues with identity He believed that all meaning, as well as our individual selves, is constructed through interaction -Thomas Theorem; "if people define situations as real, they are real in their consequences." Because we encounter ambiguous situations everyday, many meanings are possible. The way we define each situation, then, becomes its reality. -Impression management; like actors on a stage, we play our parts and use all our communicative resources (verbal and non-verbal) to present a particular impression to others. Backstage; where we prepare or rehearse for our performances Frontstage; where we play a particular role and perform for an "audience" of others. *We behave differently and present different selves frontstage than we do backstage. e

Freud Unconscious mind Id, Ego, Superego Social order

ID; composed of biological drives, is the source of instinctive, psychic energy. Its main goal is to achieve pleasure and to all pain in all situations, which makes the id a selfish and unrealistic part of the mind Ego; deals with the real world. It operates on the basis of reason and helps to mediate and integrate the demands of both the id and the superego Superego: composed of two components; the conscience and the ego-ideal. The conscience serves to keep us from engaging in socially undesirable behavior and the ego-ideal holds up our vision of who we believe we should ideally be. The superego develops as a result of parental guidance, particularly in forms of rewards and punishments we receive as children.

Rationalization

Leads to disenchantment Formal organization and bureaucracy dominate social life Science, efficiency, cost/benefit calculations

Young children develop a distinct sense of self through the process of taking the role of the particular or significant other, according to the symbolic interactionist George Herbert Mead. In about a paragraph, describe how children engage in this role-taking process.

Mead discovered different stages; theory of self and believed that the self is created through social interaction. There are three different stages and they include; the preparatory stage, the play stage and the game stage. For this example, the children who take a role of a particular or significant other would occur within the play stage. EX: firefighter, mommy, princess This occurs around the age of three; children start to pretend and be certain things... A children learn the behavior associated with being a mother or a doctor, they internalize the expectations of those particular others and begin to gain new perspectives in addition to their own. Such play also serves the purpose of anticipatory socialization for the real-life roles that a child might play in the future.

Mechanical and organic solidarity

Mechanical Solidarity arises when individuals feel bonded by their similarity (shared values & bonds) Organic Solidarity arises when individuals are bonded through their division of labor

out-group

Members usually feel a certain distinctness from or even hostility toward other groups

Nature vs. nurture

Nature: argue that human behavioral traits can be explained by genetics Nurture: argue that human behavior is learned and shaped through social interaction BOTH ARE CORRECT AND PLAY A ROLE!!!!

mores

Norms that carry a greater moral significance and are more closely related to the core values of a social group. Practically everyone is expected to conform

Culture shock

Occurs when a person visits an "exotic" foreign culture. A way to gain sociological perspective.

do no harm

One of the core ethical principles; means to follow a system of regimen in which according to one's ability and judgment, consider what's beneficial for one's patients, or to help or to at least do no harm

social influence

Peer pressure When individuals are part of groups, they are necessarily influenced by other members.

Positive and negative sanctions

Positive Sanction: express approval and may come in the form of a handshake, a smile, praise, or perhaps an award Negative Sanction: express disapproval and may come in the form of a frown, harsh words, or perhaps a fine or incarceration.

Types of power

Power; the ability to control the actions of others Coercive: backed by the threat of force Influential: supported by persuasion

groups; primary and secondary

Primary Groups; Groups in which we are intimately associated with other members Family and close friends Typically involves more face-to-face interactions, greater cooperation, and deeper feelings of belonging. Secondary Groups; Less intimate More formal and impersonal May last for quite some time but are more temporary than primary Typically organized around a specific activity or the accomplishment of a task Examples: co-workers, college classes, athletic organizations, labor unions, and political parties

group think

Process by Irving Janus Highly cohesive groups may demand absolute conformity and punish those who threaten to undermine the consensus. Even though it does maintain solidarity, it can also short-circuit the decision making process, letting desire for unanimity prevail over critical reasoning.

Qualitative vs. quantitative methods

Qualitative Methods: work with nonnumerical data such as texts, written field notes, interview transcripts, videos, and photographs. Try to describe the cases they study in great detail. May engage in participant observation or in-depth interviews Quantitative Methods; work with numerical data; they translate the social world into numbers that can then be manipulated mathematically.

Rationalization Examples & impact/importance on modern society

Rationalization: where logical procedures are the focus, rules and regulations are paramount, and an individual's unique personal qualities are unimportant. The "rationalization of society" -Science, efficiency, cost/benefit calculations -Leads to "disenchantment" -Formal organization and bureaucracy dominate social life.

Sociological reflexivity

Recognizing that individual attitudes, behaviors, and life chances are influenced by social factors and using this knowledge to reassess and either revise or reaffirm one's pre-existing beliefs

role conflict vs role strain

Role conflict: a situation in which two or more roles have contradictory expectations. Role Strain: occurs when there are contradictory expectations within one single role a person plays.

Conflict Theory

Social inequality is a basic source of conflict and change in society Empirical analysis of material conditions uncovers unequal power relations and the possibilities for their transformation. Karl Marx

Socialization Key agents of socialization Examples of from infancy to elder years

Socialization; the process by which a society, culture, or group teaches individuals to become functioning members, and the process by which individuals learn and internalize the values and norms of the group.

Symbolic Interactionism

Society is produced and reproduced through our interactions, by means of language and our interpretations of that language. Face-to-face interactions (and the meanings we attribute to it) are the main building blocks of society. Reality people experience is variable and changing.

Mead Stages of development Particular other Generalized other I and Me

Stages: -Preparatory Stage; ; imitating and mimicking around others without knowing the meaning of their behavior. They lack a completely developed sense of self. -Play Stage; occurs around three years of age; begin to pretend to play roles; firefighter, mommy, princess, etc. When they learn these roles, they internalize the expectations and begin to gain new perspectives in addition to their own. -Game stage; final stage; self-awareness increases; children take place in playing games, have to follow rules; take into account the roles of other players. Called the generalized other! Particular other; children begin to develop a sense of self by imitating others and playing roles.

Status and role sets

Status: a position in a social hierarchy that comes with a set of expectations Role: a set of behaviors expected from a particular status position.

in about a paragraph, describe what C. Wright Mills means when he says that "the most fruitful distinction with which the sociological imagination works is between 'the personal troubles of milieu' and 'the public issues of social structure.'" Illustrate this distinction using drug abuse as an example.

The first fruit of this imagination - and the first lesson of the social science that embodies it - is the idea that the individual can understand one's own experience and gauge one's own fate only by locating oneself with his or her own period in time.

folkways

The ordinary conventions of everyday life about what is acceptable or proper and are not always strictly enforced Customary things that people do things and they ensure smooth and orderly social interactions.

How do social norms reflect cultural values?

They are specific to a culture. When we see the values of a particular group and see how individuals are controlled by its social norms, then we can appreciate a group's beliefs and ideals and find the evidence of these throughout a member's everyday lives.

Stages of conformity

Three kinds of conformity: -Compliance: the mildest form of conformity; means going along with something because you expect to gain rewards or avoid punishments. When people comply however, they don't actually change their own ideas or beliefs. Identification: a somewhat stronger kind of conformity; is reduced by a person's desire to establish or maintain a relationship with a person or group. Internalization: the strongest kind of conformity and most long-lasting, occurs when individuals adopt beliefs of a leader or group as their own. When internalization occurs, there is no separation between beliefs and behavior; people believe in what they are doing and feel that it is morally right.

taboos

Typically a type of mores, are the most powerful of all norms. They are extremely serious. Can indicate a forbidden subject Taboo act; incest or cannibalism; evokes strong feelings of disgust or horror.

values and social norms

Values: are the set of shared beliefs that a group of people considers to be worthwhile or desirable in life - what is good or bad, right or wrong, beautiful or ugly. Norms: the rules and guidelines regarding what kinds of behavior are acceptable; they develop directly out of a culture's value system.

reference group

When a group provides standards by which a person evaluates their own personal attributes A common reference is one's peers May also be one to which we aspire to belong but of which we are not yet a member.

False dichotomy

a logical fallacy that involves presenting two opposing facts, views, or options as though they were the only possibilities.

C. Wright Mills

coined the term sociological imagination

What is culture?

material; any physical object to which we give social meaning; art, artifacts, tools and utensils, machines and weapons, clothing and furniture, buildings and toys, etc... Non-material/Symbolic culture; reflects the ideas and beliefs of a group of people. Can be something specific as a certain rule or custom.

Personal Troubles vs. Public Issues

personal troubles occur because of a persons character Examples: unemployment, war, marriage, and housing Public troubles are a direct result of problems within society

informed consent

respondents must know what they are getting into and explicitly agree to participate. This is especially important because most interviews are audio or video recorded.

Verstehen (Weber)

understanding social behavior by putting yourself in the place of others Weber examines the historical and cultural origins of certain social phenomena (e.g. capitalism) and the social practices they produce (e.g. bureaucracy).