SOVEREIGNITY 1.2 + INTERDEPENDENCE 1.3
define nation
(an) Ethnic group of people with a sense of unity
Nuclear Non- Proliferation Treaty objectives
- Aimed to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons. - Recognised the P5 Nations as nuclear weapon states - Nuclear disarmament
Treaty of Lisbon (2007) objectives
- Amended the EU constitution. - Created new powers for the European Parliament - Created a long-term President of the EU Council and a high representative for foreign affairs
The EU is made up of the following key institutions:
- European Commission: acts as the EU's executive as it has the power to propose new laws → has the ability to set the agenda of the EU - European Parliament: the EU's parliament is weaker than national parliaments - European Court of Justice (ECJ): has the power to force member states to comply with the EU law - European Central Bank: the ECB has the power to set monetary policy for all member states of the EU that are in the Eurozone (all states with only the Euro); Eurozone members are required to carefully manage national budgets as debt could but the Eurozone economic security at risk
cons of R2P
- Goes against the entire concept of the sovereignty of the state -There is no single document in international law that codifies all war crimes → there is an element of subjectivity and degrees of human rights abuses - Many nations do not have the resources, power nor ability to interv
Democracy:
- Governments are elected by a fair and free process (everyone gets a say in the election without intimidation or interference) - There is no single model of a democratic state (each one has its own strengths/limits) - States which are no democracies usually have an authoritarian mean to control their territory
Nuclear Non- Proliferation Treaty success and challenges
- Little progress on disarmament. - States wishing to opt out and develop nuclear weapons have done so.
Reasons why Global Governance is finding difficulty in modern Global Politics:
- Multipolarity and institutional gridlock : Multipolarity has led to a divide in national interest (eg. the UNSC is more divided than ever) and many nations are growing powers. - Harder problems and lack of consensus : Transnational issues (eg. terrorism, fragile states, climate change) require a collective response but global consensus is hard to come about
Treaty of Lisbon (2007) success and challenges
- Negotiations over the Lisbon treaty began in 2001 but significant amendments had to be made as French and Dutch referendums resulted in a rejection of the treaty.
pros of R2P
- Promotes human rights internationally - Defends the articles of the UDHR
criteria to chose strategic alliances
- States need to choose a reliable and profitable ally(ies) when working together if states wish to achieve their goals and protect their interests - Powerful states may choose to form alliances with less/emerging powerful states for mutual benefit (eg. the USA is building better ties with India and Brazil as they are both rising economic powers) ----Example of a prominent alliance: SPECIAL RELATIONSHIP between the UK and the US so both states were involved in military action in Iraq and Afghanistan
Gaining Recognised Statehood:
- The UN is the key international body for legitimising state borders, sovereignty and international disputes: Being recognised as a voting member of the UN means that you are recognised as a sovereign independent state - UN + ICJ determine international borders (but these rulings can be ignored) - On a national level, referendums are held for regions to attempt to become independent (votes) → legitimate way for a new state to be recognised (eg. Scotland voted against being an independent state from the UK in a referendum in 2014)
features of sovereign states
- permanent population - defined territory - effective govt - capacity to enter relations with other states
States join IGOs for the following reasons:
1. Powerful states can join IGOs in order to encourage other states to adopt policies/agreements that work in national interest 2. Less powerful states can join IGOs in order to attain the ability to be more influential 3. States use IGOs as collective action is necessary in cases where one state cannot tackle an issue on its own 4. States use IGOs to increase/protect economic or military power (eg. the EU did this by creating a one-currency region) a) States can contribute to an economic IGO (eg. IMF) b) States can join a security decision-making alliance (eg. NATO/UNSC) 5. States can join regional IGOs (eg. ASEAN) as united power gives a larger ability to influence other regions/states on the global scale
Minsk Protocol (2014) objectives
Agreed a ceasefire in Eastern Ukraine with a monitoring mission from the OSCE and a programme of ongoing peace talks
Examples of Disputes Over Sovereignty: South China Sea
China wants to expand its territorial waters in the SCS and it has stated it does not recognise the ICJ so it will not cooperate with international rulings. The US has sent patrols into the SCS to ensure it remains international waters.
World Trade Organisation (WTO)
Decides and enforces the rules of international trade and resolves trade disputes between states through negotiation. All members have to agree on policies in the WTO before it can be officially adopted
define Stateless Nation
Ethnic group which is divided among several countries and which does not compromise the majority of the population of any of the countries (eg. the Kurds and the Poles before the Treaty of Versailles)
non recognised sovereignty examples
Example: Islamic State (ISIS) claim they are a state but are not recognised by international organisations → they are not a sovereign state
The World Bank
Focuses on economic development and on reducing poverty. Analyses and publishes data on global economic development along with subsidising development projects in LEDCs.
Examples of Disputes Over Sovereignty: Kosovo
In 2008, Kosovo declared itself independent from Serbia without a referendum. The USA and other Western states backed Kosovo and the ICJ stated the declaration was not a violation of international law but the UN has not declared Kosovo a full member of the UN as of yet (it is still seen as illegitimate)
Examples of Disputes Over Sovereignty: Crimea/Ukraine
In 2014, Russia annexed Crimea from Ukraine. A referendum was held but the UN claimed it was illegitimate as Russian troops were present in the region → the UNSC attempted to nullify the referendum but it was vetoed by Russia
Advancing world human and economic development in the UN
Millenium Development Goals (MDGs): (replaced by SDGs to focus more on sustainable development in 2015) agreed international action to promote human development across the poorest regions of the world ECOSOC: made up of 54 members (one-year terms) which coordinates UN action on economic, social and environmental issues (oversees SDGs) UNDP: works on UN-agreed development priorities across the world (funded by UN member nations)
define Nation-State
Nation which has its own political structure for the territory it occupies
define State
Part of the earth's land surface which is organised under a government and has boundaries
define De Facto Sovereignty
Someone who has no legal claim to sovereignty but possesses it nonetheless
define De Jure Sovereignty
Someone who has the legal claim to sovereignty but does not possess it
Economic IGOs reflect economic interdependence and the need to:
Spread economic development Help states in financial difficulty Help states with economic technical skills
define Multinational State
State in which more than one nation resides
IGOs and meetings are often limited in resolving issues as there are frequent disagreements such as
States protect national interest (realist stance) Example: P5 Nations can use their veto power in the UNSC to secure national interest
is sovereignty still significant : borders
Still Significant : Borders define independent states. States declare their own economic/political policies within their borders as some states act unilaterally (independently). National identity still matters Less Significant : Borders are less significant as border control is less prevalent (particularly in the EU due to the Schengen Agreement) and transnational crises are on the rise (eg. climate change)
is sovereignty still significant : economy
Still Significant : Economic policies are decided by sovereign regions and these regions are needed to resolve economic crises (not MNCs) Less Significant : Globalisation is reducing economic importance of states as many states are joining coalitions and international trade. MNCs also have more power than some smaller states and can coerce states
is sovereignty still significant : Non-State Actors
Still significant: Although non-state actors may challenge state sovereignty, they are not present globally and therefore, there is an international consensus regarding sovereignty and international law Less significant: Non-state actors (eg. terrorists) frequently challenge sovereignty by attempting to create new borders (eg. 2014/15: large parts of Syria and Iraq became a Caliphate under ISIS)
is sovereignty still significant : international law and agreement
Still significant: States can still abuse human rights/break international law with impunity. Decisions about external interference are dependent on international agreement (eg. intervention in Libya 2011) and majority of borders are respected Less significant: International conventions (eg. Responsibility to Protect) no longer view sovereignty as absolute as irresponsible behaviour can sanction the violation of sovereignty by IGOs or independent states (eg. War on Terror/Libya 2011/Ukraine 2014/Capturing Osama Bin Laden 2011)
is sovereignty still significant : Intergovernmental Organisations
Still significant: States choose to join and fund IGOs so they have a say in the outcome of IGO decisions Less significant: IGOs are more numerous and powerful now. The EU has supranational power and can enforce and create laws on the member nations
why was R2P founded
The R2P was founded due to the Rwandan genocide of 1994 where no nations intervened whilst the nation of Rwanda was breaching their R2P the citizens by enabling ethnic cleansing, genocide and crimes against humanity
Tackling shared challenges (eg. climate change) in the UN
The UN has led many international summits on climate change which works towards binding global agreement on reducing climate change and reducing greenhouse gas emissions
Minsk Protocol (2014) successes and challenges
The ceasefire has been broken several times since the Protocol was signed → a new peace agreement was needed months later
example of fragile state - South Sudan Civil War
The civil war and ethnic cleansing that is occuring in South Sudan is an example of a Fragile State as there is no legitimate leader and the government is unable to control the masses of the population → ethnic cleansing and crimes against humanity are occuring; - Has been happening ever since the split of Sudan and South Sudan in 2011 - The two ethnic groups (Dinka and Nuir) are fighting over governance and control
example of fragile state - Somalian Civil War
The civil war in Somalia has prevented the central government to have power in large regions in the country; the government nearly lost the ability to keep law and order or to provide public services (eg. healthcare/education) and the process of elections was hindered by insurgency
Environmental Interdependence
There are transnational issues (eg. climate change) that need interdependent and liberal responses (one state cannot solve these issues on their own)
Protecting and promoting human rights in the UN
UNHRC: consists of a selection of UN member states (in rotation) to investigate and make other members accountable for protecting human rights UNHCHR: UN agency that operates independently from member states → it scrutinises member states' human rights records
Promoting and protecting global peace and security in the UN
UNSC: passes resolutions and authorises peacekeeping/military action to protect global security (under Chapter VII of the UN Charter); some resolutions enable intervention by other IGOs (eg. NATO) ICJ: makes rulings in international law when states disagree over sovereignty
International Monetary Fund (IMF)
Works to improve global cooperation on financial stability and to promote economic growth along with reducing poverty in the world. The IMF offers financial loans (in exchange for economic reform) and technical advice for a state's economic development
The European Union (EU):
☆ The EU is a complex regional hybrid IGO that has supranational powers with a wide range of responsibilities: - It was formed after WW2 to unite Europe (specifically Germany and France) so that members would become politically and economically interdependent → this would deter future regional conflicts - In 1999, the EU launched a single European currency to encourage further European unity - Europe has a free trade area for the EU countries which allows for the free movement of people, goods and services across the EU - The EU enforces law upon member nations and is criticised for violating national sovereignty
Responsibility to Protect (R2P):
☆ The Responsibility to Protect (R2P) is an agreement created by the UN to prevent genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing and crimes against humanity from occurring in any nation: 1. Every state has the Responsibility to Protect its population from four mass atrocity crimes: genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing and crimes against humanity 2. The wider international community has the Responsibility to Encourage and Assist individual states in meeting that responsibility 3. If a state is manifestly failing to protect its populations from the four atrocities, the international community is prepared to take collective action in a timely and decisive manner in accordance to the UN charter (international intervention is legitimised due to the nation's failure to abide by the rule of the R2P)
The United Nations:
☆ The United Nations (UN) is the most significant IGO, with objectives ranging from peacekeeping, to human rights protection, to economic development and climate change reduction - It has 193 members and was founded in 1945 - The UN has many committees which work towards its four objectives:
unitary states:
☆ The central government has greater control and authority over what happens within its territory - Decisions and laws are made by a national legislature (eg. elected parliament/assembly) ----Scotland: the UK legislation has delegated Scotland the ability to have its own parliament and make its own laws in certain areas but this power can be restored back to the UK national parliament if necessary
defined territory indicator/ problems of identifying
indicator : Identifying territorial borders through maps. ICJ and international laws agree/decide borders and settle disputes over borders problems of identifying : - Many borders are always being disputed over (eg. the Kashmir region between Pakistan and India; the State of Palestine) - Non-state actors are increasingly taking control of territories within/of nation states (eg. ISIS (2014) declared a caliphate across Syria and Iraq which rendered the borders redundant even though they still officially exist)
effective govt indicator/ problems of identifying
indicator : Identifying whether a government exists and whether it has full authority and control over the state's territory problems with identifying : - Fragile states (such as Somalia, Nicaragua, Venezuela and DRC) have ineffective governments that do not have full authority over the nation but are still recognised as sovereign. - The EU is criticised for acting like a state (creates laws and forces compliance) even if it is not a sovereign state
permanent pop indicator/ problems of identifying
indicator : Identifying whether people are living in a permanent place (not a temporary or unfixed residence) problems of identifying : A sovereign state may suffer a crisis (eg. Iraq and Syria suffered an insurgency) leading to refugees fleeing the country → the country does not have a permanent population but still is sovereign
capacity to enter in relations with other states indicator/ problems of identifying
indicator : Tracking diplomatic relations between states through international summits, membership of international organisations/bilateral (or multilateral) partnerships problems with identifying : Regions (eg. Kosovo and Palestine) which are trying to gain independence are allowed into international organisations but are only given an observer status
what is montevideo convention used for?
is used to determine whether a nation is sovereign but there are many limitations to this method because some non-state actors have the features of a sovereign state
Economic Interdependence
states are linked together economically through trade (their economies are mutually dependent); a recession in one country may lead to a decrease in the ability to trade in other nations (eg. this is seen in the Global Financial Crisis 2008)
Political Interdependence
states' political decisions have impacts on other states (eg. the Syrian civil war has had wide political impact in the Middle East and other regions as large numbers of Syrian refugees are seeking asylum in other regions)
IGO for collective security
☆ An IGO (eg. NATO) exists to provide states with collective security - all member states offer one another military protection in the event of an attack - States join IGOs to improve their security - Joining together in a formal collective security alliance means that military resources would be pooled and all members would protect one another: ----Smaller states can be protected by larger states ----Article 5: an attack on one is an attack on all ----NATO April 1949: founded by Western nations against the USSR in response to the cold war threat to unify nations and make sure all states are safe
what is external sovereignty
☆ External Sovereignty: when states are recognised as independent and sovereign by other states; and are not interfered with whilst their external borders are respected: - This is how states interact externally (with other states/within IGOs) - States do not intervene/interfere with the issues within another state
Federal states:
☆ Federal System consists of a group of states which controls their own affairs but are also controlled by a single national government which makes decisions on foreign affairs and national defence (eg. USA) - In Federal states, there is a government in the capital city which has central power over things such as foreign policy but there are sub-national governments which have the power to make and enforce the law in their region: ----(Case Study on the USA) Each state has the power to decide and enforce their own different laws → some have opted for capital punishment and some have not
Global Governance:
☆ Global Governance is how states organise themselves, make agreements and tackle shared challenges (non-national challenges) through IGOs and alliances According to liberals, global governance is key as it enables states to solve transnational problems that affect many nations
Hybrid IGOs:
☆ Hybrid IGOs (eg. the EU and AU) have military, political and economic power, providing member states with a range of benefits - IGOs which have multiple functions ranging from economic matters to political cooperation are called Hybrid IGOs; for example:
What is Interdependence?
☆ Interdependence is when groups in Global Politics rely on each other, have shared interests or have an impact on each other - Interdependence is a key feature of a globalised world in which all groups in Global Politics are increasingly reliant and influential on each other
Intergovernmental Organisations:
☆ Intergovernmental Organisations (IGOs) provide member states with benefits (eg. economic strength and more influence in Global Politics) - Increased globalisation has led to an increase in IGOs as this enabled states to act together
what is internal sovereignty
☆ Internal Sovereignty: the ability of a state to exert legitimate control over its population and manage its affairs independently - States govern themselves independently: They have the supreme right to enforce laws, collect taxes etc - States exercise their sovereignty to decide trade policies
fragile states
☆ May be (un)democratic but the defining feature is the state's internal sovereignty and power is weak The government may be non-existent, illegitimate or just too weak to have authority over territory
realism vs liberalism on sovereignty
☆ Realists argue that globalisation is eroding sovereignty but states are still the most powerful factors in Global Politics whilst Liberals believe that the rise of IGOs are sometimes more important than the roles of states in the global order ☆ Liberals believe that sovereignty is not exclusive and intervention is necessary when nations are failing to act rationally whilst realists would argue the opposite
Strategic Alliances:
☆ Some states choose to form informal strategic alliances with others for mutual gain (eg. China's investment into Africa in exchange for deals on African natural resources); these alliances are without the need for treaties or IGOs
what is sovereignty
☆ Sovereignty is 'a state's ability to rule itself': States are sovereign when they have full control and authority of what happens within the nation - States respect the sovereignty of other states (along with maintaining and defending independent sovereignty) - States are sovereign when they exercise supreme control over what goes on within their borders
State Sovereignty and Legitimacy
☆ Sovereignty: the full right and power of a governing body over itself, without any interference from outside sources or bodies; A state's sovereignty is dependent on its recognition as a state by other states: - Statehood/sovereignty came from the Treaty of Westphalia (1648); resolution to the 30 Years War ---International legitimacy is necessary for a state to be recognised as a (sovereign) state
monarchy
☆ States are governed by a hereditary monarchy/royal family which is unelected but has gained authority through generations of rule by the family Monarchies differ greatly: - Some have a symbolic role (eg. in the UK or Norway) - Some have greater political control (eg. the royal family rules powerfully in Saudi Arabia) - Some monarchies have actively tried to reduce their power and give power to elected civilian governments (eg. Morocco and the UAE in response to the Arab Uprisings 2011)
Treaties
☆ States don't just cooperate with each other through IGOs, they also cooperate through bilateral/multilateral treaties: - These are agreed between as many or as few states as desired - They may be agreed by states that group together on a particular issue, rather than by region - Treaty form represents formal international law - Some treaties are used to establish or change the rules of IGOs
The African Union (AU):
☆ The AU was founded in 2002 and is made up of every African nation state (except Morocco) and deals with security, political and economic development: - Since 2007, the AU has become more involved in peacekeeping missions in Africa (eg. Somalia) - Enables African countries to have a united singular voice on an international level Example of AU collected power: In 2013, the AU threatened to leave the ICC as it complained the ICC was biased against African leaders
Authoritarian States:
☆ The government is not elected and governs with authority that cannot be challenged, held to account or influenced by the population - Leaders remain in power for as long as they wish or until they are removed by means such as a military coup or foreign intervention (eg. removal of Saddam Hussein from Iraq in 2003) or popular uprising (eg. removal of Egypt's President Mubarak in 2011) - Human rights abuses are most likely to be widespread and the rule of law is not respected
theocracy
☆ Theocracy: 'rule or government by religion' Power is held by religious groups rather than non-religious political parties - Example: Iran is ruled by its Islamic Supreme Leader who has the power to decide which non-religious candidates can stand for election to become president - Example: the ruling Shura council has the power to make and enforce Saudi Arabia's Sharia (Islamic) law, alongside the country's ruling monarchy
