Sociology Midterm
Intersection of biography and history
Able to be grasped because of the sociological imagination; People create history, it is what went on between people all over the world, and evidence of what has been done and how it turned out. Biographies are who and what these people are and what they did.
Critique of rationalization
Irrationality is possible in hyperrationality. The harder we try to maximize efficiency and control, the more likely we are to end up with illogical, counterintuitive, and problematic results. In the case of McDonald's, these results include rising obesity rates, crop and soil degradation, and higher levels of greenhouse gasses; for Amazon, it may look like overconsumption or compulsive shopping
Cultural leveling
The process by which cultures that were once unique and distinct become increasingly similar.
group
a collection of people who share some attribute, identify with one another, and interact with each other.
Autoethnography
a form of participant observation where the feelings and actions of the researcher become a focal point of the ethnographic study
Out-group
a group that a person feels opposition, rivalry, or hostility toward. Ex: sports team going against your favorite sports team
In-group
a group that a person identifies with and feels loyalty toward. Ex: your favorite sports team
Reference group
a group that provides a standard of comparison against which people evaluate themselves. Ex: one's peers
Structural Functionalism
a paradigm based on the assumption that society is a unified whole that functions because of the contributions of its separate structures
Symbolic Interactionism
a paradigm that sees interaction and meaning as central to society and assumes that meanings are not inherent but are created through interaction
Conflict Theory
a paradigm that sees social conflict as the basis of society and social change and that emphasizes a materialist view of society, a critical view of the status quo, and a dynamic model of historical change
Status
a position in a social hierarchy that comes with a set of expectations.
Coercive power
backed by the threat of force
Cooley
looking-glass self- self develops through or relationships, real or imagined -We imagine how we look to others -We imagine other people's judgement of us. -We experience feelings about ourselves based on our perception of other's people's judgements. --We're not always right! But these perceptions ultimately shape our self-perceptions
Folkways
norms that are not strictly enforced Ex: wearing flip-flops with a business suit and eating with your fingers from the buffet line
Mores
norms that are widely observed and have great moral significance Ex: lying, stealing, bullying, murder, rape, theft
Role exit
occurs when a person leaves a role they once occupied. Ex: Hopefully, this historical rule change will ensure that other future senators won't have to experience
Key agents of socialization
social groups, institutions, and individuals that provide structured situations in which socialization takes place -family, schools, peers, and the media
Influential power
supported by persuasion
Social Institutions
systems and structures within society that shape the activities of groups and individuals in specific areas of social life Ex: family, education, economy, law, media, religion, and many others... Key elements: Fullfills some basic human need, Has some level of formal or informal organization, Has associated statuses and roles, Has associated values and norms
sociological perspective
taking a sociological approach or thinking sociologically. This is done by putting individual reasons in a broader societal context
Irrationality of rational systems
that they can be unreasonable and deny our basic humanity and other values
Power
the ability to control the actions of others.
field notes
the anthropologist's written observations and reflections on places, practices, events, and interviews
material culture
the art, housing, clothing, sports, dances, foods, and other similar items constructed or created by a group of people
What is culture?
the entire way of life of a group of people. It can include everything from language and gestures to style of dress and standards of beauty, from customs and rituals to tools and artifacts, from music and child-rearing practices to the proper way for customers to line up in a grocery store. It forms basic beliefs and assumptions about the world and the way things work, and it defines the moral parameters of what is right and wrong, good and bad.
culture shock
the feeling of disorientation experienced by someone who is suddenly subjected to an unfamiliar culture. This can be done by visiting an "exotic" foreign culture or for sociologists, view our lives from an outsiders' perspective
Authority
the legitimate right to wield power
Social influence
(peer pressure) the influence of one's fellow group members on individual attitudes and behaviors. Ex: a student may alter his or her behavior to match that of other students in a class
Multiculturalism
A policy that values diverse racial, ethnic, national, and linguistic backgrounds, and so encourages the retention of cultural differences within the larger society.
rapport
A positive relationship
Ethnography
the method by which researchers attempt to understand a group or culture by observing it from the inside, without imposing any preconceived notions they might have
Stages of Conformity
-Compliance: the mildest form of conformity; actions to gain reward or avoid punishment -Identification: conformity to establish or maintain a relationship with a person or group -Internalization: the strongest type of conformity; an individual adopts the beliefs or actions of a group and makes them his or her own
Correlation/Causation
-Correlation: a relationship between two variables -Causation: a relationship in which one variable causes another variable to change -Spurious correlation: a relationship that seems to exist between two variables, but is caused by some external, or intervening, variable
Four principles of McDonaldization
-Efficiency -Predictability -Uniformity -Control
Key American values
-Equal opportunity -Achievement and success -Material comfort -Activity and work -Practicality and efficiency -Progress -Science -Democracy and free enterprise -Freedom
Secondary groups
-Goal or activity orientation, formal and polite -Membership more temporary, often larger and geographically diffuse -Secondary relationships -Weak emotional ties, more temporary or short term -Ex: Co-workers, college classes, athletic organizations, political organizations
How do social norms reflect cultural values?
-Kissing new acquaintances on the cheeks in the U.S. and Spain -Tipping a waitress in the U.S. and France
Positive and negative sanctions
-Positive sanctions express approval and may come in the form of a handshake, a smile, praise, or perhaps an award -Negative sanctions express disapproval and may come in the form of a frown, harsh words, or perhaps a fine or incarceration
Primary groups
-Small, personal orientation, enduring -Primary relationships -First group experienced in life -Initial socialization -An end in itself -Bound by loyalty and emotion Ex: family, close friends
Norms of the Scientific Community
-Universalism-results of evaluated based on common criteria (scientific merit) -Organized skepticism-postpone conclusions until sufficient evidence gathered -Disinterestedness-not pursued for private interests or personal reward -Communalism- freely available, open to public discussion and debate -Honesty- strong repercussions for cheating or falsifying research
Strategies for developing a sociological perspective
-beginner's mind -culture shock -sociological reflexivity
19th century historical context
-democratic revolution -industrial revolution -The Enlightenment
Problems of Bureaucracies
-disenchantment -red tape -conflict -duplication -imperialism -waste
Sanctions
-means of enforcing norms -positive and negative sanctions
McDonaldization
A form of rationalization; fast-food chain model applied to many areas of social life
Social norms
-rules and guidelines about acceptable behavior -Laws, mores, folkways, and taboos
Components of Bureaucracies
1. Specialization: All members of a bureaucracy are assigned specialized roles and tasks. 2. Technical competence: All members are expressly trained and qualified for their specific roles within the organization. 3. Hierarchy: Bureaucracies always feature the supervision of subordinates by higher-ranking managers and bosses. 4. Rules and regulations: These are meant to make all operations as predictable as possible. 5. Impersonality: In a bureaucracy, rules come before people; no individual receives special treatment. 6. Formal written communication: Documents such as memos (or emails) are the heart of the organization and the most effective way to communicate.
Aggregates
A collection of people who share a physical location but do not have lasting social relations -concert-goers, crowds, audiences, queues (lines)
Apply each major theoretical perspective to the study of social groups and group dynamics (Example: Hazing)
Applying Symbolic Interactionism: -Micro-level, face-to-face and small group interactions -Group norms, values and dynamics are generated situationally, in interaction with others -Example: Pressures to conform to group culture (e.g., peer pressure and group think) can lead individuals to do things they would not do alone, such as hazing or binge drinking Applying Structural Functionalism: -Macro-level, social structures and institutions -Group life regulates and gives meaning to individual experience, contributing to social cohesion and stability. Equilibrium of forces, balance between agency and social control -Example: Affiliation groups like fraternities provide social cohesion in the context of a large and otherwise alienating university system. Hazing is an example of a system dysfunction. Applying Conflict Theory: -Macro-level, inequalities of power and resources -Groups membership is often the basis for the distribution of rewards, privileges and opportunities. -Example: In-group and out-group dynamics can lead to stereotyping and conflict as fraternity brothers develop and "us vs. them" perspective. Hazing is a ritual for exercising and obtaining power, status, and privileges within the group.
C. Wright Mills and the sociological imagination
C. Wright Mills (1916-1962) the ability to understand "the intersection between biography and history," or the interplay of the micro world of the self and individual psychology and the macro world of larger social forces. To see the context that shapes our actions
Karl Marx (1818-1883)
Conflict theory -focused on conflict between social classes, like worker (proletariat) and owner (bourgeoisie) Key Concepts: Historical materialism- To understand the social order, we must first understand how society produces the things it needs, the system by which people produce material goods is the mode of production, the dominant mode of production determines who has what (inequality) Proletariat- worker Bourgeoisie- an owner of production Exploitation-capitalists have all the power over the production process and labor decisions, workers must sell their labor and compete for jobs, this unequal power dynamic creates conditions of exploitation Alienation- the sense of dissatisfaction the modern worker feels as a result of producing goods that are owned and controlled by someone else. they are estranged from the fruits of their labor. Ex: Workers are alienated from each other - they are encouraged to compete with each other for jobs
False dichotomy
Consists of a consideration of only the two extremes when there are one or more intermediate possibilities
Anomie
Disconnection caused by the changing conditions of modern life -Weaker social ties -Rapid pace social change -Can lead to social dysfunction and a breakdown of social norms Apply to virtual membership: While the internet may indeed help many people feel more connected, there are studies that show that in vulnerable times of life, such as adolescence, or during a period of personal difficulty, the internet and especially social media may lead to more loneliness, not less.
Research ethics
Do no harm Informed consent- a safeguard through which the researcher makes sure that respondents are freely participating and understand the nature of the research.
Ethnocentrism vs. cultural relativism
Ethnocentrism- Using the standards of one's own culture to evaluate others, leading to the view that other cultures are abnormal or inferior Cultural relativism- Evaluating other cultures on their own terms
Everyday Actor vs. Social Analyst
Everyday actors approach their social world with what is referred to as "reciped," or practical, knowledge, which allows them to get along in their everyday life. Social analysts take the perspective of a stranger in the social world; a social analyst tries to verify what the everyday actor might just accept as truth
Historical developments that shaped the development of sociology
First sociologist - August Comte (1798-1857) -coined the term "positivism" - the theory that sense perceptions are the only valid source of knowledge Harriet Matineau (1802-1876) -translated Comte's Introduction to Positive Philosophy into English, thus making his ideas accessible in England and America. Herbert Spencer (1820-1903) social Darwinism- the application of the theory of evolution and the notion of "survival of the fittest" to the study of society
Max Weber (1864-1920)
Key Concepts: Verstehen- "empathetic understanding"; Weber's term to describe good social research, which tries to understand the meanings that individuals attach to various aspects of social reality Rationalization- the application of economic logic to human activity; the use of formal rules and regulations in order to maximize efficiency without consideration of subjective or individual concerns
Benefits of science over alternative ways of knowing
Less prone to errors such as Causal observation: no systematic process for observing or assessing accuracy Selective observation: we see only the patterns we want to see; we assume that only patterns we have experienced directly exist Overgeneralization: assume broad patterns when observations are limited Premature closure: end investigation before gathering enough evidence Halo effect: accept knowledge of those with status or prestige False consensus: assume everyone thinks like you do
The Macro-Micro Continuum
Macro-level and Microsociology
Sociology as a science
Many ways of knowing: -personal experiences and common sense -experts, authorities, and tradition -popular and media messages -science
Rationalization
Matter of fact, means/end, efficient calculations Two key areas: -Power and authority -Bureaucracy
Hook-up culture
Norms-a man exhibiting hospitality must be rewarded with sexual activity. getting drunk before parties to enter "drunkworld" Values-the importance of social status, especially in college Sanctions-positive sanction- the guy boasting to his friends about the girl sleeping with him. negative sanction-the guy may use sexual coercion to get her to conform to the norm.
Nature is our nurture
Nurture encompasses the environmental factors that impact who we are
Examples of socialization from infancy to elder years
Primary socialization starts from infancy and is influenced by family members. Secondary socialization is influenced by the school, peer groups, and the media. Adult socialization is influenced by parenthood, marriage, and careers.
Socialization
Process by which individuals learn the values and norms of a group, and become functioning members of society
Deductive vs inductive approaches
Quantitative studies generally use a deductive approach—forming a hypothesis first and then testing to see whether it is accurate. Qualitative researchers use an inductive approach—beginning with specific observations and then forming broad generalizations from them.
Qualitative vs. Quantitative methods
Quantitative- work with numerical data Qualitative- work with nonnumerical data such as texts, written field notes, interview transcripts, videos, or photographs Mixed methods- combine the two
Rationalization's Impact/importance on modern society
Rationalization is a product of scientific study and technological advances in the Western world. By reducing tradition's hold on society, rationalization led to new practices. Instead of human behavior being motivated by customs and traditions, rationalization led to behaviors that were guided by reason and practicality. Rationalization not only transformed modern society, it played an important role in the development of capitalism. Though rationalization was first apparent in the creation of bureaucracies, it has spread to all aspects of society.
Mead
Stages of development- Preparatory stage- Infant to 2+ years- Engage in imitation, copy significant others Play stage- 3 to 5+ years- Take on the role of one other person at a time Game stage- 6 to 7+ years- Anticipate roles of several people at once Generalized other- Older children- Knows self is viewed by society "them" Particular other- the perspectives and expectations of a particular role that a child learns and internalizes Generalized other- the perspectives and experiences of network of others (or of society in general) that children learn and then take into account when shaping their own behavior I and Me- (dual nature of the self) "I": subject, active and spontaneous, "Me": object, how we imagine others see us. The self as both subject and object -Awareness of "I" only occurs as it passes into memory (i.e., "me") -With "me" comes reflexivity, we take the attitude of the other towards ourselves
Émile Durkeim (1858-1917)
Structural functionalism -viewed society as an "organism," all work together to achieve equilibrium Key concepts: Social facts-things external to, and coercive of, the actor. Ex: receiving presents on Christmas Mechanical solidarity- on the basis of shared traditions, beliefs, and experiences Organic solidarity- social cohesion based upon the dependence individuals have on each other Anomie- a sense of disconnection brought about by the changing conditions of modern life Function/dysfunction- if a structure doesn't maintain stability it will upset the equilibrium (ex. too little crime) Examples of social institutions: family, education, healthcare, crime, etc.
Subculture and counterculture
Subculture- a group within society that is differentiated by its distinctive values, norms, and lifestyle -a subculture can be based on ethnicity, age, interests, or anything else that draws individuals together Counterculture- a group within society that openly rejects or actively opposes society's values and norms -Ex: 1960s anti-war protestors, far-right militia groups, hacktivists
Cultural change
Technology: Material artifacts and the knowledge and techniques required to use them. Cultural diffusion: The dissemination of material and nonmaterial culture (tools and technology, beliefs and behavior) from one group to another. Cultural imperialism: The imposition of one culture's beliefs and practices on another culture through media and consumer products rather than by military force.
Hegemony
Term developed by Antonio Gramsci to describe the cultural aspects of social control, whereby the ideas of the dominant group are accepted by all.
Goffman
The Thomas theorem/Dramaturgy- "if people define situations as real, they are real in their consequences" because we encounter ambiguous situations every day, many meanings are possible. The way we define each situation, then, becomes its reality Impression management- the effort to control the impressions we make on others so that they form a desired view of us and the situation; the use of self-presentation and performance tactics Frontstage- the places where we deliver our performances to an audience of others Backstage- the places where we rehearse and prepare for our performances
Distinguish sociology from other disciplines
The broad nature of sociological inquiry causes it to overlap with other social sciences such as economics, political science, psychology, geography, education, and law. Sociology's distinguishing feature is its practice of drawing on a larger societal context to explain social phenomena.
Cultural diffusion
The dissemination of material and nonmaterial culture (tools and technology, beliefs and behavior) from one group to another.
Cultural imperialism:
The imposition of one culture's beliefs and practices on another culture through media and consumer products rather than by military force.
The Scientific Method
The standard procedure for acquiring and verifying empirical (concrete, scientific) knowledge, as well as building and testing a body of scientific theory that helps explain and predict different aspects of our world -Literature review: Considered published studies relevant to a particular topic. -Hypothesis: A theoretical statement explaining the relationship between two or more phenomena. -Variables: Two or more phenomena that a researcher believes are related -Operational definition: A clear and precise definition of a variable that facilitates its measurement.
Cultural model of emotions
The traditional model of emotions is the belief that there are a natural set of emotions such as joy, anger, and fear, in which all people experience/are universal. In contrast, a cultural model of emotions states that the understanding and experience of emotions vary across cultures
Dominant culture
The values, norms, and practices of the group within society that is most powerful (in terms of wealth, prestige, status, influence, etc.).
Freud
Unconscious mind- the conscious level of awareness is but the tip of the iceberg and that just below the surface is a far greater area of the mind, the subconscious and the unconscious. He proposed that this unconscious energy is the source of conscious thoughts and behavior Id: unconscious basic drives; immediate gratification Ego: mainly conscious efforts to mediate id impulses and superego inhibitions; reality principle Superego: mostly preconscious; internalized cultural values and norms society creates mechanisms to ensure social control of human instincts Social order- society creates mechanisms to ensure social control of human instincts
Examples of Bureaucracies
University, workplace, government, police departments, fire departments, health institutions, the military
participant observation
a research method in which investigators systematically observe people while joining them in their routine activities
achieved status
a status earned through individual effort or imposed by others. occupation, hobby, or skill
embodied status
a status generated by physical characteristics. beauty or disability
master status
a status that is always relevant and affects all other statuses we possess
ascribed status
a status that is inborn; usually difficult or impossible to change. gender, race, son, brother
Bureaucracy
a type of secondary group designed to perform tasks efficiently, characterized by specialization, technical competence, hierarchy, written rules, impersonality, and formal written communication
theories
abstract propositions about how things are, as well as how they should be. Sometimes we also refer to theories as "approaches," "schools of thought," "paradigms," or "perspectives."
Macrosociology
approaches the study of society from the opposite direction, by looking at large-scale social structures to determine how they affect the lives of groups and individuals Example: Gender - women in the workplace
Role conflict
arises when two or more roles have contradictory expectations. Ex: Duckworth's occupational role as a senator was seemingly incompatible with her familial role as a mother.
Traditional authority
authority based in custom, birthright, or divine right and is usually associated with monarchies and dynasties.
Legal-rational authority
authority based in laws, rules, and procedures.
Charismatic authority
authority based in the perception of remarkable personal qualities in a leader.
Example of Rationalization
chicken-farming
Microsociology
concentrates on the interactions between individuals and the ways in which those interactions construct the larger patterns, processes, and institutions of society Example: Gender - how men have more power in relationships
Taboo
evokes strong feelings of disgust or horror Ex: cannibalism and incest
Sociological Reflexivity
fully conscious of the lenses through which we view the world, consider how our worldviews are shaped by our own subjectivity
The social self
how we perceive ourselves in relation to others
Role strain
occurs when contradictory expectations emerge within a single role one person plays. Ex: As a parent, Duckworth had to balance societal expectations to be present and involved with the competing expectation to help support her growing family financially, which required her to be away in Washington
Personal Troubles vs. Public Issues
personal troubles occur because of a persons character Public troubles are a direct result of problems within society Ex: unemployment Personal trouble-don't have the right skills, educational background, or experience Public issue- the result of problems in the larger economy such as outsourcing, downsizing, restrictive policies, changing technologies, or migration patterns
survey
questionnaires that are administered to a sample of respondents selected from a target population.
Existing sources
refers to any data that has already been collected by earlier researchers and is available for future research. -unobtrusive measure
symbolic/nonmaterial culture
reflects the ideas and beliefs of a group of people. Ex: Signs, gestures, and language
Values
shared beliefs about what is worthwhile or desirable
Nature vs. nurture
the ongoing discussion of the respective roles of genetics and socialization in determining individual behaviors and traits Ex: psychopaths have left side as normal brain, right side has dark patches in the orbital cortex. Nurture can determine if person lives a relatively normal life or is a serial killer (podcast)
Group cohesion
the sense of solidarity or loyalty that individuals feel toward a group to which they belong.
Role
the set of stereotyped behaviors that are expected from a particular status position.
sociology
the systematic or scientific study of human society and social behavior
Groupthink
the tendency of very cohesive groups to enforce a high degree of conformity among members, creating a demand for unanimous agreement. Ex: hazing