the executive branch-7

electoral college

As the American people vote in the presidential election, they vote to elect presidential electors. The Constitution provides for the election of the President by the electoral college, in which each state has as many electors as it has members of Congress. The Framers expected the electors to use their own judgement in selecting a President. Today, the chosen electors are "rubber stamps" who are expected to vote automatically for their party's candidates for President and Vice President. The electors go through the form set out in the Constitution, but their behavior is a far cry from its original intent.

governments of japan and great britain

Britain's unitary government is based on unwritten constitution while Japan's constitution was written with American guidance after World War II and it contains a unique anti-military clause. Britain's hereditary monarch reigns but does not rule while Japan's legislature, the National Diet, consists of the House of Councilors and the House of Representatives. Japan's prime minister and cabinet are chosen by and are responsible to its House of Representatives as well. Britain's bicameral Parliament holds judicial and executive power while Japan has an independent judicial system. Britain recently began a process of devolution, the delegation of authority to regional governments which is similar to the United States. Although Japanese prefectures (districts) have many responsibilities, they have far less power than American states. The government of Japan is more like the United States because its governmental features reflect a blend of American principles with Japanese institutions, creating a distinctive form of democracy.

war powers resolution of 1973

Congress passed the War Powers Resolution in 1973 because of the nation's frustrations and growing anguish over the war in Vietnam. The act is designed to place close limits on the President's war-making powers. President Nixon vetoes the measure, however, Congress overrode the veto. The resolution's central provisions require that within 48 hours after committing American forces to combat abroad, the President must report to Congress, detailing the circumstances and the scope of his actions; combat commitment must end within 60 days, unless Congress agrees to a longer period, but that 60-day deadline can also be extended for up to 30 days to allow for the safe withdrawal of the American forces involved; and Congress may end the combat commitment at any time, by passing a concurrent resolution to that effect.

direct popular election problems

Direct election is a system of choosing political officeholders in which the voters directly cast ballots for the person, persons, or political party that they desire to see elected. There are several problems associated with direct popular election. The first major problem is the constitutional amendment process because it is time-consuming, difficult, and cumbersome. The second problem is that the smaller states are greatly overrepresented in the electoral college and they would lose that advantage in direct election. The third problem is that direct election could weaken the federal system because the states, as states, would lose their role in the choice of a President. The fourth problem is that some people believe that direct election would put too great a load on the election process and make candidates campaign strenuously in every state. The fifth problem with direct election is that it could spur ballot-box stuffing and other forms of voter fraud which would lead to lengthy and highly explosive post-election challenges. I think that the idea of voting directly for who you want to see elected is great. However, due to the amount of problems that can come out of direct election and changes that it would require, I do not think that direct election is the solution. I think that the senators and representatives of small states would create enough opposition to kill a direct election amendment.

american foreign policy through wwi

From its beginnings, and for 150 years, American foreign policy was very largely built on a policy of isolationism. Throughout that period, the United States refused to become generally and permanently involved in the affairs of the rest of the world. Isolationism arose in the earliest years of this nation's history. In his Farewell Address in 1976, George Washington declared that "our true policy" was "to steer clear of permanent alliances with any portion of the foreign world." Washington said that are "detached and distant situation" made it desirable for us to have "as little political connection as possible" with other nations. In 1801, Thomas Jefferson added his own warning against "entangling alliances." At the time, and for decades to come, isolationism seemed a wise policy to most Americans. The United States was a new and relatively weak nation with a great many problems, a huge continent to explore and settle, and two oceans to separate us from the rest of the world. The policy of isolationism did not demand a complete separation from the rest of the world. The United States developed ties broad by exchanging diplomatic representatives with other nations, making treaties with many of them, and building an extensive foreign commerce. In fact, isolationism was, over time, more a statement of our desire for non-involvement outside the Western Hemisphere than a description of United States policy within our own hemisphere.

policy of isolationism and world wars

Germany's submarine campaign against American shipping in the North Atlantic forced the United States out of its isolationist cocoon in 1917. America entered World War I "to make the world safe for democracy." With the defeat of Germany and the Central Powers, however, America pulled back from the involvements brought on by the war. The United States refused to join the League of Nations, which has been conceived by President Woodrow Wilson. Many Americans strongly believed that problems in Europe and the rest of the world need not concern them. For more than 20 years after World War I, an isolationist United States remained aloof, protected by its two oceans. America's historic commitment to isolationism was finally ended by World War II. That massive conflict, which began in Europe in 1939, spread to engulf much of the world and lasted for nearly 6 years. The war involved 61 nations and by the time it ended in 1945, World War II had cost the lives of as many as 75 million people worldwide. The United States became directly involved in the war when the Japanese attacked the American naval base at Pearl Harbor in Hawaii on December 7, 1941. From that point on-along with the British, the Russians, the Chinese, and our other allies-the United States waged an all-out effort to defeat the Axis powers of Germany, Italy, and Japan. Within a very short time, the United States transformed into the mightiest military power in the world and American forces fought and defeated the enemy in the Pacific, the Far East, North Africa, and Europe.

supreme court and removal power

Over the years, Congress has sometimes tried, with little success, to restrict the President's freedom to dismiss. In 1876, Congress passed a law requiring Senate consent before the President could dismiss any first-class, second-class, or third-class postmaster. However, the Supreme Court found the law to be unconstitutional and held that the power of removal was an essential part of the executive power, clearly necessary to the faithful execution of the laws. However, the Supreme Court did place some limits on the President's removal power in 1935. The Supreme Court states that members may only be removed for inefficiency, neglect of duty, or malfeasance in office. The Supreme Court also stated that Congress does have the power to set conditions under which members might be removed by the President. As a general rule, the President may remove those whom the President appoints. The Supreme Court's rulings on the removal power are based on two major cases. The first major case occurred in 1920 when without consulting the Senate, President Woodrow Wilson removed Frank Myers as the postmaster of Portland, Oregon. Myers then sued for the salary for the rest of his four-year term. He based his claim on the point that he had been removed in violation of the 1876 law. This case brought about the Supreme Court's decision that the 1876 law was unconstitutional and the Supreme Court held that the power of removal was an essential part of the executive power, clearly necessary to the faithful execution of the laws. The second major case occurred in 1935 when Franklin D. Roosevelt removed William Humphrey from the Federal trade Commission (FTC) because Roosevelt found Humphrey to be in sharp disagreement with many of his policies. This case brought the limits and conditions set upon the President's removal power because Humphrey was not removed due to inefficiency, neglect of duty, or malfeasance in office.

foreign policy after cold war

Relations between the United States and the Soviet Union improved remarkably after Mikhail Gorbachev gained power in Moscow in 1985. He and President Ronald Reagan soon met in a series of summit conferences that helped pave the way to the end of the Cold War. Those meetings, focused on arms limitations, eased long-standing tensions. George H. W. Bush continued that "summit diplomacy" when he became president in 1989. Certainly, Mikhail Gorbachev deserves much credit for the fundamental change in the Soviets' approach to world affairs. But, just as certainly, that historic change was prompted by deepening political and economic chaos in Eastern Europe and within the Soviet Union itself, by conditions that ultimately brought the collapse of the Soviet Union and late 1991. The fact that the cold world is now a matter of history should also be seen in this light: The American policies of deterrence and containment, first put in place in 1947, finally realized their goals. As President Reagan put it, the Soviet Union was left "on the ash heap of history." The United States continues to fight against other issues plaguing our planet such as terrorism in Iraq and Afghanistan and the worrisome fact that North Korea is building a nuclear arsenal.

history behind cabinet

The Cabinet is an informal advisory body brought together by the President to serve his needs. The Constitution makes no mention of it, nor did Congress create it. Instead, the Cabinet is the product of custom and usage. At its first session 1789, Congress established four top-level executive posts: secretary of state, secretary of treasury, secretary of war, and attorney general. By his second term, President George Washington was regularly seeking advice of the four outstanding people he had named in those offices: Thomas Jefferson, Alexander Hamilton, Henry Knox, and Edmund Randolph. Thus, the Cabinet was born. By tradition, the heads of now 15 executive departments form the Cabinet and the last several Presidents have regularly added a number of other top officials to the group.

Why did the Framers oppose popular or congressional election of a president?

The Framers opposed popular vote because they agreed that such a process would lead to tumult and disorder. Many delegates felt that the people, scattered over a wide area, could not possibly know enough about the available candidates to make wise, informed choices. The Framers opposed congressional election because they believed that congressional selection would put the President too much under the legislative thumb.

preidents term, pay, and benefits

The Framers settled on a four-year term for the President because they felt hat four years was a long enough period for the President to have gained experience, demonstrated his abilities, and established stable policies. The 22nd Amendment made the unwritten custom of "no-third-term tradition" a part of the written Constitution in 1951. Each President may now serve a maximum of two full terms, eight years, in office. A President may serve for more than eight years if they finish out a predecessor's term before running for office and seeking two full terms on his or her own. However, no President may serve more than 10 years. Some presidents have called for the repeal of the 22nd Amendment while others have argued for a single six-year term. Congress determines the President's salary and it can neither be increased nor decreased during a presidential term. The President's pay was first sat at $25,000 a year in 1789. Today, it is now $400,000 a year. Congress set that figure in 1999 and it became effective on January 20, 2001. Congress also provides the President with a $50,000-a-year expense allowance that can be spent however the President chooses; it is a part of his or her pay and it is taxed as part of his or her income. The Constitution forbids the President "any other emolument from the United States, or any of them." However, this clause foes not prevent the President from being provided with a great many benefits such as the White House, a sizable suite of offices and a large staff, a fleet of automobiles, the lavishly fitted Air Force One and several other planes and helicopters, Camp David, the finest health care available, generous travel and entertainment funds, and many other fringe benefits.

factors used when choosing cabinet members

The President appoints the head of each of the 15 executive departments and each of these appointments are subject to confirmation by the Senate. Of the more than 600 appointments made since 1789, only 12 have been rejected. Many factors influence the President's Cabinet choices such as party, geography, professional qualifications, experience, gender, race, management abilities. One or more of the President's appointees usually come from among those who played a major role in the recent presidential campaign as well.

resistance of soviet aggression during cold war

The United States began to counter the Soviet Union's aggressive actions in the early months of 1947. The Truman Doctrine marked the first step in that long-standing process. Both Greece and Turkey were in danger of falling under the Soviet Union's control. At President Harry Truman's urgent request, Congress approved a massive program of economic and military aid and both countries remained free of Soviet control. The Truman Doctrine soon became a part of a broader American plan for dealing with the Soviet Union. The policy was rooted in the belief that if communism could be kept within its existing boundaries, it would collapse under the weight of its own internal weaknesses. The United States and the Soviet Union confronted one another often during the Cold War years. At the end of World War II, the city of Berlin, surrounded by Soviet-occupied East Germany, was divided into four sectors. The Soviet Union controlled one sector, East Berlin, while the United States, Britain, and France occupied the other three sectors, which made up West Berlin. In 1948, the Soviets tried to force their former allies to withdraw from West Berlin. They clamped a land blockade around the city, stopping the shipment of food and supplies to the Western sectors. The United States mounted a massive airlift that kept this city alive until the blockade was lifted, nearly a year-and-a-half later. The United States and the Soviet Union came perilously close to a nuclear conflict during the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962. Cuba had slipped into the Soviet orbit soon after Fidel Castro gained power there in 1959. By mid-1962, huge quantities of Soviet arms and thousands of Soviet "technicians" had been sent to Cuba. Suddenly, in October, the build-up became unmistakably offensive in character. Aerial photographs revealed the presence of several Soviet missiles capable of nuclear strikes against the country and much of Latin America. President John F. Kennedy immediately ordered a naval blockade of Cuba to prevent a delivery of any more missiles. Cuba and the Soviet Union were warned that the United States would attack Cuba unless the existing Soviet missiles were removed. After several days, the Soviets back down. Rather than risk it all so far from home, they returned the weapons to the Soviet Union.

12th amendment

The electoral college, a group of people chosen from each state and the District of Columbia, was used to formally select the President and Vice President. However, with the rise of political parties, flaws appeared. In the election of 1800, the system broke down due to two well-defined parties: the Federalists, led by Adams and Hamilton, and the Democratic-Republicans, led by Jefferson. Each of the 73 Democratic-Republicans who won posts as electors voted from Jefferson and Aaron Burr, producing a tie for presidency. The House had to take 36 separate ballots before it finally chose Jefferson. The election of 1800 produced the 12th Amendment which was added in 1804 to make certain there would never be another fiasco. The amendment separated the presidential and vice-presidential elections.

United nations

The purpose of the United Nations can be summed up this way: to make the world a better place. To that end, the United Nations is involved in a wide variety of activities. Peacekeeping is a primary function of the United Nations and some 35,400 military and civilian personnel provided by more than 85 member countries are engaged in 15 United Nations peacekeeping operations around the world. The UN's specialized agencies spend some $4 billion a year for economic and social programs to help the world's poorest nations Health is also a major concern of UN agencies and a joint program of UNICEF and WHO has immunized 80% of the world's children against six killer diseases. The health of the environment is also a UN concern. United Nations environmental conventions have helped to reduce acid rain, lesson marine pollution, and phase out the production of gases that are destroying the ozone layer. Human rights has long been a priority for the United Nations as well. In 1948, the UN drafted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, and it has sponsored more than 80 treaties that help protect specific rights. Various agencies of the UN work to aid and protect refugees and displaced persons, and the UN raises more than $1 billion annually for assistance to victims of war and natural disaster.

presidents executive power

a. The power to execute the law: As chief executive, the President executes the provisions of the federal law. The power to do so rests on two brief constitutional provisions. The first provision is the oath of office sworn by the President on the day he or she takes office. The second provision is the Constitution's command that the President shall take care that the laws be faithfully executed. The President's power to execute the law covers all federal laws. The armed forces, social security, gun control, minimum wages, affirmative action, environmental protection, air traffic safety, immigration, housing, and taxes are a few of the different subjects covered in the federal laws. The Constitution requires the President to execute all federal laws no matter what the chief executive's own views of any of them may be. However, the President may, and does, use some discretion as to how vigorously and in what particular way any given law will be applied in practice. b. The ordinance power: The job of administering and applying most federal law is the day-to-day work of all of the many departments, bureaus, offices, boards, commissions, councils, and other agencies that make up the huge executive branch of the Federal Government. The President has the power to issue executive orders, or regulations that have the effect of law. The power to issue these orders, the ordinance power, arises from two sources: the Constitution and acts of Congress. The Constitution clearly intends and anticipates the ordinance power in its granting of other powers. In order to exercise those other powers, issue necessary orders, and authorize his subordinates to issue such orders, the President must have the ordinance power. As the number, scope, and complexity of governmental problems has increased over the years, Congress has found it necessary to delegate more and more discretion to the President to spell out the policies and programs it has passed. c. The appointing power: A President cannot hope to succeed without loyal subordinated who support the policies of the President's administration. The Constitution provides that the President can appoint federal employees with the advice and consent of the Senate. Many of those appointed by the President fill the top spots in the White House Office. Among the top-ranking officers of the Federal Government are ambassadors, diplomats, cabinet members, cabinet aides, heads of independent agencies, federal judges U.S. marshals, attorneys, and all officers in the armed forces. When the President makes one of these appointments, the nomination is sent to the Senate. There, the support of a majority of the senators present and voting is needed for conformation. The unwritten rule of senatorial courtesy plays an important part in this process. The rule holds that the Senate will approve only those federal appointees acceptable to the senator or senators of the president's party from the estate involved in order to place a meaningful part of the President's appointing power in the hands of particular senators. d. The removal power: The power to remove is the other side of the appointment coin and it is as critically important to presidential success as the power to appoint. Yet, except for mention of the little-used impeachment process, the Constitution does not say how or by whom appointed officers may be dismissed, whether for incompetence, for opposition to presidential policies, or for any other cause. The First Congress gave to the President the power to remove any officer he appointed, except for federal judges, with a free hand. Over the years since then, Congress has sometimes tried, with little success, to restrict the President's freedom to dismiss. In 1876, Congress passed a law requiring Senate consent before the President could dismiss any first-class, second-class, or third-class postmaster. However, the Supreme Court found the law to be unconstitutional and held that the power of removal was an essential part of the executive power, clearly necessary to the faithful execution of the laws. However, the Supreme Court did place some limits on the President's removal power in 1935. The Supreme Court states that members may only be removed for inefficiency, neglect of duty, or malfeasance in office. The Supreme Court also stated that Congress does have the power to set conditions under which members might be removed by the President. As a general rule, the President may remove those whom the President appoints.

two types of foreign aid

Two types of foreign aid or economic and military aid. Foreign aid has been a basic feature of American foreign policy for more than 60 years. It began with the Lend-Lease program of the early 1940s, through which the United States gave nearly $50 billion in food, munitions, and other supplies to its allies in World War II. Since then, this country has sent more than $500 billion in aid to more than 100 countries around the world. Foreign aid policy has taken several different directions over the years. Immediately after World War II, American aid was primarily economic. Since that time, however, military assistance has assumed a large role in aid policy. Until the mid-1950s, Europe received the lion's share of American help. Since then, the largest amounts have gone to nations in Asia, the Middle East, and Latin America. On balance, most it has been sent to those nations regarded as the most critical to the realization of this country's foreign policy objectives. Over recent years, Israel, Egypt, the Philippines, and various Latin American countries have been the major recipients of American help, both economic and military. The Independent Agency for International Development (AID) administers most of the economic aid programs, in close cooperation with the Departments of State and Agriculture. Most military aid is channeled through the Defense Department.

women/minorities in cabinet

Women and minorities have only gradually become represented in the Cabinet. Franklin Roosevelt appointed the first woman, Frances T. Perkins, secretary of labor from 1933 to 1945. Lyndon Johnson named the first African American, Robert C. Weaver, as the first secretary of housing and urban development (HUD) in 1966. The Ford Cabinet was the first to include both a woman and an African American in 1975 while Jimmy Carter appointed the first African American woman to the Cabinet in 1977. In 1988, Ronald Reagan appointed the first Hispanic Cabinet member, Lauro F. Cavazos who was secretary of education.

presidents roles

a. Chief of state: Chief of state is the term for the President as the ceremonial head of the United States. As chief of state, the President is the symbol of all of the people of the nation. b. Chief executive: Chief executive is the role of the President as head of the executive branch of the government. The President decides how the laws of the United States are to be enforces and chooses officials and advisors to help run the Executive Branch. c. Chief administrator: Chief administrator is the President's executive role as the head of federal agencies. As chief administrator, the President is responsible for the implementation of national policy. d. Chief diplomat: Chief diplomat is the role of the President in recognizing foreign governments, making treaties, and effecting executive agreements. With the help of advisors, the President makes the foreign policy of the United States and decides what American diplomats and ambassadors shall say to foreign governments. e. Commander in chief: Commander in chief is the role of the President as supreme commander of the military forces of the United States. As commander in chief, the President is also the supreme commander of the state National Guard units when they are called into federal service. f. Chief legislator: Chief legislator is the term for the President as architect of public policy. As chief legislator, the President is the person who sets the agenda for Congress. g. Chief of party: As chief of party, the President helps to promote the goals of the party. The President also helps to get other officials from the party elected into office. h. Chief citizen: As chief citizen, the President represents the people and works for the public interest. As a representative of the nation's people, the President automatically assumes the role of its chief citizen, or popular leader.

presidents military and diplomatic powers

a. The power to make treaties: A treaty is a formal agreement between two or more sovereign states. The President, usually acting through the secretary of state, negotiated these international agreements. The Senate must fives its approval, by a two-thirds vote of the members present before a treaty made by the President can become effective. The Constitution makes treaties the supreme law of the land. Contrary to popular belief, the Senate does not ratify treaties, but the Constitution requires the Senate's advice and consent to a treaty made by the President. Once the Senate has approved a treaty, the President ratifies it by the exchange of formal notifications with the other party or parties to the agreement. Treaties have the same legal standing as do acts passed by Congress and Congress may repeal a treaty by passing a law contrary to its provisions and an existing law may be repealed by the terms of a treaty. b. The power to make executive agreements: Many international agreements are made as executive agreements. An executive agreement is a pact between the President and the head of a foreign state or between their subordinates. Unlike treaties, executive agreements do not require Senate consent. Most executive agreements flow out of legislation already passed by Congress or out of treaties to which the Senate has agreed. However, the President can make these executive agreements without any congressional action. c. The power of recognition: When the President receives the diplomatic representatives of another sovereign state, the President exercises the power of recognition. The President, acting for the United States, acknowledges the legal existence of that country and its government. The President indicated that the United States accepts that country as equal in the family of nations. Sovereign states generally recognize one another through the exchange of diplomatic representatives. Recognition does not mean that one government approves of the character and conduct of another. The United States recognized several governments about which it has serious misgivings such as the People's Republic of China. d. The power to make undeclared war: The Constitution makes the President the commander in chief of the nation's armed forces. Two hundred years of American history argue that the Constitution gives the President the power to make war without a declaration of war by Congress, presidents have often used the armed forces abroad, in combat without a declaration of war. In fact, most Presidents have done so and on several hundred occasions. John Adams was the first to do so, in 1798. At his command, the Navy fought and won a number of battles with French warships harassing American merchantmen in the Atlantic and the Caribbean. Thomas Jefferson and then James Madison followed that precedent in the war against the Barbary Coast pirates of North Africa in the early 1800s. e. Congressional resolutions: Congress had not declared war since World War II. On eight occasions since then, however, it has enacted joint resolutions to authorize the President to meet certain international crises with military force. President Dwight Eisenhower sought the first of these measures in 1955, to block the designs the People's Republic of China had on Taiwan. That show of American resolve and the presence of American warships defused the situation. The most recent occasion occurred in 2002. Congress agreed that President Bush should take whatever measures were necessary and appropriate to eliminate the threat posed by Saddam Hussein and his Iraqi dictatorship. It was widely believed that that regime has amassed huge stores of chemical and biological weapons and was seeking to become a nuclear power, all in direct violation of the Gulf War's cease-fire agreement. In March 2003, a new international coalition, led by the United States, launched Operation Iraqi Freedom, a well-executed military campaign that ousted Saddam Hussein and his government from power.

aspects of national conventions

a. Day one: The first day is devoted to organizing the convention and to rousing speeches, the keynote address is almost always the high point of the first session. Traditionally, that speech is delivered by one of the party's most accomplished orators. The speeches and keynoter's remarks follow a predictable form. The speeches glorify the party, condemn its oppositions, underscore the virtues of party harmony, and predict a smashing victory in November. b. Day two: The presentation and the adoption of committee reports take up the better part of the second day's sessions. These sessions can be quite spirited. The convention's committee on rules proposes whatever changes it thinks should be made in the rules that govern the national party's operations. The committee on platform and resolutions also makes its report. The platform emerges from a draft drawn up by the party's leadership before the convention. c. Day three: The convention turns to its chief task on the third day: the nomination of the party's candidate for the presidency. The names of any number of contenders may be offered to the delegates. Once their nominating speeches have been made, the convention begins to vote. The secretary calls the state in alphabetical order. The chair of each delegation announces how that delegation's votes are cast. Most often, the first ballot produces a candidate. d. Day four: The fourth day brings the nomination of the party's vice-presidential candidate. Whomever the presidential nominee's running mate turns out to be, he or she is almost invariably the hand-picked choice of the party's newly nominated presidential candidate. With its candidates named, the convention comes to the final major item on its agenda: the presidential candidate's acceptance speech. As that speech ends, the delegates erupt in wild, elated celebration. e. Background of party nominee: If an incumbent President wants another term, the convention's choice of a nominee is easy. The President is almost certain to get the nominations with usually no real opposition from within the party. The President's advantages are immense: the majesty and publicity of the office and the close control of the party's machinery. When the President is not in the field, up to a dozen or so contenders may surface in the pre-convention period. As most, two or three of them may survive to contest the prize at convention based on their political experience, religion, residency, and oratory skills.

three flaws of electoral college

a. First major defect: The first major defect is that the winner of the popular vote is not guaranteed the presidency. There is the ever-present threat that the winner of the popular vote will not win the presidency because of two factors. The most important factor is the winner-take-all feature of the electoral college system. This feature means that the winning candidate customarily receives all of a state's electoral votes. The second factor is the way the electoral votes are distributed among the state. The allotment of electoral votes does not match the facts of population and voter distribution. The popular vote winner has failed to win the presidency four times. b. Second major defect: The second major defect is that electors are not required to vote in accord with the popular vote. The electors are expected to vote for the candidate who carries their state and as loyal members of their parties, they almost always do. However, on nine occasions electors have broken their pledges and voted for someone other than their party's presidential nominee. c. Third major defect: The third major defect is that any election might have to be decided in the House of Representatives. This has only happened twice and not since 1824. However, in several other elections, a strong third-party bid has threatened to make it impossible for either major party candidate to win a majority in the electoral college. Three serious objections can be raised regarding election by the House. These objections are that the voting in such cases is by states, not by individual members; the state could lose its vote if the representatives from a state were so divided that no candidate was favored by majority; and the Constitution requires a majority of the states for election in the House, meaning that if a strong third-party candidate was involved, there is a strong chance that the House would not make a decision by Inauguration Day.

presidents and cabient members relationship

a. President George H.W. Bush gave great weight to his Cabinet. President Bush's Cabinet (1989-1993) had more influence with the President than any Cabinet since the Eisenhower presidency in the 1950s. b. President Bill Clinton gave great weight his Cabinet as well. President Clinton's Cabinet (1993-2001) played a prominent role in the Clinton administration. c. President John F. Kennedy, however, gave his Cabinet a secondary role. President Kennedy described his Cabinet meetings as a "waste of time."

why has presidential power grown

a. Presidential power has grown because of the unity of the presidency. The President is the single, commanding head of the executive branch. The office and its powers are held by one person while Congress consist of two houses and both must agree before Congress can do anything. Additionally, there are 535 members between the two houses. b. The nation's increasingly complex social and economic life also has influenced the growth of presidential power. As the United States has become more industrialized and technologically advanced, the people have demanded that the Federal Government play a larger role in transportation, labor, civil rights, health, welfare, communication, education, the environment, and a host of other fields. Americans have looked especially to the President for leadership in these matters. c. The frequent need for extraordinary and decisive action in times of national emergency, most notably in times of war, has also played a role in the growth of presidential power. The ability of the President-the single, commanding chief executive-to act in such situations has done much to strengthen the executive power.

three formal qualifications for presidency

a. The Constitution says that the President must be "a natural born citizen." Under the doctrine of jus sanguinis it is apparently possible for a person born abroad as an American citizen to become President. Some dispute that view, and the real meaning of this requirement cannot be known until someone born a citizen, but born abroad, does in fact become President. b. The Constitution says that the President must be at least 35 years of age. John F. Kennedy, at 43, was the youngest person ever to be elected President. Theodore Roosevelt reached the presidency by succession at age 42. Ronald Reagan, who was 69 when he was first elected in 1980, was the oldest man ever elected to the office and when he completed his second term eight years later, he was the oldest person to ever hold the office. Most Presidents have been in their 50s when they reached the White House. c. The Constitution says that the President must have lived in the United States for at least 14 years. However, the Constitution is vague on this point. The Constitution does not make clear whether those 14 years need to be consecutive or the precise definition of residency.

components of executive office

a. The White House Office: The "nerve center" of the Executive Office is the White House. It houses the President's key personal and political staff. The West Wing holds the offices of most of the President's staff, the Oval Office, and the Cabinet Room while some staff members work in the East Wing, where public tours of the White House begin. b. The National Security Council: Most of the President's major steps in foreign affairs are taken in close consultation with the National Security Council (NSC). It meets at the President's call, often on short notice, to advise him in all domestic, foreign, and military matters that relate to the nation's security. The President chairs the Council and its other members include the Vice President, the secretaries of state and defense, the director of the CIA, and the chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. c. Office of Homeland Security: The Office of Homeland Security is the newest major agency in the EOP. It was created by President Bush immediately after terrorist struck the World Trade Center and the Pentagon on September 11, 2001. The Office is headed by a director whose primary job is to keep the President fully aware of all ongoing efforts to protect this country against any and all acts of terrorism. d. The Office of Management and Budget: The Office of Management and Budget (OMB) is the largest and, after the White House Office, the most influential unit in the Executive Office. The OMB is headed by a director who is appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate. The OMB's major task is the preparation of the federal budget, which the President must submit to Congress in January or February each year. e. Office of Faith-Based and Community Initiative: The Office of Faith-Based and Community Initiatives was created by President Bush in 2001. Much of the best work being done today to combat drug abuse, homelessness, poverty, and similar problems is being done by private groups such as churches, church-related groups, and not-for-profit organizations. The Office of Faith-Based and Community Initiatives is charged with encouraging and expanding these private efforts. f. The Office of National Drug Control Policy: The Office of National Drug Control Policy was established in 1989. Its existence dramatizes the nation's concern over drugs. The office is headed by a director who is appointed by the President, subject to the Senate's approval. g. The Council of Economic Advisors: Three of the country's leading economists, chosen by the President with the consent of the Senate, make up the Council of Economic Advisors. It is the chief executive's major source of information and advice on the nation's economy. The Council also helps the President prepare his annual Economic Report to Congress, which, together with a presidential message, goes to Capitol Hill in late January or early February each year. h. The Council on Environmental Quality: The Council of Environmental Quality aids the President in environmental policy matters and in writing the annual "state of the environment" report to Congress. It sees that federal agencies comply with the nation's many environmental laws and with the President's environmental policies. The council's three members are appointed by the President, with the Senate's consent.

presidents legislative and judicial powers

a. The power to recommend legislation: The Constitution says that the President "shall from time to time give to the Congress information on the State of the Union and recommend to their consideration such measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient. This provision gives the President the message power. The President regularly sends three major messages to Capitol Hill each year: the State of the Union message, the Economic Report, and a message to lawmakers on a wide range of topics. b. The veto power: The Constitution says that every bill, order, resolution, or vote to which the concurrence of the Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on the question of adjournment) shall be presented to the President. The Constitution presents the President with four options when he receives a measure passed by Congress. The President can sign the bill, making it a law; veto it, returning the measure to Congress; allow the bill to become a law by not acting on it for ten days; or use the pocket veto which allows the measure to die if Congress adjourns within ten days of sending a bill to the President and the chief executive does not act on it. c. The powers of reprieve and pardon: The Constitution gives the President the power to grant reprieves and pardons for offenses against the United States, except in cases of impeachments. A reprieve is the postponement of the execution of a sentence while a pardon is legal forgiveness of a crime. These powers of clemency may be used only in cases involving federal offenses because the President has no such authority with regard to those who violate state law.

phrases associated with presidential nominating process

a. The role of conventions: The first method of parties developed to nominate their presidential candidates was the congressional caucus which met its downfall in the mid-1820s. For the election of 1832m both major parties turned to the national convention as their nominating device, and it has continued to serve them ever since. b. Extent of convention control by law: The Constitution says nothing about presidential nominations. There is almost no federal or state statuary law on the matter. c. Convention arrangements: The convention system has been built almost entirely by the two major parties in American politics. In both parties, the national committee makes the arrangements for the party's convention such as setting the date and picking the place for that meeting. d. Apportionment of delegates: By tradition, both parties give each state party a certain number of delegates based on the state's electoral vote. Over the past several conventions, both parties have developed complicated formulas that also award bonus delegated to those states that have supported the party's candidates in recent elections. e. Selection of delegates: The Republican Party leaves the matter of delegate selection to its state organizations and the state law. The Democratic Party has adopted several national rules to govern the process, with most of the rules used as attempts to broaden participation in the delegate selection process. f. Presidential primaries: Presidential primaries depend on the state. A presidential primary is an election in which a party's voters choose some or all of a state party organization's delegates to their party's national convention and/or express a preference among various contenders for their party's presidential nomination.