The Move to Global War

AJP Taylor Quote on Hitler's rise to power:

"If there had been a strong democratic sentiment in Germany, Hitler would never have come to power. [Germans] deserved what they got when they went round crying for a hero."

A German politician on the old Reichstag quote:

"The old Reichstag was a useless parliament. It could speak but it had no power." - A German politician speaking in 1926.

Impact of fascism and Nazism on the foreign policies of Italy and Germany

*Fascism on Italy:* Mussolini believed that fascist Italy could be the second Roman Empire; impact of fascist foreign policy crippled the economy; Mussolini initially tried to play peacemaker in Europe, but after seeing Hitler's immense power changed course *Nazism on Germany:* undeniable impact; built off of ideas on a "Gross Deutschland", race and living space, and natural enemies and allies

Impact of domestic issues on foreign policies of Italy and Germany

*Italy:* Mussolini's Battle for Grain (1925), Battle for the Lira (1926), and "Mussolini Law" (1928) all fail for most part, resulting in a weak economy unable to support a strong military *Germany:* Economics recovery in 1920s, fascism, domestic economic issues

What was significant about Hitler's speech?

- Adolf Hitler was a powerful speaker, and had much to speak out against. He advertized in newspapers, stuck posters on walls, and held meetings in public halls and beer houses. - Soon, he was drawing large audiences at his meetings and enthralling them with his ideas and powerful oration. - Studies have shown that Hitler's normal spoken voice had 228 vibrations per second, as opposed to 200 in the voice of an average man speaking in anger. - This meant that "the onslaught on the eardrums of the audience was tremendous" (Z.A.B. Zeman, Historian) and that he did not need a microphone to be heard.

What is Hitler's backstory?

- All this time, a man named Adolf Hitler was living in Germany, becoming more and more frustrated and angry about what had befallen his once-proud nation. - He had a very harsh father, who made his childhood difficult, and he flunked out of school at the age of 16. - Failing to gain admission to an art school, he lived as a homeless tramp for four years in Vienna, scraping a living selling postcards of his paintings on the streets. - He was not German; he had been born in Austria, and had spent the first 24 years of his life there. - When militarism increased in Austria prior to the outbreak of the First World War, he dodged military service, and moved across the border to Munich in Germany. - He changed his views drastically in Germany, where he was caught in a photograph of a crowd in 1914, cheering the beginning of the First World War, having been infected with "war fever." - Hitler served bravely in the First World War, doing the dangerous work of carrying messages through the trenches and earning an Iron Cross First Class—the highest honor possible for a German soldier. - He never rose above the rank of corporal until the war ended for him in October, 1918 when he was temporarily blinded by British mustard gas. - While recovering in hospital, he wept in despair when he heard of the signing of the armistice.

The Crises of 1923

- As part of their punishment in the Treaty of Versailles, Germany had been ordered to pay reparations—a sum of 132 Billion gold marks—so massive that they would have to pay in yearly installments until 1987. - Still facing an Allied invasion if they refused, the Weimar government scraped together the first payment in 1921; a combination of gold, wood, coal, and iron. - It was all they could afford, and in 1922, they defaulted on their next installment.

What else did the Weimar Republic do when they had no more money to pay for the reparations to France?

- As they had no cash to pay for the reparations to France, the Weimar government responded by simply printing more money (had a short term relief), resulting in rising prices due to the decreased value of the Reich Mark. - The result of this was called hyperinflation: the faster the government printed new money, the faster prices rose.

How many assassinations happened in Germany between 1919 and 1922? And what was the most famous one?

- Between 1919 and 1922 there were 356 political murders/assassinations in Germany, most committed by right-wing extremists. - The most famous of these was a man named Walther Rathenau, Germany's foreign minister. - Rathenau was attacked by a group called the Organizational Consul, which sent four men to shoot and then throw a hand grenade at him while he drove to work in an open-topped car on the 24th June, 1922. - He was killed for cooperating with the French and British—authors of the Versailles Treaty—and his name was one of many on a long list to be killed. - His death saddened many average Germans, as he was a popular and effective Minister, and one million people marched the streets of Berlin in mourning the following day. - The killers were sentenced to an average of 4 years in prison for their crime.

What were the Stresemann Years known for?

- Between 1924 and 1929, life in Germany became calmer and prosperity returned somewhat, mainly because of the work of Gustav Stresemann. - Besides introducing a new currency for Germany, he met with Britain, France, and the USA in 1924 as Foreign Minister to discuss the issue of reparations. - These negotiations resulted in the Dawes Plan, which allowed Germany to pay what it could actually afford each year, starting with £50 Million in 1924. - Foreign business and investment was attracted to Germany once more, and over the next 5 years, over 2.5 Billion gold marks poured into Germany as loans. - New factories, machinery, and housing was built, and all this brought jobs to the German people. - Stresemann also repaired Germany's international reputation. In 1925, he signed the Locarno Treaties, promising never to attempt to change the borders between France, Germany and Belgium. - As a result, Germany was allowed to join the League of Nations in 1926, restoring its place among the leading nations of the world. - In 1926, Stresemann was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for his efforts: a clear sign that the leaders of the world approved of his hard work.

Who did Ebert and the Social Democrats gain support from to fight Communism (enemies of the government)?

- Ebert had gained the support of the Frei Korps (Free Corps)—ex-soldiers recently returned from the war who were willing to sell their arms and skill to fight Communism. - On the 10th of January, 2000 Frei Korps soldiers attacked the Spartacists in Berlin, sparking vicious street fighting that lasted for a week. - On the 15th of January, they captured and arrested Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht; beat them savagely, killed them, and dumped Rosa's body in a canal. - Having held onto power by use of force, Ebert's Social Democrats won a majority in the first governmental elections, and on the 11th of February, 1919, Ebert was elected President of the new German Weimar Republic.

Germany 1919-1933 The history of Germany 1919-1933 falls into three phases: 1923-1929 But the Republic survived and (after Gustav Stresemann became Chancellor in 1923) did well:

- Economic Prosperity - Foreign Policy successes - Cultural flowering

What happened after Hitler & Ludendorff were arrested at the end of the Munich Putsch?

- Far from being the end of Hitler's political career, his 24-day trial was front-page news, and his fiery statements were read by millions of Germans. "It is not you, gentlemen, who pass judgment on us. That judgment is spoken in the eternal court of history. That court will judge us...as Germans who wanted only the good of their people and fatherland; who wanted to fight and die." - The judges were impressed by what they heard. Ludendorff was set free and Hitler sentenced to only 5 years in prison (with a possibility of parole after 6 months) for attempting to overthrow the lawful government. - Hitler served his sentence in the Landsberg Fortress, 80km west of Munich. He was allowed as many visitors as he wished, had free access to newspapers and books, and plenty of good food. - Much of this time Hitler spent writing a book, titled Mein Kampf ("My struggle")—a long, rambling and ungrammatical book in which he described his ideas about history, politics, race, and the future for Germany—intended to guide the actions of the Nazi Party. - He was released in December, 1924, after serving only 9 months in prison.

Territorial changes in Europe

- France gained Alsace-Lorrains from Germany - Denmark got land north of Germany - Germany lost territory in the east, west, and north. - Austria and Hungary are now separate states. - Austria-Hungary shrunk and divided; new nation states created. Northern Austria-Hungary is now Czechoslovakia & Southern Austria-Hungary and Serbia is now Yugoslavia. - Bulgaria lost land to Greece - Russia didn't get their land back; it's made into Finland, Latvia, Lithuania, and Estonia - Rhineland occupied - **All these nation-states were created so that self-rule could dominate**

What happened when France refused to believe that Germany was unable to pay the reparations?

- France refused to believe that Germany was unable to pay and decided to seize what was their due by force. - In 1923, five French divisions and one Belgian one invaded the rich Ruhr Valley area and occupied the demilitarised Rheinland (like an open house to the neighbors), Germany's industrial heartland. - They took over coal mines, factories, steel works, and railways to send their loot back to France. - Machine gun nests were set up in town squares, and German workers were forced to work for the French. German civilians were robbed of food and supplies, forced to vacate their homes for French officers, and thrown in jail if they did not cooperate.

Following the Kaiser's abdication, Friedrich Ebert (leader of the Social Democrats) took power, and two days later issued a statement guaranteeing:

- Freedom of speech and the press - Freedom of religion - An 8-hour work day However, the Spartacists clashed with the government, and troops under orders from Ebert killed 16 people in a demonstration in December, 1918.

How long did the signing of the Treaty of Versailles take and what impact did it have?

- From November, 1918, when the Armistice was signed, until June, 1919, people were starving to death in Germany because of the blockade. This is how long the signing of the peace treaty took, foreshadowing its ineffectiveness. - The Treaty of Versailles was signed on the 28th of June, 1919 in the Hall of Mirrors in Louis XIV's palace, and punished Germany severely for the war.

What was the aftermath of WWI in Germany?

- Germany had also suffered a revolution in 1918, and had no real government or leader at the close of the war. - Violence on the streets grew as different political groups—including a new political party called the Nazis—yielded for power.

What territorial changes resulted from the Treaty of Versailles affecting Germany?

- Germany lost all of its colonies much of its land was given away to its neighbors: Czechoslovakia, Belgium, and Denmark. - A new nation, Poland, was created, including the "Polish Corridor" which cut East Prussia off from the rest of Germany but gave access to the sea. - In Africa, Germany's colonies were divided between Great Britain and France. - Great Britain gained control of German East Africa, which they renamed Tanganyika, and which joined their other East African colonies of Uganda & Kenya. - France gained control of Togo and Cameroon, giving them even more control of West Africa. - At the end of the war the League of Nations placed South West Africa (became Namibia in 1990) under a British mandate, with the administration of the territory entrusted to the government of South Africa. - All of the land Germany had taken from Russia in the treaty of Brest-Litovsk was given back to Russia, with the exception of Latvia, Estonia, and Lithuania, which became independent nations at this time. - The Provinces of Alsace and Lorraine were given back to France, and the area bordering France, the Rhineland, was made into a demilitarized zone—no German soldiers were permitted to be there for any reason.

What other political and military changes resulted from the Treaty of Versailles affecting Germany?

- Germany was forbidden to unite politically with Austria ever again. - Germany's military was reduced to ludicrously low levels, being allowed: An army of 100,000 men (smaller than its Fire Departments) and no tanks & no artillery. A navy of 6 battleships (still allowed to keep dreadnoughts), but no submarines. And no air force. - Germany was also ordered to pay reparations to the Allies: 132 Billion gold Marks, ($33 USD today) over a period of 42 years. - The final insult, however, was Clause 231, the "War Guilt Clause:" Germany was made to take full responsibility for causing WWI. -- Given the complex beginning, the scope and cost of the Great War, this was a humiliating and unfair punishment for Germany, which many historians agree saying that is was an unfair & punitive agreement (the treaty of Versailles), resulting in further struggles & yearning for security through nationalism in many countries. -- Hence, if what you want is peace out of a treaty such as this one, then it is not in favour of it, as it calls for revenge in the "loosing nations" population.

What were other treaties that were signed after WWI, affecting Germany?

- Germany was not the only power punished at the Paris Peace conference, and other treaties were signed, with many significant effects. -Territorial changes were numerous and in some cases led to long-lasting resentment, and the Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman Empires were dissolved. - The armed forces of the losing powers were reduced in size and reparations were demanded in various amounts and forms from all of them.

Swastika

- Hitler also always understood the power of symbolism and visual spectacle, and he adopted a new symbol for his party, called a Swastika. - This striking black, white and red symbol was a variation on the traditional German cross, and was put on flags and banners, and worn on arm-bands by Nazi party members.

What was the significance of the uniforms of the SA and their uniform?

- Hitler began to call his private army of thugs Sturmabteilung ("Storm Troopers") or SA for short. They often wore a brown uniform, and were also called the Brown Shirts. - Members also wore paramilitary (military-style) uniforms, and used an increasingly military style (to make people look like they were in the army = everybody sees this branding and presentation of control & discipline within the chaos = made people feel "safe"a) of discipline with Hitler as the supreme leader, or Fuhrer.

What did Hitler do after serving in the army for WWI?

- Hitler continued to serve in the military as a "V-man"—an army spy whose job was to investigate new and potentially dangerous political parties. - One group in Munich consisted of only 6 members, and had no funding so speak of, but Hitler was attracted to many of its ideas, and in fact joined it in 1919.

The Turkish Revolution

- In 1921 revolution broke out in Turkey, under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal (Ataturk). - The Greek army was driven out and there was a Massacre at Smyrna. - This resulted in 1.4 million Greek refugees, and a humanitarian crisis. - The Treaty of Sevres was scrapped and replaced by the Treaty of Lausanne (1923) which returned some European lands to Turkey and recalled all foreign troops out of Turkey.

1920-1922: Putsches & Murders

- In March of 1920, the Frei Korps decided to take power themselves, and launched a putsch—a coup d'état—in Berlin. - Led by Wolfgang Kapp, this Kapp Putsch had the support of the Frei Korps, police, and some of the army, but not of the majority of the people. - Workers organized a general strike (country can not work), shutting down the city, and the coup attempt lasted only 100 hours. - In the Ruhr Valley, Germany's primary industrial region, workers remained on strike, and were soon galvanised into a 50,000-man army by the Communists, called the "Red Rising" of March 1920. - While this was once again put down by the Frei Korps, who killed more than 2,000 workers before restoring order, it also served as a true scare to the government and many right-wing thinkers, and increased the fear of Communism in Germany. - Paradoxically, as said, this resulted in more people fearing communisms than right-wing extremists, although it was the Frei Korps that caused most deaths, unrest and fueled hysteria.

What was the Munich Putsh?

- In November, 1923, at the height of hyperinflation, Hitler decided that the Nazis were strong enough to overthrow the German government. - Hitler planned to march to Berlin at the head of the uniformed SA, and believed that people would flock to his Swastika banner in a desire to see the French forced out of the Ruhr and the wrongs of Versailles righted. - On the 8th of November, Hitler led a mob of over 600 Storm Troopers to a meeting of three leaders of the Bavarian government, taking place in a Beer Hall (this is also sometimes called the Beer Hall Putsch). - Holding a gun to the head of one, he forced them to tell the audience that they would help him in his putsch. - Hitler was also supported in person at this meeting by General Ludendorff—a hero of WW1 in Germany. - The crowd cheered when Hitler told them: "Now I am going to carry out the vow I made five years ago when I was a blind cripple in the army hospital: neither to rest nor sleep until the November Criminals have been hurled to the ground, until on the ruins of the pitiful Germany of today has risen a Germany of power and greatness." - At the same time, the leader of the SA, Ernst Rohm was leading groups of Storm Troopers in taking control of government buildings and arresting officials who opposed the Nazis.

What was considered another threat to the new Republic?

- In the south of Germany, in the province of Bavaria, the Independent Socialists had their stronghold. - Following the assassination of the leader of the Independent Socialists by a right-wing student in February 1919, they and the Communists made an agreement to join forces. - In March, 1919, the Bavarian Soviet Republic was formed—an independent Communist government built along Russian lines. = The goal was a secession of Bavaria. - With Munich as its Capitol, the Communists began seizing houses, cars, and personal possessions from the rich and distributing them to poor workers.

Germany 1919-1933 The history of Germany 1919-1933 falls into three phases: 1919-1923 At first the Weimar Republic had great difficulties:

- Left wing rebellions - All people were angry with it - Right-wing rebellions and terrorism - Invasion and inflation - Munich Putsch

Why did Austria feel itself the biggest loser from the Treaties (specifically the Treaty of St. Germain), with some justification?

- Legend has it that after negotiators had divided and allocated the best agricultural land and industrial resources of central Europe, French leader Georges Clemenceau scoffed "Le reste, c'est l'Autriche" ('the rest is Austria'). - Once the "beating heart" of an empire of 30 million, Austria was now a landlocked "left-over". It was reduced in population to around six million, losing three million of its German-speaking citizens in the Sudetenland (now part of Czechoslovakia) and South Tyrol (given to Italy). - Austria shrank in size to a mere 84,000 square kilometres, losing important farmland and industrial resources. - Austria was forbidden from any future political unification with Germany, and the name it had adopted at the end of the war - Deutsch-Österreich was also outlawed. - The Austrian army was restricted to a maximum of 30,000 volunteers; its entire air force and most of its naval ships were surrendered to the Allies. - Like Germany, Austria was compelled to pay reparations, though this was limited to 30 years.

What were meetings of the Nazi Party like and what did Hitler do to promote this?

- Meetings of the Nazi Party were often rowdy and violent, and members of opposing parties often came to boo or heckle speakers. - Hitler set up a "Gymnastics and Sports Division" to deal with such people—many of the key figures in this division were former Frei Korps members who enjoyed cracking Communist heads.

The end of WW1 and Revolution:

- On the 10th of November, 1918, Kaiser Wilhelm abdicated his throne, fleeing in secret to Holland, never to return. - The Armistice was signed, and the blockade against Germany continued while the Allies discussed the end to the war at Versailles.

When was the Versailles Peace Treaty finalised?

- On the 7th of May, however, the Allies finalized the Versailles Peace Treaty, and the blow to the German people and their pride was intense. - Reparations, loss of all colonies, and the infamous "War Guilt" clause all horrified the German people. - Furthermore, the fact that Germany had not technically lost the war allowed some to say that their brave soldiers had been betrayed by the government, who had surrendered too soon. - The politicians who had signed the Armistice were re-named the "November Criminals" and the "Stab in the back" theory was propagated—one that would be significant later. - Indeed, despite the Allies' ultimatum to sign the treaty or face invasion anew, the new government refused to do so, with Ministers of Parliament resigning in protest. - In the port of Scapa Flow (main port in Germany), captains of the German fleet sank their ships (which were to be given over to the British) in defiance. - The German army drew up new defense plans, and it seemed that the Great War might begin anew. - However, the chief of the German army, Field Marshal Hindenburg told President Ebert that he did not believe that the Germans could withstand an invasion, but that he could not "help feeling that it were better to die honorably than accept a disgraceful peace." - Rather than fight a suicidal war, and with only 90 minutes remaining until the ultimatum expired, President Ebert sent a telegram to Paris, accepting the terms of the treaty. - The next day, the German newspapers declared: "Today in the Hall of mirrors a disgraceful treaty is being signed. Never forget it. There will be vengeance for the shame of 1919."

The main objectives of this League of Nations would be:

- Peaceful Resolution: each nation having one vote. - Collective Security: each nation committing to protect any other member nation from attack or invasion.

However, it should be noted that hatred and persecution of Jews (called Anti-Semitism) in Europe was not a new event, but had occurred regularly for centuries, including:

- Pogroms (Jew-killing sprees) in Russia and Poland, particularly around Easter time - Murder and looting of Jewish settlements during the Crusades as Crusader armies passed through Germany - Blaming the Black Death on the Jews - The Expulsion of all Jews from Spain during the Reconquista ending in 1492 - The establishment of Ghettos, where Jews had to live inside European cities

How did the Munich Putsch end?

- The 3 Bavarian leaders quickly went back on their promise and ordered the army to attack the Nazis. - Rohm was arrested, and in a rescue attempt, armed police shot dead 16 Nazis. Hitler escaped with a dislocated shoulder, and Ludendorff unharmed, but the putsch was over. - Hitler and Ludendorff were arrested later that day and charged with high Treason.

How did the Weimar Republic respond to the French invasion?

- The German government responded by declaring the French invasion illegal, along with all orders given to German citizens. - The Weimar government called on all German citizens to refuse to obey any French order or work on their behalf. - Passive resistance: It is hard to beat up/imprison everyone, and if all essential services cease, daily life becomes extremely difficult. - Essentially, the Germans called for another General Strike, crippling the French capability to extract resources from the Ruhr. - The French responded with brutality: when workers in the Krupp Steelworks refused to obey, French soldiers opened fire on them, killing 132 and expelling 150,000 people from their homes. - Unfortunately, the passive resistance in the Ruhr caused great harm to Germany's economy as well. - All of this fueling revenge.

The Treaty of Sevres: Turkey

- The Treaty of Sevres had many long-lasting consequences for the region, including but not limited to: - The occupation of Turkey by French, British, Greek & Italian armies (and the Armenian Genocide) - The "Zone of the Straits" falling under the control of the League of Nations - The setting up of French mandates in Syria and Lebanon and British mandates in Palestine, Iraq, and the Transjordan - Granting of independence to Arabia (but not the Kurds or granting of a Jewish territory in the Levant)

The Treaty of Trianon: Hungary

- The Treaty of Trianon (June 4th 1920) finalised the fate of Hungary. - Like Austria, Hungary lost more than half of its population, several major cities and large amounts of valuable territory. Most ended up with the newly formed Czechoslovakia, while some eastern territory passed to Romania. - The Hungarian army was restricted to 35,000 men and prohibited from acquiring planes, tanks or heavy artillery.

How did the Weimar government respond to the idealistic secession of Bavaria?

- The Weimar government responded by placing Munich under siege, resulting in starvation in the city. - Then, ironically, on the 1st of May, (Workers' Day) the government attacked; Frei Korps killed at least 600 Communists, including women and children.

Social Darwinism

- The belief that only the fittest survive in human political and economic struggle. - The application of ideas about evolution and "survival of the fittest" to human societies - particularly as a justification for their imperialist expansion.

Threats to the new Republic:

- The victory of the Social Democrats did not ensure peace in Germany in 1919. - In March, Communists organized riots and strikes in Berlin in another attempt to seize power; again, the Frei Korps were called in to bash heads. Over 1000 were shot dead, including a group of 30 sailors collecting their wages.

What happened two days before Christmas when the new government was slowly being formed (Ebert became leader of the Social Democrats)?

- Two days before Christmas, 1000 underpaid and disillusioned soldiers broke into Ebert's headquarters and held him hostage, demanding more pay. - On Christmas Eve, 1918, the Spartacists renamed themselves the German Communist Party and one of their leaders, Rosa Luxemburg, wrote in their paper: "To battle! There is a world to conquer and a world to fight against! In this last class war of world history...our word to the enemy is: Thumb in eye and knee on chest." - On the 6th of January, 1919, the Communists began their revolution.

What collapsed by the end of WWI and what did it lead to?

- Two major Empires had also collapsed during the war: The Ottoman Empire and the Austro-Hungarian Empire. - Thus, many people groups that had been part of those Empires now sought nations of their own (e.g. Romania).

Germany 1919-1933 The history of Germany 1919-1933 falls into three phases: 1929-1933 After the Wall Street Crash of 1929, however, the Republic collapsed:

- Unemployment - Nazi Party grew more powerful - In 1933, Adolf Hitler became Chancellor

How bad was the hyperinflation in Germany by 1923?

- Workers' wives would wait outside their husbands' factories on pay day to receive the bales of money that were tossed to them over the fence; they had to rush to spend it that very day or it would lose all value. - Food, clothing, and heat (from coal) became unaffordable for many, and the worst suffering came from pensioners, whose fixed income was now merely a pittance.

Ian Kershaw 2 Quotes on Hitler's rise to power:

1. "Without the changed conditions, the product of a lost war, a revolution and a pervasive sense of national humiliation, Hitler would have remained a nobody. His main ability by far, as he came to realise during the course of 1919, was that in the prevailing circumstances he could inspire an audience which shared his basic political feelings, by the way he spoke, by the force of his rhetoric, by the very power of his prejudice, by the conviction he conveyed that there was a way out of Germany's plight." 2. "Hitler was no inexorable product of a German 'special path', no logical culmination of long-term trends in specifically German culture and ideology. Nor was he a mere 'accident' in the course of German history."

Weimar problems 1919-23 [ILRIM]

1. Ineffective Constitution 2. Left-wing Rebellions 3. Right-wing terrorism 4. Invasion-Inflation: the crisis of 1923 5. Munich Putsch

The cost of one loaf of bread in Berlin:

1918: 0.63 Marks 1922: 163 Marks January 1923: 250 Marks July 1923: 3,465 Marks September 1923: 1,512,000 Marks November 1923: 201,000,000,000 Marks

The most sinister on this list of 25, however, was this one:

4. None but those of German blood...may be members of the German nation. No Jew, therefore, may be a member of the German nation - There are many theories intended to explain Hitler's hatred of the Jews, including his poverty in Vienna and the general wealth of the Jews as a social class. - Many Jews were prominent in the banking industry, and hence had a reputation for being greedy (= more of a target given the economical conditions).

Fascism

A governmental system led by a dictator having complete power, forcibly suppressing opposition and criticism, regimenting all industry, commerce, etc., and emphasizing an aggressive nationalism and often racism = calls for extreme nationalism and racism and no tolerance of opposition.

Autarky

A policy of self-reliance, avoiding or minimizing trade and trying to produce everything one needs (or the most vital things) by oneself.

Pact of Steel (May 1939)

Agreement between Germany and Italy whereby each power promised to come to the aid of the other if it got involved in hostilities. Mussolini privately insisted that Italy was not ready for war, but Hitler ignored him.

What was also a part of Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points?

Also in his list of Fourteen Points was the creation of a League of Nations: a peace-keeping body that would be led by the victorious Allies, precursor for the UN.

German expansion (1938-1939)

Anschluss, 1938; Sudeten Crisis, 1935; May Crisis, 1938; Liquidation of Czechoslovakia, 1939; Pact of Steel, 1939; Nazi-Soviet Pact, 1939; Outbreak of war, 1940 Key events of WWII: April 1940: Hitler's troops occupy Denmark and land at Norwegian ports May 1940: Hitler and Germany achieve swift victories in defeating Holland, Belgium, and France Summer 1940: Operation Sea Lion; Battle for Britain June 1941: Operation Barbarossa launched

International response to Italian aggression (1935-1936)

Appeasement followed for many reasons by Britain and France: 1. public opinion; 2. demands of dictators seen as justified; 3. lack of an alternative; 4. economic pressures; 5. global commitments; 6. defense priorities; 7. impact of Neville Chamberlain On October 7 1935, the League of Nations found that Italy was the aggressor in Abyssinia, but sanctions were very limited and ineffective. Britain also wanted to revive the Stresa Front. The French and British signed the Hoare-Laval Pact, but it was shot down by popular opinion. The League of Nations was exposed as a sham

The Treaty of St. Germain: Austria

Austro-Hungarian dissolution: - The Allies finalised the Treaty of Saint-Germain, which dissolved the Austro-Hungarian Empire and reallocated much of its territory. - The kingdoms of Austria and Hungary were separated and established as independent nations, while three new nation-states were formed: Poland, Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia.

German challenges to post-war settlements (1933-1938)

Challenges to Treaty of Versailles and withdrawal from Disarmament Conference, rearmament, and remilitarization of the Rhineland; undermining collective security with the Non-Aggression Pact with Poland (1934)

Why did civilian deaths continue to rise after WWI ended?

Civilian deaths were also growing in number as the war ended, due to: - The Spanish Influenza outbreak of 1918 - 1920 which killed more than 25 million people worldwide. - The Russian Revolution and civil war in Russia also led to famine and approximately 7 million deaths. - In Germany, the economy was destroyed, and hyperinflation (money lost all its value) spiraled out of control. Additionally, the Blockade of Germany by Britain continued after the Armistice was signed, and the elderly and young died of starvation in large numbers while the politicians debated the terms of the peace treaty.

Who was David Lloyd George and what was his "agenda" at the Paris Peace Conference?

David Lloyd George was the Prime Minister of England, and his principal aims were to: - Take control of Germany's navy, assuring British supremacy on the seas (after the Navy Race--Dreadnoughts). - To take away Germany's overseas colonies and receive reparations in the form of cash payments. - To leave Germany strong enough (with enough military power) to act as a buffer between Communist Russia and the rest of Europe, because hated communism.

How many parties were there in Germany after the abdication of Kaiser Wilhelm that wanted to gain power?

Due to the economic and social instability, there was a question of whether the German parties should move more to the left or to the right to cope with post-war changes, there were three major parties that vied for power, each hoping to seize control of the crumbling state. All three groups were Socialists, and wanted to improve conditions for workers, and give all Germans the right to vote, but each had their own ideas about how best to change Germany: - The Social Democratic Party was led by Friedrich Ebert. It was by far the biggest part and wanted to reform government through Parliament. - The Independent Socialists - The Spartacists took their name from a Roman Gladiator who led a rebellion of slaves against their masters. Led by Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg - they wanted to overthrow the government by revolution, setting up soviets (councils of workers) to make reforms. Considerably radicals that wanted to model a new government similar to Russia.

What increased by the end of WWI and why?

Fighting worldwide had increased nationalism in Japan, in African colonies such as Kenya and in Southeast Asia (e.g. Vietnam). Other radical-communist parties also gained stability worldwide, because people want safety.

Freikorps

Free Corps, the paramilitary units composed of ex-soldiers which sprang up throughout Germany after 1918. This group of former soldiers helped the nationalist right to deal with the communist threat in the immediate aftermath of the First World War.

Who was Georges Clemenceau and what was his "agenda" at the Paris Peace Conference?

Georges Clemenceau, nicknamed "The Tiger," was the President of France. France for one also had the upper-hand at the Paris Peace Conference, because it hosted it. The president arrived with a punitive attitude and many desires: - To weaken Germany's military to such a degree that it would never again be able to wage war against France. - To regain the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine. - To receive reparations for its losses in the war, in the form of Germany's overseas colonies as well as cash. - To fix the blame for the war solidly on Germany's shoulders.

Events in German and Italian Expansion

German challenges to post-war settlements (1933-1938); Italian expansion into: Abyssinia (1935-1936) and Albania; entry into WWII; German expansion (1938-1939); Pact of Steel; Nazi-Soviet Pact; outbreak of war

In September of 1923, elections brought a new government to power, led by:

Gustav Stresemann, an able politician.

Who coined the term fake news?

Hitler coined the term Fake News, as in Lügenpresse for the printed press and the mass media at large, as a propaganda tactic to discredit the publications that offered a message counter to the Nazi agenda.

In which party was Hitler able to outline his objectives?

Hitler had many objectives, which he outlined in 1920 after he renamed the Party the National Socialist Deutsch Arbeits Partei, (or National Socialist German Workers' Party).

Causes of Expansion

Impact of fascism and Nazism on the foreign policies of Italy and Germany, impact of domestic issues on foreign policies of Italy and Germany, changing diplomatic alignments in Europe; end of collective security; appeasement

What was the Paris Peace Conference?

In the aftermath of WWI, the leaders of the victorious nations—but not Russia (in civil war) or Germany (the looser), for the first time since the Peace of Westphalia (a peace conference after the 30s year war fought over religion, where similarly to WW1 this war costed 8 million peoples lives)—met for the Paris Peace Conference to discussed how to deal with the end of the war; established the Treaty of Versailles.

Did the Rentenmark help the German economy?

In the long run, these measures helped the German economy, but the immediate effect did little to help the common man, and actually increased the level of unrest in Germany.

Responses to German and Italian Aggression

International response to German aggression (1933-1938); international response to Italian aggression (1935-1936); international response to joint German and Italian aggression (1940)

Italian and German entry into WWII

Italy joined WWII in 1940 because: >it was an embarrassment not to join for Mussolini; contrary to Fascist doctrine and conflicting with his portrayal as confident and decisive leader >Mussolini wanted to keep Italy a first-rank power and not another Switzerland >War would give Mussolini to radicalize the regime and remove influence of conservatives and the Catholic Church >If Italy remained neutral, it risked becoming dominated by Germany >War could bring territorial gains and perhaps control of Mediterranean >Italy owed much money to the US and Germany Germany joined WWII in 1939 because: >Reunify German heritage = Lebensraum >Fight against threat of Socialism >Felt that Britain and France would not hold up agreement to defend Poland

What does fascism stress?

Loyalty to the state and obedience to its leader. Fascism says nothing is true, except for the myth of the leader. Authoritarian states create a world in which we can't trust the facts, the laws, and evidently eachother. It attacks our certainty in knowledge that we have and produces doubt.

What were other nations represented at the Paris Peace Conference and what were their own main objectives?

Many other nations were represented at the conference as well, however, and delegation had their own objectives—namely, to be repaid for their efforts, sacrifices, and war dead from their participation in the war. - Italy: Wanted lands across the Adriatic in repayment for their part in the war: Port of Trieste, Albania - Japan: Wanted recognition from the West and to keep the territories it had gained: Marshall, Caroline islands - Serbia: Wanted more land and influence in the Balkans, also port of Trieste & Albania - Poland: Wanted nationhood, Silesia & W. Ukraine

Weimar problems 1919-23 [ILRIM]: Right-wing terrorism

Many right-wing groups hated the new government for signing the Versailles Treaty (June 1919): - The Kapp Putsch: in March 1920, a Freikorps brigade rebelled against the Treaty, led by Dr Wolfgang Kapp. It took over Berlin and tried to bring back the Kaiser. - Nationalist terrorist groups murdered 356 politicians. In 1922, they assassinated Walter Rathenau, the SPD foreign minister, because he made a treaty with Russia.

What was the aftermath of WWI in France?

Most of the fighting had taken place in France, where millions had been made homeless by artillery bombardments; farmland, roads, railways, factories, and entire cities had been destroyed.

Changing diplomatic alignments in Europe; end of collective security; appeasement

Mussolini develops the Quadripartite Pact (1933), establishing an alternative to the League of Nations for European diplomacy, and setting out that smaller nations would not have as much say in "Great Power" relations. Stresa Front was also signed in 1935, though the ultimate impact was that most of these agreements were ignored as authoritarian rulers became more isolationist.

Italian expansion into Abyssinia (1935-1936)

Mussolini secretly instructed forces to attain a total conquest of Abyssinia after Haile Selassie requests a League of Nations investigation. In May 1936, Abyssinia formally annexed by Italy. The war in Abyssinia increased nationalist sentiment domestically, which was further encouraged by the League's condemnation and economic sanctions.

Italian expansion into Albania (1939)

Mussolini wanted to regain initiative and imitate Hitler's success after Hitler invaded all of Czechoslovakia in March 1939. The invasion of Albania was rather meaningless, as it had been a satellite state. However, Mussolini wanted to project an image of strength. King Zog of Albania attempted to resist Italian invasion, but to no avail. Albania later used as a base to invade Greece in 1940.

International response to joint German and Italian aggression (1940)

Near the end, Britain stood alone against Nazi Germany, but US was largely unwilling to help, only marginally assisting with "cash and carry". Britain was unable to fight both Italy and Germany simultaneously, but under the leadership of Churchill successfully deflected invasion.

Weimar problems 1919-23 [ILRIM]: Munich Putsch

On 8-9 November 1923, Hitler's Nazis tried to take control of Bavaria (the Munich Putsch).

What was the cost of the first world war?

Over the course of World War One, over 8 Million soldiers had died, and approximately twice that number had been wounded or maimed. For instance, Germany had the highest number of killed people by 2 Million. Then came Russia with 1.7 Million and France with 1.4 Million.

International response to German aggression (1933-1938)

Policy of collective security attempted, but held back by three means: 1. Britain opposes France's idea of encircling Germany, leading to a stalemate; 2. Britain was unwilling to enter a naval race with its navy already at capacity; 3. Mussolini's invasion of Abyssinia left the Stresa Front in ruins. Britain and France prepared military responses to the remainder of Hitler's invasions, but did not actually react in any notable way.

What was the aftermath of WWI in Russia?

Revolution had broken out in Russia in 1917, and more than 30% of its land had been seized by Germany and Austria in the treaty of Brest-Litovsk.

Weimar problems 1919-23 [ILRIM]: Left-wing Rebellions

The Communist KPD hated the new government: - In Jan 1919, 50,000 Spartacists rebelled in Berlin, led by Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Leibknecht. - In 1919, Communist Workers' Councils seized power all over Germany, and a Communist 'People's Government' took power in Bavaria. - In 1920, after the failure of the Kapp Putsch, a paramilitary group called the Red Army rebelled in the Ruhr.

The Treaty of Neuilly: Bulgaria

The Treaty of Neuilly (signed November 27th 1919) forced Bulgaria to surrender its Mediterranean Sea coastline to Greece; to recognise the independence of Yugoslavia; to pay reparations of 100 million pounds; and to maintain an army no larger than 20,000 men. The Bulgarians were strongly resentful by the terms of this treaty, though it was merciful in comparison to the treatment given out to Germany and Austria.

Weimar problems 1919-23 [ILRIM]: Ineffective Constitution

The Weimar Constitution did not create a strong government: - Article 48 of the constitution gave the President sole power in 'times of emergency' - something he took often. - The system of proportional voting led to 28 parties. This made it virtually impossible to establish a majority in the Reichstag, and led to frequent changes in the government. - The German states had too much power and often ignored the government. - The Army, led by the right-wing General Hans von Seeckt, was not fully under the government's control. It failed to support government during the Kapp Putsch or the crisis of 1923. - Many government officials - especially judges - were right-wing and wanted to destroy the government. After the Kapp Putsch, 700 rebels were tried for treason; only 1 went to prison. After the Munich Putsch, Hitler went to prison for only 9 months

Weimar problems 1919-23 [ILRIM]: Invasion-Inflation: the crisis of 1923

The cause of the trouble was Reparations - the government paid them by printing more money, causing inflation (had a short term relief). In January 1923, Germany failed to make a payment, and France invaded the Ruhr. This humiliated the government, which ordered a general strike, and paid the strikers by printing more money, causing hyperinflation: - In Berlin on 1 October 1923, soldiers calling themselves Black Reichswehr rebelled, led by Bruno Buchrucker. - The Rhineland declared independence (21-22 October). - In Saxony and Thuringia the Communists took power.

Hitler's list of 25 demands included many Socialist ideas as well as nationalistic ones:

The fact that Hitler's list of 25 demands included many socialist ideas, as well as nationalistic ones meant that he appealed to a range of people = broad ideology & base = meets the needs of people = gives people an identity & sense of belonging & promises & restores pride of Germany:. 1. The union of all Germans to form a Greater Germany 2. The Abolition of the Peace treaties of Versailles and Saint Germain 3. Land and territory for the nourishment of the German people ("Lebensraum") 11. The abolition of incomes unearned by work 14. Profit sharing in the big industries 15. A generous development of provision for old age 16. The creation and support of a healthy middle class 25. The creation of a strong central government

Who were the main players of the Paris Peace Conference?

The main players were the "Big Three": the leaders of the most powerful countries, each of whom had his own agenda (France, England & the US).

What happened to the Ruhr after the french invasion?

The richest part of Germany (besides those that had been taken from it in the Treaty of Versailles) was no longer producing goods, and the government was now faced with a wave of refugees from the Ruhr; expelled from their homes for following the government's orders.

Nazi-Soviet Pact (1939)

USSR and Germany agreed to remain neutral if either one was attacked by a third party, and divided Eastern Europe into German and Soviet spheres of influence

- Stripped Germany naked. - Class of 1940 predicted that we would be at war again and the Diplomats did not realise/foresee this. -- leading to new cannon fodder and the peace does not last.

What is the message of this political cartoon published in the magazine Punch by the cartoonist Dyson in 1919? Do an OPCVL analysis of this cartoon: What are the values and limitations of the:

Who was Woodrow Wilson and what was his "agenda" at the Paris Peace Conference?

Woodrow Wilson was the President of the United States and, despite their late entrance to the war, he too had many objectives; in fact, he had his list of Fourteen Points, including: - To be repaid for the loans given to the Allies in the first years of the war. - To secure freedom on the high seas. - To reduce the size of armies worldwide. - To ban secret treaties. (e.g. Treaty of London) - To provide national self-determination to all people groups.

Republic

a country without a king or queen.

In November, Stresemann ceased the printing of the old currency and replaced it with:

a new one, called the Rentenmark.

Democracy

government by the people

Reichstag

the parliament of Germany before 1945 (and the name of its building).

Constitution

the way a government is set up