TESL 710 Chapter 2 notes

What is dialect in relation to language?

Anthropological linguists define dialect as the specific form of a language used by a speech community. Specific language varieties are often called dialects rather than languages. Those who identify a particular dialect as the "standard" or "proper" version are using these terms to express social distinction.

What are the 3 basic theories of first language acquisition?

Behaviorist Innatist Interactionist

How do Behaviorist, Innatist, and Interactionist vary in the process of acquisition?

Behaviorist Perspective- Modeling, imitation, practice, and selective reinforcement of correct form. Innatist Perspective- Hypothesis testing and creative construction of syntactic rules using LAD. Interactionist Perspective- Acquisition emerges from communication; acts scaffold by caregivers.

How do Behaviorist, Innatist, and Interactionist vary on role of the child?

Behaviorist Perspective- Secondary role: imitator and responder to environmental shaping. Innatist Perspective- Primary role: equipped with biological LAD, child plays major role in acquisition. Interactionist Perspective- Important role in interaction, taking more control as language acquisition advances.

How do Behaviorist, Innatist, an Interactionist vary in linguistic focus?

Behaviorist Perspective- Verbal behavior (not analyzed per se): words, utterances of child and people in social environment. Innatist Perspective- Child's syntax. Interactionist Perspective- Conversations between child and caregiver; focus on caregiver speech.

How do Behaviorist, Innatist, and Interactionist vary on role of social environment?

Behaviorist Perspective- primary role: parental modeling and reinforcement are major factors promoting language acquisition. Innatist Perspective- Minor role: language used by others merely triggers LAD. Interactionist Perspective- Important role in interaction, especially in early years when caregivers modify input and carry much of conversational load.

How do Behaviorist, Innatist, and Interactionist vary on ideal classroom composition?

Behaviorist- All target language learners of similar second language proficiency. Innatist- Target language learners of similar second language proficiency so i+1 can be achieved. Interactionist- Native speakers together with target language learners for social interaction aimed at communication.

How do Behaviorist, Innatist, and Interactionist vary on treatment of errors?

Behaviorist- Errors are corrected immediately. Innatist- Errors are not corrected; students will correct themselves with time. Interactionist- Errors that impede communication will be corrected naturally as meaning is negotiated; some errors may require explicit corrective instruction.

How do Behaviorist, Innatist, and Interactionist vary on source of linguistic input?

Behaviorist- Language dialogues and drills from teacher or audiotape. Innatist- natural language from the teacher, friends, or books. Interactionist- natural language from the teacher, friends, or books.

How do Behaviorist, Innatist, and Interactionist vary on nature of input?

Behaviorist- Structured by grammatical complexity. Innatist- Unstructured, but made comprehensible by teacher. Interactionist- Unstructured, but focused on communication between learner and others.

How do Behaviorist, Innatist, and Interactionist vary on student output?

Behaviorist- Structured repetitions and grammar pattern drill responses. Innatist- Output is not a concern; it will occur naturally. Interactionist- Speaking occurs naturally in communication with others.

How do Behaviorist, Innatist, and Interactionist vary on pressure to speak?

Behaviorist- Students repeat immediately. Innatist- "Silent period" expected. Interactionist- No pressure to speak except natural impulse to communicate.

Who was Michael Halliday?

British-born Australian linguist who developed the internationally influential systemic function linguistic model of language. He describes language as a semiotic system and defines linguistics as how people exchange meaning in language.

What is LAD?

Chomsky hypothesizes that infants must be born with some special built-in-ability to learn language. He called this biological ability the Language Acquisition Device (LAD). This device contains the main rules for all possible human languages.

What is a term interchangeable with language proficiency and what does it emphasize?

Communicative competence- This includes the knowledge of the linguistic and social rules of communication. This term is used instead of language proficiency to emphasize that proficient language use extends beyond grammatical forms and meaning to include social conventions required for successful communication.

What are some social conventions of language use (pragmatics)?

1. How to start and end a conversation smoothly. 2. How to enter a conversation without interrupting other individuals. 3. How to show politeness in language. 4. How and when to use informal expressions such as slang as opposed to more formal ways of speaking. 5. How, whether, and when to establish a first- name basis in a formal relationship.

What is the amount estimation of different world languages according to Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams(2003)?

4,000 to 8,000

What is considered the major source of English language development?

Error correction is not the major source of English language development/ meaningful experiences, using the language for a variety of oral and written purposes, play a much larger role.

What is negotiation of meaning in second language acquisition?

A basic principle of SLA learning is the need to negotiate meaning in any language-learning situation. Once meaning is established, comprehension follows. It is a trial-and-error process of give-and-take in communication. As meaning is negotiated, non-native speakers are actually able to exert some control over the communication process during conversations, thereby causing their partners to provide input that is more comprehensible.

What is meant by "tabula vasa"?

A blank slate awaiting the scripture of experience.

What are the 4 methods of increasing input comprehensibility?

A functional communication situation, social interaction, comprehensible input, and comprehensible output.

What are the Kachru-circles?

A model of three circles depicting how language variety relates to power and prestige. The inner circle has countries in which English is the primary national language. The outer circle has countries in which English, often coexisting with indigenous languages, is used in major institutions such as education, civil service, and government. The expanding circle includes countries in which English is taught as a second language for international communication purposes but has no role in domestic institutions. The varieties of English used in all three circles have come to be known as World Englishes.

Describe Mikhail Bakhtin's thought on communication through language.

He suggests that when people communicate via language, they engage in more than an exchange of words: They engage in an exchange of consciousness as meaning is negotiated and understanding achieved or not achieved.

What is the Innatist theory?

A theory mainly concerned with first language acquisition. It asserts that humans have access to the knowledge that it processed innately.

What is sarcasm?

A type of humor that involves saying the opposite of what is meant or expected.

When should errors be corrected?

In a sensitive and natural way, especially involving vocabulary.

Name all the language families.

Afro-Asiatic, Amerindian, Austroasiatic, Malayo-Polynesian, Niger-Congo, and Indo-European

Who is Noam Chomsky?

American linguist, philosopher, cognitive scientist, logician, political commentator, and activist. He argues that language acquisition is an innate structure or function of the human brain.

Who was B.F. Skinner?

American psychologist and behaviorist that developed the theory of operant conditioning which is the idea that behavior is determined by its consequences, be they reinforcements or punishments, which make it more or less likely that the behavior will occur again.

In which context is grammar correction best achieved?

In the context of student writing because they are visible and preserved.

Which linguistic family does English belong and what does it descend from?

Indo-European language family that descends from Classical Latin, Greek, and Sanskrit.

How are communicative partners viewed by the Interactionist perspective?

Interactionist view the communicative give and take of natural conversations between native and non-native speakers as the crucial element of the language acquisition process. They focus on the ways in which native speakers modify their speech to try to make themselves understood by English-learning conversational partners.

What is meant by Interlanguage systems?

Interlanguage is the term for a dynamic linguistic system that has been developed by a learner of a second language who has not become fully proficient yet but is approximating the target language while preserving some features of their first language. The learner then exhibits his own evolving rules and patterns. As these rules and patterns evolve over time, the learner systems gradually resemble more closely those of the target language.

What is fossilization?

It occurs when a learner reaches a final plateau in second language development without achieving native-like fluency.

What is the audio-lingual method and its relationship to skinner's work?

It was developed during WWII when there was a need for people to rapidly learn a foreign language for military purposes. It emphasizes the teaching of listening and speaking before reading and writing of foreign languages. This method is a combination between behavioral psychology and linguistics. The students first hear a language, later speaking the language.

How can language function as a gatekeeper?

Language has the ability to keep some people down and prevents their access to social mobility and power.

What is meant by the natural order hypothesis?

Language learners acquire (rather than learn) the rules of a language in a predictable sequence. Certain grammatical features are acquired early, whereas others tend to be acquired late.

What are isolates?

Languages that do not seem to fit into any known language family. Examples: Euskara, the language of the Basque people of the Pyrenees Mountains in France and Spain, and Kutenai, the American Indian language which is still spoken by a small number of people in Montana, Idaho, and British Columbia.

Which languages have the largest number of speakers?

Mandarin, English, Hindi, and Spanish

Which type of corrections tends to be easier to learn between meaning and grammar?

Meaning

When do native-born children who speak another language at home usually start second language acquisition? Immigrants?

Native-born typically begin prior to or upon entry to elementary school. Immigrants, on the other hand, the process may begin at any age, depending on how old they are when they arrive in their new country.

What has research shown inhibits social interaction between native and non-native speakers within the classroom?

Research shows that stereotypes, prejudices, and status and power differences may impede social interaction among native and non-native English speakers. Natural tendencies to affiliate with one's own linguistic, social, and ethnic group may also work against the kind of social interaction that facilitates language acquisition group (Sheets and Hollins, 1999).

What is meant by the input hypothesis?

Second language acquisition is the direct result of learners' understanding the target language in natural communication situations. A key element of the input hypothesis is that the input language must be (1) understandable and (2) should contain grammatical structures that are just a bit beyond the acquirer's current level of second language development (abbreviated as i+1, with I meaning input and +1 indicating the challenging level that is a bit beyond the learner's current level of proficiency).

What are the stages of second language acquisition?

Silent/Receptive. This stage may last from several hours to several months, depending on the individual learner. During this time, new language learners typically spend time learning vocabulary and practice pronouncing new words. While they may engage in self-talk, they don't normally speak the language with any fluency or real understanding. Early Production. This stage may last about six months, during which language learners typically acquire an understanding of up to 1,000 words. They may also learn to speak some words and begin forming short phrases, even though they may not be grammatically correct. Speech Emergence. By this stage, learners typically acquire a vocabulary of up to 3,000 words, and learn to communicate by putting the words in short phrases, sentences, and questions. Again, they may not be grammatically correct, but this is an important stage during which learners gain greater comprehension and begin reading and writing in their second language. Intermediate Fluency. At this stage, which may last for a year or more after speech emergence, learners typically have a vocabulary of as many as 6,000 words. They usually acquire the ability to communicate in writing and speech using more complex sentences. This crucial stage is also when learners begin actually thinking in their second language, which helps them gain more proficiency in speaking it. Continued Language Development/Advanced Fluency. It takes most learners at least two years to reach this stage, and then up to 10 years to achieve full mastery of the second language in all its complexities and nuances. Second language learners need ongoing opportunities to engage in discussions and express themselves in their new language, in order to maintain fluency in it.

What are the two differing views among experts of World Englishes?

Some experts suggest that the spread of English is overall a positive phenomenon because it offers access to a wider world of communication with corresponding personal, social, and economic benefits. Others argue that the global expansion of English is largely negative because it contributes to political, social and economic inequality.

What are the developmental stages for negation?

Stage 1- No, not placed before item negated, often as first word utterance. Examples: No want that. Not good for play soccer. Stage 2- Don't emerges, but not marked for person, number, or tense; don't may be used before modals such as can and should. Examples: I don't can say it right. He don't know. Stage 3- negating word placed after auxiliary verbs such as can, is, are, don't, but not yet fully analyzed for person, number, or tense. Examples: We can not find it. They was not nice. Stage 4- Do is used correctly most of the time. Sometimes both the auxiliary and the verb are marked for person, number, or tense. Examples: My teacher doesn't want that. We didn't went to the show.

What are the developmental stages for question formation?

Stage 1- Rising intonation on word or phrase. Ex. Airplane? Stage 2- Rising intonation with a declarative word order. Ex. She is your sister? Stage 3- Do-fronting; Wh-fronting; other fronting. No inversion. Ex. Do you put a star there? Where the train is going? Is the boy has a dog too? Stage 4- Inversion in wh- + to be questions. Yes/no questions with other auxiliaries such as can, will, shall. Ex. Where is the book? Is she your sister? Can he catch the ball? Stage 5- Inversion in wh- questions with both an auxiliary and a main verb. Ex. How does she know it? Stage 6- Complex questions(Tag question, negative question, embedded question) Ex. She's smart, isn't she? Why doesn't he understand us? Can you tell me where the station is?

What do task based interaction achieve in comprehension according to Swain (1985)?

Task-based interactions provide English learners with a comfortable space in which to make themselves understood in their new language, thus encouraging them to produce comprehensible output.

What is language proficiency?

The ability to use a language effectively and appropriately throughout the range of social, personal, school, and work situations that comprise daily living. Includes both oral and written language.

What are Stephen Krashen's 5 hypotheses about second language acquisition?

The acquisition/learning hypothesis. The monitor hypothesis. The natural order hypothesis. The input hypothesis. The affective filter hypothesis.

What is the thought of the behaviorist theory?

The behaviorist theory believes that "infants learn oral language from other human role models through a process involving imitation, rewards, and practice.

What is meant by the monitor hypothesis?

The formal study of language leads to the development of an internal grammar editor or monitor. As the student produces sentences, the monitor "watches" the output to ensure correct usage. For a student to use the monitor, three conditions are necessary: sufficient time, focus on grammatical form, and explicit knowledge of the rules.

What is heterogeneous grouping?

The grouping together students of varying abilities, interests, or ages.

Give an example of the home language becoming the primary vehicle for the transmission of cultural values family history, and ethnic identity.

The home language may be a child's only means of communicating with parents or grandparents.

How does age affect the second language acquisition process?

The influence of age on second language acquisition stems from the complex interplay of sociocultural, cognitive, and personality factors.

What is meant by the affective filter hypothesis?

The most important affective variables favoring second language acquisition are a low-anxiety learning environment, student motivation to learn the language, self-confidence, and self-esteem.

What are phonemes?

The smallest contrastive unit in the sound system of a language. Each language in the world uses a finite set of sounds that make a difference for meaning.

What are morphemes?

The smallest meaningful unit in the grammar of a language (prefixes, suffixes, and root words)?

What is Phonology?

The study of how sounds are organized and used in natural settings.

What is Morphology?

The study of the forms of words, and the ways in which words are related to other words of the same languages. (ex: word formation including prefixes, suffixes, and root words)

What is syntax?

The study of the rules for the formation of grammatical sentences in a language (word order).

What is Contrastive Analysis?

The systematic study of a pair of languages with the view of identifying their structural differences and similarities. The study and comparison of two languages with two aims; to establish the inter-relationships of languages in order to create a linguistic family tree and to aid second language acquisition.

What is Irony and its difference from sarcasm?

The use of words to convey a meaning that is the opposite of its literal meaning. Differs in how it can be applied to situations that are not at all humorous.

What is meant by the acquisition hypothesis?

There is a distinct difference between acquiring and learning a second language. Acquisition occurs during meaningful interactions with native speakers. Learning refers to the formal and conscious study of language forms and functions as explicitly taught in foreign language classes.

What is the Creative Construction Theory or Naturalistic Approach?

This is based on the assumption that language acquisition is innately determined and that we are born with a certain system of language we can call on later. Chomsky, the leading proponent, claims that each human being possesses a set of innate properties of language which is responsible for the child's mastery of a native language.

What is the Interactionist Theory of language development?

This theory emphasizes the role of social interaction between the developing child and linguistically knowledgeable theories of Soviet psychologist Lev Vygotsky. Caregivers use scaffolding techniques in the child's second language acquisition.

How can two-way immersion grouping assist promoting equal status among students?

Two-way immersion programs represent one of the few educational alternatives that explicitly promote equal status between language minority and language majority students, with both groups learning the native language of the other while developing full bilingualism and biliteracy.