Sociology Midterm Study guide 1,2,13, 15 & 16

Manifest and Latent Functions

- Manifest functions are intended and recognized consequences of an activity or social process. A manifest function of education, for example, is to provide students with knowledge, skills, and cultural values. In contrast, latent functions are unintended consequences of an activity or social process that are hidden and remain unacknowledged by participants. -The latent functions of education include the function of keeping young people off the street and out of the full-time job market and the matchmaking function whereby schools provide opportunities for students to meet and socialize with potential marriage partners.

Demography (chapter 15)

Demography is the study of the size, composition, and distribution of populations. Global population changes are important because they have a powerful influence on social, economic, and political structures both within societies and between societies. For example, the population growth imbalance between high-income and middle- and low-income nations is a potential source of global conflict, particularly if world hunger and environmental destruction increase

What causes social problems according to each perspective? (chapter 1) FUNCITONALIST

-Functionalist believes that social problems arise when social institutions do not fulfill their functions or when dysfunctions occur. -Dysfunctions are the undesirable consequences of an activity or social process that inhibit a society's ability to adapt or adjust. - example, one of the functions of education is to prepare students for jobs, but if schools fail to do so, then students have problems finding jobs, employers have to spend millions of dollars on employee training programs, and consumers have to pay higher prices for goods and services to offset worker training costs. -In other words, dysfunctions in education threaten other social institutions, especially families and the economy.

Monopoly (Chapter 13)

A monopoly exists when a single firm controls an industry and accounts for all sales in a specific market. In early monopoly capitalism, some stockholders derived massive profits from such companies as American Tobacco Company, F. W. Woolworth, and Sears, which held near-monopolies on specific goods and services.

Who are the poor? (chapter 2)

About two-thirds of all adults living in poverty are women; households headed by women are the fastest-growing segment of the overall poverty population

Tertiary Sector (Chapter 13)

At the tertiary level, workers provide services: food service, banking, retail sales, and entertainment, for example. Tertiary-sector production predominates in high-income nations.

What are the 3 Major modern economy systems? Recognize them. (Chapter 13)

Capitalism is an economic system characterized by private ownership of the means of production, from which personal profits can be derived through market competition and without government intervention. socialism is characterized by public ownership of the means of production, the pursuit of collective goals, and centralized decision making. Under socialism, there are governmental limits on the right of individuals and corporations to own productive property. In a truly socialist economy, the means of production are owned and controlled by a collectivity or by the state, not by private individuals or corporations. mixed economy is a system that combines characteristics of capitalism (a market economy) and socialism (a command economy). In one type of mixed economy, state capitalism, the government is involved in the dealings of privately owned companies, including having a strong role in setting the rules, policies, and objectives of the businesses. Among the countries considered to have mixed economies are Iceland, Sweden, France, the United Kingdom, the United States, Russia, and China. free market, command, and mixed. The chart below compares free-market and command economies; mixed economies are a combination of the two. Individuals and businesses make their own economic decisions.

Recognize corporate welfare. (Chapter 13)

Corporate welfare is not new in the United States. Between 1850 and 1900, corporations received government assistance in the form of public subsidies and protection from competition. To encourage westward expansion, the federal government gave large tracts of land to privately owned railroads. Antitrust laws that were originally intended to break up monopolies were used against labor unions that supported workers' interests. Tariffs, patents, and trademarks all serve to protect corporations from competition. Today, government intervention includes billions of dollars in subsidies to farmers through crop subsidy programs, tax credits for corporations, and large subsidies or loan guarantees to automakers, aircraft companies, railroads, and others.

Corporate Welfare (Chapter 13)

Corporate welfare occurs when the government helps industries and private corporations in their economic pursuits. Corporate welfare refers to financial aid, such as a subsidy or tax break, that the government provides to corporations or other businesses. Some analysts prefer the more neutral term corporate subsidies

Infant mortality rates (chapter 15)

Countries with the highest infant mortality rates in 2016 were Afghanistan with 112 per 1,000 and Mali with 100 per 1,000. By contrast, the lowest death rates are in nations such as Japan (2 per 1,000), Sweden (2.6 per 1,000), and Singapore (2.4 per 1,000). The United States has an infant death rate of approximately 5.8 per 1,000 live births each year (CIA, 2017).

What do we know about food insecurity? (chapter 2)

Food insecurity refers to the lack of consistent access to adequate food for active, healthy living. Food insecurity has increased in recent years because of increases in poverty and unemployment rates. Prolonged food insecurity is detrimental to health and well-being. Adults who are hungry or lack adequate nutrition are less able to work and are at greater risk of illness and disease. Food insecurity affects children's developmental outcomes through problems such as iron deficiency anemia and poor socioemotional development. Hunger may also contribute to or result in other medical conditions such as rickets, scurvy, parasitic worms, and mental retardation. More people would experience food insecurity were it not for national school breakfast and lunch programs, community food pantries,

primary sector (Chapter 13)

In a primary-sector economy, natural resources are extracted in mining operations and shipped to other countries for processing and use. Primary-sector economies usually occur in less-developed countries. Problems include human rights violations, slave labor, and intensifying economic inequality.

What are the 2 factors contribute to individual & family debt in the U.S.? (Chapter 13)

National debt and the budget deficit are only two of the major problems we face; another is the amount of consumer debt in this country. Like the federal government, many individuals and families in this country are deeply in debt because of borrowing for housing, credit card expenditures, auto and other vehicle purchases, and student loans. Consumer debt has grown significantly since the 1980s. Two factors contribute to high rates of consumer debt. The first is the instability of economic life in modern society; unemployment and underemployment are commonplace. The second factor is the availability of credit and the extent to which credit card companies, student loan lenders, and other financial sources extend credit beyond people's ability to repay. Increases in consumer debt are partly attributed to heavier use of revolving credit, primarily credit cards, in which consumers, at best, paid only their minimum balance rather than the total amount owed on a card in a given month.

politics (*Chapter 13)

Politics is the social institution through which power is acquired and exercised by some individuals and groups. Although political decisions typically are made on a nation-by-nation basis, many of these decisions affect the lives and economic status of people in other nations as well

The elite Model (Chapter 13)

Power in political system is concentrated in the hands of a small group of elites and the masses are relatively powerless

What method is the most used by social scientists? CH 1

SURVEY RESEARCH USED MOST

Secondary Sector (Chapter 13)

Secondary-sector economies process raw materials into finished products. This may include assembly-line work, such as building smartphones or automobiles, or sewing clothing. The United States was once a secondary-sector powerhouse but much of this work has now moved to low and middle-income nations.

What is the New Deal (chapter 2)

The initial wave of social welfare in the United States was enacted under President Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal during the Great Depression of the 1930s. Including farm subsidies, fair housing standards, a minimum wage and maximum workweek, protections for organized labor, jobs programs such as the Works Progress Administration (WPA), and the Social Security system, the New Deal marked the beginning of the welfare state—a system in which the government takes the chief responsibility for providing for the social and economic security of residents by providing them with certain services and benefits, such as education; health care; insurance against disability, sickness, and unemployment; and retirement pensions.

A city

a city involves population density. According to sociologists, a city is a relatively dense and permanent settlement of people who secure their livelihood primarily through nonagricultural activities (Weeks, 2012). Although cities existed long before the Industrial Revolution, the birth of the factory system brought about rapid urbanization, which we defined in Chapter 1 as the process by which an increasing proportion of a population lives in cities rather than in rural areas. For example, the population of New York City swelled by 500 percent between 1870 and 1910 as rural dwellers and immigrants from Ireland, Italy, Germany, Poland, and other nations arrived in massive numbers, seeking jobs in factories and offices.

Society ch 1

a large number of individuals who share the same geographic territory and are subject to the same political authority and dominant cultural expectations—and the groups and organizations that make up that society.

Transnational (Chapter 13)

a large-scale, complex business organization that is registered and operates in more than one country at a time and that has the legal power (separate from individual owners or shareholders) to enter into contracts, buy and sell property, and engage in other business activity. There is much confusion over these terms, but one important thing to remember is their extensive global reach, the massive effect they have on countries where they operate, and often their ability to avoid many of the corporate taxes in their countries of origin.

What is the most frequent cause of homelessness? (chapter 2)

cost of living,main causes of homelessness among families with children are unemployment, lack of affordable housing, poverty, domestic violence, and low-paying jobs. Like homeless families, single homeless individuals also list lack of affordable housing and poverty as major contributing factors in their homelessness; however, they also indicate other factors, such as mental illness and substance abuse, combined with a lack of needed services that worsened the problem

Crude birth rate (chapter 15)

crude birth rate—the number of live births per 1,000 people in a population in a given year.

Special Interest Groups (Chapter 13)

established by people who share common goals and organize to have a larger influence on the government. Some special-interest groups are organized specifically to collect money and provide financial support for favored political candidates based on the candidate's position on specific "hot topic" issues such as immigration, gun control, or abortion rights. Many interest groups have PACs to raise large sums of money to win elections. For example, the National Organization for Women (NOW) has an associated PAC (NOW Political Action Committee). Lobbyists have the most direct contact with candidates and elected officials. They rely on direct contact with government officials so that they can persuade them to support policies and legislation that benefits the interest group they represent. Some "hired-gun" lobbyists are formally registered to lobby; others represent grassroots organization or trade associations. Some special-interest groups exert their influence on single issues, such as the environment, gun ownership, abortion, or legislation that affects a particular occupation (e.g., the American Medical Association) or business (e.g., the National Restaurant Association).

Know about and be able to recognize the major research method: FIELD, (Chapter 1)

field, is the study of social life in its natural setting: observing and interviewing people where they live, work, and play. When sociologists want firsthand information about a social problem, they often use participant observation—field research in which researchers collect systematic observations while participating in the activities of the group they are studying. Field research on social problems can take place in many settings, ranging from schools and neighborhoods to universities, prisons, and large corporations. Pros:valuable because some kinds of behavior and social problems can be studied best by being there; a more complete understanding can be developed through observations, face-to-face discussions, and participation in events than through other research method

Microlevel analysis ch 1

focuses on small-group relations and social interaction among individuals. Using microlevel analysis, -sociologist might investigate how unemployment, and even fear of unemployment, affects workers and their immediate families. - example, massive loss of jobs in a community often causes not only economic disruption but also an increase in physical and psychological problems, including domestic violence, depression, and higher suicide rates where businesses have closed or new technologies are introduced that replace large numbers of workers. I

What does the functionalist Perspective view about violence? (Chapter 1)

functionalists believe that violence arises from a condition of anomie, in which many individuals have a feeling of helplessness, normlessness, or alienation. Others believe that violence increases when social institutions such as the family, schools, and religious organizations weaken and the main mechanisms of social control in people's everyday lives are external (i.e., law enforcement agencies and the criminal justice system). One functionalist explanation of violence, known as the subculture of violence hypothesis, states that violence is part of the normative expectations governing everyday behavior among young males in the lower classes. Violence is considered a by-product of their culture, which idealizes toughness and even brutality in the name of masculinity

social problem ch 1

is a social condition (such as poverty) or a pattern of behavior (such as substance abuse) that disadvantages or harms some individuals or all people in a society and that a sufficient number of people believe warrants public concern and collective action to bring about change.

How did Karl Marx evaluate the U.S. stratification system? (chapter 2)

is the hierarchical arrangement of large social groups on the basis of their ownership or control over basic resources. Today, the gap between the rich and the poor in the United States has a dramatic effect on everyone's life chances and opportunities. Affluent people typically have better life chances than the less affluent because the affluent have greater access to quality education, safe neighborhoods, high-quality nutrition and health care, police and private security protection, and an extensive array of other goods and services. In contrast, people who have low and poverty-level incomes tend to have limited access to these resources. -Marx's model, class position is determined by people's relationship to the means of production. Chapter 1 described Marx's division of capitalist societies into two classes: the bourgeoisie, or capitalist class, which owns the means of production, and the proletariat, or working class, which sells its labor power to the capitalists to survive. According to Marx, inequality and poverty are inevitable by-products of the exploitation of workers by capitalists.

Know characteristics of a class system (chapter 2)

ited States has a number of class divisions that are characterized by widely diverse lifestyles and life chances. The class system is a system of stratification of society on the basis of education, property, business/work etc. Sociology as a subject deals with the Class System and provides definitions and understanding of teh subject of class in society.

Macrolevel ch 1

macrolevel analysis focuses on social processes occurring at the societal level, especially in large-scale organizations and major social institutions, such as politics, government, and the economy. -Using macrolevel analysis, a sociologist might examine how the loss of nearly 8 million jobs in the Great Recession of 2007-2009 affected the U.S. economy.

Oligopoly (Chapter 13)

oligopoly-a situation in which a small number of companies or suppliers control an entire industry or service. Today, a few large corporations use their economic resources—through campaign contributions, PACs, and lobbying—to influence the outcome of government decisions that affect their operations. Smaller corporations have only limited power and resources to bring about political change or keep the largest corporations from dominating the economy.

What does the conflict perspective view about violence? (Chapter 1)

potential for violence is inherent in capitalist societies. In fact, say these theorists, the wealthy engage in one form of violence, and the poor engage in another. They note that the wealthy often use third parties to protect themselves and their families from bodily harm as well as to secure their property and investments in this country and elsewhere in the world. For example, the wealthy who live in high-income nations and own factories (or own stock in factories) in middle- and low-income nations use the governments and police of those nations—third parties—to control workers who threaten to strike.

Know about and be able to recognize the major research methods SECONDARY ANALYSIS CH 1

secondary analysis: a research method in which investigators analyze data that originally were collected by others for some other purpose. This method is also known as unobtrusive research because data can be gathered without the researcher directly interviewing or observing the research subjects. Data used for secondary analysis include public records such as birth and death records, official reports of organizations or governmental agencies such as the U.S. Census Bureau, and information from large databases such as the general social surveys that are administered by the National Opinion Research Center. - involves content analysis, a systematic examination of cultural artifacts or written documents to extract thematic data and draw conclusions about some aspect of social life. Although it is a number of years old, the National Television Violence Study is still a good study of violence on television. (child watching tv most likely to portray violent behavior, or be exposed to it)

What causes social problems according to each perspective? (chapter 1) CONFLICT

social problems arise out of the major contradictions inherent in the way societies are organized. Some conflict perspectives focus on class inequalities in the capitalist economic system; others focus on inequalities based on race, ethnicity, or gender. Most class perspectives on inequality have been strongly influenced by Karl Marx (1818-1883), a German economist and activist, who recognized that the emergence of capitalism had produced dramatic and irreversible changes in social life.

What most accurately describes class inequality in the U.S.? ch 2

social stratification,, hard work does not always pay off to be able to afford a normal life, today there is a larg gap between rich and poor , and this greatly effects the life chance of a person. Affluent people typically have better life chances than the less affluent because the affluent have greater access to quality education, safe neighborhoods, high-quality nutrition and health care, police and private security protection, and an extensive array of other goods and services. In contrast, people who have low and poverty-level incomes tend to have limited access to these resources. Wright sets forth four criteria for placement in the class structure: (1) ownership of the means of production, (2) purchase of the labor of others (employing others), (3) control of the labor of others (supervising others on the job), and (4) sale of one's own labor (being employed by someone else). On the basis of these criteria, Wright (1979, 1985) has identified four classes in the U.S. economy: the capitalist class, the managerial class, the small-business class, and the working class. Based on this approach, issues pertaining to contemporary inequality are directly linked to how the U.S. class structure works.

Sociological imagination ch 1

sociological imagination is the ability to see the relationship between individual experiences and the larger society. The sociological imagination enables us to connect the private problems of individuals to public issues.

Know about and be able to recognize the major research methods , SURVEY

survey: Survey research is a poll in which researchers ask respondents a series of questions about a specific topic and record their responses. Survey research is based on the use of a sample of people who are thought to represent the attributes of the larger population from which they are selected. Survey data are collected by using self-administered questionnaires or by interviewers who ask questions of people in person or by mail, telephone, or the Internet. - Pros : allows sociologists to study a large population without having to interview everyone in that population. It also yields numerical data that may be compared between groups and over periods of time. Cons: However, this type of research does have certain limitations. The use of standardized questions limits the types of information researchers can obtain from respondents. Also, because data can be reported numerically, survey research may be misused to overestimate or underestimate the extent of a specific problem such as violence.

What causes social problems according to each perspective? (chapter 1) SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONIST

symbolic interaction theorists, many social problems can be linked to the social construction of reality—the process by which people's perception of reality is shaped largely by the subjective meaning that they give to an experience (Berger and Luckmann, 1967). From this perspective, little shared reality exists beyond that which people socially create. It is, however, this social construction of reality that influences people's beliefs and actions.

Why do employers enjoy tax credits for hiring welfare recipients? (chapter 2)

tax credit is an amount of money that taxpayers can subtract from taxes owed to their government.

Three major theoretical perspectives have emerged in sociology/What are the 3-major Sociological Theories? (chapter 1)

the functionalist perspective, which views society as a basically stable and orderly entity; - the conflict perspective, which views society as an arena of competition and conflict; -interactionist perspective, which focuses on the everyday, routine interactions among individuals. -The functionalist and conflict perspectives are based on macrolevel analysis because they focus on social processes occurring at the societal level. -The interactionist perspective is based on microlevel analysis because it focuses on small-group relations and social interaction.

Military Industrial Complex (Chapter 13)

the interdependence of the military establishment and private military contractors

Political economy (Chapter 13)

the interdependent workings and interests of political and economic systems. To gain a better understanding of the political economy, let's take a brief look at economic systems and the underground economy.

Racial Feminization of poverty (chapter 2)

the trend whereby women experience poverty at far higher rates than men (Pearce, 1978). In the United States and throughout the world, women experience poverty at higher rates than men.

Economy (Chapter 13)

the wealth and resources of a country or region, especially in terms of the production and consumption of goods and services

Poverty Line (chapter 2)

was based on an assumption that the average family must spend about one-third of its total income on food. Thus, the official poverty line was determined by a minimum family market basket—a low-cost food budget that contains a minimum level of nutrition for a family—multiplied by three to allow for nonfood costs such as rent and utilities. The federal Office of Management and Budget (OMB) annually updates the dollar figures for the U.S. poverty line in relation to the number of persons residing in each household.

American dream (chapter 2)

which anyone who works hard enough can become a success