SPC2608 Final Exam Review

Types of Organization for Persuasive Speeches

Topically, Problem-Solution Order (first main point deals with the existence of a problem and the second main point presents a solution to the problem), problem-cause-solution order (first main point identifies a problem, the second main point analyzes the causes of the problem, and the third main point presents a solution to the problem), comparative advantages order (each main point explains why a speakers solution to a problem is preferable to other proposed solutions), Monroes motivated sequence (seeks immediate action, five steps)

Criterion for Effective Use of Language

Use familiar words, choose concrete words, eliminate clutter

Why is language important?

With language, humans can pass their experiences, ideas, and knowledge to others However, language can also be used for persuasion other motives. Always be aware of the meaning of words before you use them and use them appropriatly. Using language clearly can help listeners grasp the meaning immediatley, it brings your speech to life, and it makes your speech unique. Choose words that are precise and accurate

Hasty Generalization

a fallacy in which a speaker jumps to a general conclusion on the basis of insufficient evidence

False Cause

a fallacy in which a speaker mistakenly assumes that because one event follows another, the first event is the cause of the second

Ad Hominem

a fallacy that attacks the person rather than dealing with the real issue in dispute

Either-or

a fallacy that forces listeners to choose between two alternatives when more than two alternatives exist

Appeal to Novelty

a fallacy which assumes that something new is automatically better than something old

Appeal to Tradition

a fallacy which assumes that something old is automatically better than something new

Inclusive Language

a language that does not stereotype, demean, or patronize people on the basis of gender, race, religion, disability, sexual orientation, or other factors avoid generic "he", the use of "man" when refering to men and women, stereotyping jobs and social roles by gender Use the names that groups use to identify themselves

Speeches of Acceptance

a speech that gives thanks for a gift, an award, or some other form of public recognition

What is an online speech?

a speech that has been created specifically for an audience that will view it online and in real-time

Speeches of Introduction

a speech that introduces the main speaker to the audience

Commemorative Speech

a speech that pays tribute to a person, a group of people, an institution, or an idea inspire the audience

Speeches of Presentation

a speech that presents someone a gift, an award, or some other form of public recognition acknowledge achievements of the recipient, thank people who are bestowing the award and recognize the contributions of people who helped gain it

Creating Common Ground

a technique in which a speaker connects himself or herself with the values, attitudes, or experiences of the audience

Appropriate Language for Audience

adjust the language to the level of expertise, the formality of the occasion, err on the side of caution speak appropriately for the occasion, the topic, and the audience

Pacing

alter what appears on the audience's screen (typically best for recorded speeches), maintain a brisk pace

Invalid Analogy

an analogy in which the two cases being compared are not essentially alike

Dealing with Skeptical Audiences

anticipate possible objections the audience will raise to your point of view and answer them in your speech, put yourself in the place of the audience and imagine how they will respond, every place they will raise a question, answer it

Anticipating Objections

anticipate potential objections, present solutions to the objections in the speech

Credibility is an...

attitude. It exists not in the speaker, but in the mind of the audience.

Speaker Credibility

audience perception of whether a speaker is qualified to speak on a given topic, the two major factors influencing a speakers credibility are competence and character

Distractions

avoid distractions update computer, turn off notifications, avoid pets in the room, etc.

Eye Contact

avoid looking up or out of a window and do not allow eyes to dart back and forth real-time - make eye contact with the webcam recorded speeches typically have the speaker addressing a "live audience"

Action reinforces...

belief

If you want others to believe and care about your ideas and if you want to convince others... you must...

care about and believe the ideas yourself, you yourself must be convinced.

Two major factors affecting a speakers credibility include...

competence (how an audience regards a speakers intelligence, expertise, and knowledge of the subject) and character (how an audience regards a speakers sincerity, trustworthiness, and concern for the well-being of the audience)

Most Persuasive Types of Sources

competent and credible sources, objective and nonpartisan sources

Guidelines for Online Speeking

control the visual environment, adapt your non verbal communication, adjust your pacing, don't forget your audience, practice

What qualities of a speaker persuade an audience?

credible, uses evidence, uses reasoning, appeals to emotions

Examples of Instances of Persuasive Speaking

defending an idea, refuting an opponent, selling a program, inspiring people to action acting as an advocate, and getting listeners to agree, and possibly, act on that belief

Terminal and Derived Credibility

derived credibility is produced by everything the speaker says and does during the speech, terminal credibility is the speakers credibility at the end of the speech

Audience Feedback

don't forget the audience and adjust to the verbal and nonverbal cues looking off to the side or down, bordom or zoning out, etc.

Dress

dress professionally, solid colors, avoid white, green, and purple avoid busy patterns and glitzy prints

Aristotle's Elements of Persuasion

ethos (credibility), pathos (emotional appeal), logos (logical appeal of a speaker, evidence and reasoning)

Ethical Obligations in Persuasive Speaking

goals must be eithically sound, you are able to defend them if they are questioned or challenged, study the topic thoroughly, learn about all sides of an issue, review competing viewpoints, get the facts correct, be honest in what you say, avoid quoting out of context or misrepresenting facts and figures, avoid name calling and abusive language, use appropriate emotional appeal

Emotional Appeals

intend to make listeners feel sad, angry, guilty, afraid, happy, proud, sympathetic, reverent, or the like.

Adapting to the Audience in Persuasive Speech

learn of the audiences concerns and values and adapt the speech to address these

Audience Analysis

learning about the diverse characteristics of the people who make up the audience

Analyzing Questions of Policy

need, plan, practicality

Plan and Practicality

plan - the second basic issue in analyzing a question of policy: if there is a problem with current policy, does the speaker have a plan to solve the problem? practicality - the third basic issue in analyzing a question of policy: will the speakers plan solve the problem? will it create new and more serious problems?

Denotative Meaning of a Word

precise, literal, and objective describes the object, person, place, idea, or event to which the word refers the literal or dictionary meaning of a word or phrase school - a place where instruction is given

Drawing conclusions based on evidence is...

reasoning

2 Kinds of Online Speeches

recorded online speech (a speech that is delivered, recorded, then uploaded to the internet) and real-time online speech (a speech that has been created specifically for an audience that will view it online as it is being delivered)

Distance and Framing

rule of thumb - sit two to three feet from webcam direct the webcam for real-time and direct the "live audience" in recorded frame your body as requested by the assignment, typically chest up for real-time and full-body for recorded have webcam directly facing you, not facing up at you

Back-Up Plans

send outline via email, move speech to audio-only conference call, share the text through a document collaboration program and invite comments, turn real-time speech into recorded, reschedule

Elements of Visual Environment

setting, lighting, framing, eye contact, personal appearance

Gestures

sit straight, not rigid allow for well-planned and deliberate hand gestures, too many make you appear nervous, focus on controlled and natural gestures

Evidence

supporting materials used to prove or disprove something

Need

the first basic issue in analyzing a question of policy: is there a serious problem or need that requires a change from current policy?

Mental Dialogue with Audience

the mental give-and-take between speaker and listener during a persuasive speech

Burden of Proof

the obligation facing a persuasive speaker to prove that a change from current policy is necessary

Target Audience

the portion of the whole audience that the speaker most wants to persuade use questionnaires to find out where people stand on your speech topic, use this as research, and tailor your speech accordingly to suit values and concerns

Reasoning

the process of drawing a conclusion on the basis of evidence ensure your reasoning is sound before trying to get listeners to agree with it

Type of Speeches on Questions of Policy

(1) speeches to gain passive agreement - a persuasive speech in which the speakers goal is to convince the audience that a given policy is desirable without encouraging the audience to take action in support of the policy (2) speeches to gain immediate action - a persuasive speech in which the speakers goal is to convince the audience to take action in support of a given policy

Analyzing Questions of Value

-Justify your claim -Establish your standards and why your idea best meets these

Ethics and Emotional Appeal

-Make sure it is appropriate to the topic -Most often inappropriate on questions of fact -they must be used to build on facts and reason-not to replace

Analyzing Questions of Fact

-Present one view of facts as persuasively as possible -Mention competing views, but refute them -Partisan (speaker acts as an advocate)

Delivery Tips for Online Presentations

...

Enhancing your Credibility

1) Explain your competence. 2) Establish common ground with your audience. 3) Deliver your speeches fluently, expressively, and with conviction

Types of Fallacies (errors in reasoning)

1) Hasty Generalization. 2) False Cause. 3) Invalid Analogy. 4) Bandwagon. 5) Red Herring. 6) Ad Hominem. 7) Either-Or. 8) Slippery Slope. 9) Appeal to Tradition. 10) Appeal to Novelty.

Monroe's Motivated Sequence Steps

1. Attention - gain the audiences attention 2. Need - make the audience feel a need for change 3. Satisfaction - provide a solution to the problem, present your plan and how it will work 4. Visualization - visualize the benefits of your plan, use imagery 5. Action - tell the audience what you want them to do and how to do it, reinforce their commitment to act

Types of Reasoning in Persuasion

1. Reasoning from specific instances - reasoning that moves from particular facts to a general conclusion (ensure your sample of specific instances is large enough to justify your conclusion and that they are fair, unbias, and representative, reinforce with testimony or statistics) 2. Reasoning from principle - reasoning that moved from a general principle to a specific conclusion 3. Causal Reasoning - reasoning that seeks to establish a relationship between causes and effects 4. Analogical Reasoning - reasoning in which a speaker compares two similar cases and infers that what is true for the first case is also true for the second.

Generating Emotional Appeal

1. Use emotional language 2. Develop vivid examples 3. Speak with sincerity and conviction

Tips for Using Evidence

1. use specific evidence 2. use novel evidence: things audience didn't already know 3. use evidence from credible sources 4. make clear the point of your evidence

Everyday Style v. Developed Speaker Style

A developed style is one you develop through trial, error, and practice. It is unique to you, the speaker. It is language-conscious and avoids abstract words, slang, and technical jargon. It is ised for accuracy, clarity, and vividness.

Slippery Slope

A fallacy that assumes that taking a first step will lead to subsequent steps that cannot be prevented

Red Herring

A fallacy that introduces an irrelevant issue to divert attention from the subject under discussion

Bandwagon

A fallacy which assumes that because something is popular, it is therefore good, correct, or desirable.

Concrete v. Abstract Language

Abstract - words that refer to ideas or concepts Concrete - words that refer to tangible objects

Guidelines for Special Occasion Speeches

Be brief, make sure your remarks are completely accurate, adapt your remarks to the occasion, adapt your remarks to the main speaker, adapt your remarks to the audience, try to create a sense of anticipation and drama

The types of credibility are dynamic. What does that mean?

High initial credibility is great for a speaker, but can be destroyed during a speech, resulting in low terminal credibility. The reverse can also occur.

Vivid Language

Imagery - the use of vivid language to create mental images of objects, actions, or ideas (use concrete words to call up mental impressions of sights, sounds, touch, smell, and taste)(also use simile and metaphor) Rhythm - the pattern of sound in a speech created by the choice and arrangement of words (use parallelism, repetition, alliteration, antithesis)

Chapter 12

Language

Chapter 17

Methods of Persuasion

Chapter 19

Presenting Your Speech Online

Purpose Statements for Different Types of Questions in Persuasive Speaking

Questions of Fact - (1) To persuade my audience that an earthquake of 9.0 or above on the Richter scale will hit California in the next 10 years. (2) To persuade my audience that William Shakespeare did not write the plays attributed to him. Questions of Value - (1) To persuade my audience that elephant trophy hunting is legally and morally wrong. (2) To persuade my audience that bicycle riding is the ideal form of land transportation. Questions of Policy - (1) To persuade my audience to take class notes by hand instead of on a computer. (2) To persuade my audience that our city should build a rapid bus system instead of a new highway.

3 Types of Questions in Persuasive Speaking

Questions of Fact - a question about the truth or falsity of an assertion Questions of Value - demand value judgments (judgments based on a person's beliefs) - a question about the worth, rightness, morality, and so forth of an idea or action. Questions of Policy - a question about whether a specific course of action should or should not be taken (usually include the word "should")

How to Organize Speeches Based Upon the Type of Question

Questions of Fact - organized topically - each main point will present a reason why someone should agree with you Questions of Value - organized topically - devote the first main point to establishing standards for your value judgment and your second to applying those standards to the subject Questions of Policy - organized using problem-solution order, problem-cause-solution order, comparative advantages order, and Monroes motivated sequence

Language Strategies

Simile - an explicit comparison introduced with the word "like" or "as" between things that are essentially different yet have something in common Metaphor - an implicit comparison, not introduced with the word "like" or "as" between two things that are essentially different yet have something in common. Parallelism - the similar arrangement of a pair or series of related words, phrases, or sentences Repetition - reiteration of the same word or set of words at the beginning or end of successive clauses or sentences Alliteration - repetition of the initial consonant sound of close or adjoining words Antithesis - the juxtaposition of contrasting ideas, usually in parallel structure

Chapter 18

Speaking On Special Occasions

Chapter 16

Speaking to Persuade

Types of Credibility

The credibility of the speaker... 1. Initial (before speech) 2. Derived (produced by the speech) 3. Terminal (end of the speech)

Connotative Meaning of a Word

variable, figurative, subjective the meaning suggested by the associations of emotions triggered by a word or phrase school - personal growth, childhood friends, boring homework assignments

Concrete Words

words that refer to tangible objects will almost always be clearer, more interesting, and easier to recall than one dominated by abstract words

Practicing

you will need more rehearsal time for an online speech than an in-person presentation recorded - record practice sessions, practice in the location you will record, watch practice recording, and check framing, voice, eye contact, etc. real-time - practice with the computer and presentation software you will be using, screen record your practice sessions for review, update the computer, close any tabs you don't need, turn off notifications

The time devoted to the need, plan, and practicality sections depends on

your audience and their knowledge of the topic