The Power of Words, Constructing a Main Idea, Matching Tone to an Audience, Presenting Ideas to an Audience, English Quarter 3 -Identifying the Writing Process, organizing ideas, Delivering a Persuasive Speech, discussing changes in our lives, develo...

Budgeting and Internal Controls

As you learned earlier, it is crucial for a business to track its inflow and outflow of cash. However, it is even more important for a business to manage its cash. For example, a business must use its revenue in cash to pay its expenses and facilitate expansion. Budgeting is the process of estimating the business's revenue, expenses, and profits over a period. The budgeting process begins when a business prepares its sales forecast for the future. It does this with the help of market data. It also prepares an estimate of its revenues and expenses for this period. Such estimates help the business forecast its future profits. However, a business must try to ensure that its actual results do not deviate from its expected results. So, a business must compare its financial operations with its budget consistently.

Reflexive and Intensive Pronouns

Now you'll review two kinds of pronouns—reflexive and intensive—that act a bit differently from other pronouns. They're different because they don't replace a noun. In fact, they can repeat the subject of a sentence, which might be a noun or another pronoun. Read on to better understand how to use these pronouns.

Persuasive Writing

Persuasive writing is used to convince an audience about a particular topic. The writer uses supporting evidence to back up a certain point of view. You can find persuasive writing in TV commercials, letters to the editor, college brochures, and reviews of products, movies, and books.

Print Media

Print media includes any printed material that delivers information to people. Newspapers, magazines, journals, and books are types of print media. Print is the oldest media form. The use of print media is declining because of the growing popularity of the Internet and television.

Purpose

Purpose and audience are closely tied. The purpose of your paper determines why you're writing, and the audience determines what and how you'll write it. Choose your tone, word choice, style, and other writing factors based on who your audience is. Knowing your audience and purpose will help keep your writing focused and effective.

Editing

The final stage is to edit your essay. Proofread it for errors in grammar, spelling, capitalization, and formatting. Taking notes on the types of errors you make might help you avoid those mistakes in future writing assignments. Do you often make spelling mistakes? Perhaps you have trouble with subject-verb agreement. Pay attention to your weak areas and proofread for those errors first. Subject and verb agreement: Find the main verb in each sentence and match the verb to its subject. Make sure that the subject and verb agree in number. Pronoun reference and agreement: Skim your essay, stopping at each pronoun. Look especially at it, this, they, their, and them. Search for the noun that the pronoun replaces. If you find a noun, be sure that it agrees in number and person with your pronoun. If you don't find a noun, change the pronoun to a noun for clarity.

Types of Essays

The first step toward developing a writing strategy is to understand what type of essay or paper you are supposed to write. Has your teacher asked you to write an essay explaining a literary movement in fine detail? Or have you been asked to write a persuasive piece with evidence and facts to sway readers to your point of view? Being aware of the type of essay you need to write will help you develop a more specific writing strategy, which will then create a smooth transition when you start writing.

Brainstorming

The next step is brainstorming. Brainstorming is the process of writing down your ideas before writing the actual essay. Most writers find it helpful to use graphic organizers to arrange their ideas. Examples of common graphic organizers are webs, diagrams, and lists. To begin brainstorming, ask yourself some prewriting questions: Who or what is the essay about? What types of details do I want to include? When did the event or topic take place? Where did the event or topic take place? Why did I decide to write about this topic? How do I feel about the topic?

Background Information

The sun is a gigantic star in the center of our solar system. It is more than a million times bigger than Earth and provides most of Earth's energy. The sun has a huge impact on life on Earth because of its gigantic size, powerful heat, and closeness to Earth. In 1959, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) launched the first space satellites to study the sun.

Defining Audience

Your audience is the person or group of people for whom you are writing your paper. Although your teacher may be the only one who reads your paper, you should think of your audience more as the person or group of people that you want to inform, educate, or persuade. Good writing will anticipate the needs and expectations of the audience. If the audience knows a lot about the topic, there's no need to explain the information at a basic level. However, a less informed audience will need more instruction and basic information.

Evaluating the Main Idea

As a reader, you should be able to recognize the main idea in each paragraph. Start by searching for details within a paragraph that give you clues about the main idea. When you recognize the main idea and separate it from the supporting details, you'll begin to uncover the author's purpose. Understanding the author's purpose shapes how you view the text. If you read an article meant to entertain as one meant to inform, you may have trouble recognizing the main idea. Even worse, the way the author presents the material might offend you.

Understanding Media Writing

As with any type of writing, mass media needs to have a clear point of view and a purpose. The point of view of most media writing is that of the authorship, or the piece's creators. It's common for more than one person to be involved in creating media works. Point of view is the narrator's relationship to the story. The authorship may use first-person, second-person, or third-person point of view, depending on their purpose. Pronoun choice is part of point of view. For example, a piece written in first-person would use the pronouns I and me. But in informational text, point of view also involves the authorship's attitude toward the topic. Whatever the point of view, the text is shaped by the purpose and audience that the authorship has in mind.

Types of Media

In this lesson, you'll learn about how people use different types of media to discuss social issues and events. The term media refers to different ways of communicating with an audience. Examples of media include television, newspapers, books, and the Internet. The singular form of the word media is medium. Although media is technically a plural word, it's often treated as singular. Mass media is created to reach a large number of people. For example, newspapers, radio, television, and the Internet are all forms of mass media. The different ways of spreading information using the media are known as media outlets. Radio stations, TV channels, and blogs are all media outlets. Think of a media outlet as a particular format for communication.

Presenting to an Audience

In this section, you will put together a short presentation. The paper will be informational or explanatory, and it will contain some analysis on the significance of the information you will present. You'll focus on the questions "How?" or "Why?" as you provide information or explain a process. Review the writing process before you begin writing in the following activity.

Reading Selections

In this section, you'll read two articles that touch on the same subject. They both focus on the sun and what we know or guess about the conditions there. But they are very different, as they were written about 100 years apart. Over that time, people's understanding of the universe developed enormously. First let's look at what we know now about the sun and space exploration.

Colons

A colon is used to suggest that a list of items will follow. Here's an example: To make working out a pleasant experience for everyone, please follow the gym rules: Wipe down equipment after each use. Towels are provided in the locker room and at the front desk. Return weight equipment to its proper place. Limit use of cardio machines to 30 minutes. Keep gym bags and belongings in the lockers provided. Personal belongings should not be left on the floor or on top of a piece of equipment. The items in a list do not need to be formatted vertically. A colon is also to introduce a list in a sentence. Randy told Mandy that these items are must-haves for a road trip: a roadmap, a camera, travel games, bottled water, and snacks. A colon is also used after a salutation in a business letter or other formal communication. Here are some examples: Dear Mrs. Raleigh: Dear Speaker of the House: Dear Jack: Never use a semicolon after a salutation. In personal letters, use a comma after the salutation. You'll learn more about how to use semicolons and colons in the video on the next screen.

Drafting

After you've finished the prewriting phase, it's time to start writing a draft of your essay. Use the outline that you created and refer to the relevant information you gathered as you write your draft. Your ideas will become clearer and the flow of writing will come to you more easily as you write your draft. Keep in mind that you might need to revisit the prewriting phase to add more information or refine the information you've collected.

Intensive Pronouns

An intensive pronouns is used to emphasize a sentence's subject. If it's removed, the sentence will still make sense. Here's an example: Nick himself made the coffee. Nick made the coffee himself. Here, the intensive pronoun himself emphasizes the fact that Nick made the coffee without help from anyone else. Most often, the intensive pronoun is placed next to the subject. But it can be farther away, as in the second example.

Broadcast Media

Broadcast media includes news reports, speeches, and other information presented to a large audience that's spread over a large area. Television and radio are examples of broadcast media. Originally, the term broadcast referred only to information beamed through airwaves to radio or TV sets. In today's digital age, broadcasts include information presented through any form of electronic communication.

Expository Writing

Expository writing provides information to readers. The writer assumes that readers do not have in-depth or prior knowledge of the topic. Expository writing is commonly found in nonfiction books, magazine features, and newspaper articles, but also sometimes in fiction.

Figures of Speech

Figures of speech give personality and freshness to writing while adding clarity. A figure of speech is an expression used to convey meaning, often using comparisons. Writers may use a figure of speech for different purposes. They use it to create images, arouse feelings, improve understanding, or appeal to the senses.

Formal and Informal Language

Formal language is used for papers, articles, speeches, and other scholarly writing. The writer usually doesn't personally know the audience. In contrast, people use informal language when speaking with friends, chatting online, or writing in a journal. A news report in a newspaper may use more formal language, while an Internet blog may use more informal language. Formal language is more standardized. People across geographical regions can understand it. Formal language also changes less over time. In comparison, informal language can vary dramatically from place to place and from one time period to another. Before you watch a video about different types of informal language, think about the following example. Many everyday expressions are different in the United States and United Kingdom. A tired American might say, "I'm pooped!" In the same situation, a British person would say, "I'm knackered!"

Narrative Essays

In a narrative essay, the writer tells a story, often about a personal experience. These essays allow writers to express themselves and use their creativity. Take a look at these sample prompts for a narrative essay: Write a story about a time you learned something new about yourself. Write a narrative about a time you made a new friend.

Citing Information

It's important that you cite all the sources used in your research paper. You should never plagiarize another person's work. To plagiarize is to copy another person's words or ideas in a paper without giving credit to that person. To avoid plagiarism, it's important to cite sources in the paper itself. You should also cite all of your sources in a bibliography. Plus, citing information will help make you seem trustworthy in the minds of your readers. It will prove to readers that you have factual information to support your ideas.

General Categories of Internal Accounting Controls

Let's look at some general categories of internal accounting controls. Segregation of duties: A business must segregate tasks and duties amongst employees. This segregation prevents fraud or error. Let's assume that an employee is allowed to authorize and record a sale, as well as maintain inventory. In this case, the employee might find it easier to commit fraud or theft. So, it's better if the business assigns these duties to different individuals. Prior authorization: A business's management must sanction financial transactions in advance. Prior authorization in writing helps a business keep track of transactions. Documentation: A business must document all transactions. Further, the management must examine original documents related to a financial transaction before sanctioning it.

Focus on Language

Media authorship and other writers use different parts of speech to vary their sentences and keep readers' attention. One way writers do that is by using different types of pronouns. A pronoun is usually a word that takes the place of a noun. The following table contains a list of commonly used pronouns.

Narrative Writing

Narrative writing is used to tell a story. A narrative essay is a form of nonfiction that includes all parts of a story: introduction, plot, characters, setting, climax, and conclusion. A writer might create a narrative piece in which a lesson is learned or insight is gained.

Revising

Once you've written your draft, take some time away from your essay. When you come back to it, you'll be able to read your writing with a fresh mind. Start by reading your paper aloud. Did you notice any mistakes that you missed earlier? Sometimes hearing the paper spoken aloud, instead of just reading it silently, helps you identify areas that don't sound quite right. Also, pay close attention to the content of your essay. Check the thesis statement and organization. Does your thesis make sense? Will readers be able to easily follow the ideas in your essay and understand how they support the thesis? Does the organization of the paragraphs flow well or do you need to move information around? Have you included enough details to support your thesis statement adequately? Always remember to show readers what you want them to know rather than telling them. You might need to go back to the prewriting stage more than once. Perhaps you'll need to find more information, modify the flow, or even tweak your thesis statement.

Reflexive Pronouns

Reflexive pronouns are pronouns used when the object of the verb is the same as the subject. In the following examples, Nick is not only the performer (subject) of the action but also the direct or indirect receiver (object) of the action. Himself is the reflexive pronoun. Nick taught himself to make coffee. Nick made coffee for himself. Nick made himself a cup of coffee.

Prewriting

The prewriting stage involves multiple steps. Each one will help smooth the way to writing your essay. Decide on a topic or an angle: If you haven't already been assigned a topic, do some brainstorming and select a topic that not only interests you but is also rich in information. That way, you'll have enough to write about. On the other hand, if your teacher has assigned a specific topic, figure out what angle you want to take on the subject. Find a way to make the topic interesting. Discuss it with people who might know more about it than you do.

Internet

The Internet is also used to broadcast information. But it's different from traditional broadcast media such as radio and television. It's interactive, allowing the audience to link, share, and comment on information within seconds of broadcast. Because of its wide scope and the ability of users to interact, the Internet is considered a separate type of media. The Internet is an electronic form of communication. It connects people through electronic devices such as computers and cell phones. The Internet has become the most commonly used medium for news and information. Examples include websites, blogs, and social media sites.

Creating a Bibliography

The bibliography comes at the end of an essay. It is also called a works-cited list. It contains detailed information in alphabetical order about the research sources used in a paper. The in-text citations are based on the information listed in the bibliography

Bibliography

The bibliography is also known as a works-cited list. It provides a list of all the research sources used in the essay in alphabetical order. It appears at the end of the essay.

Conclusion

The conclusion is as important to the success of a speech as the introduction. It's the final impression the speaker leaves with the listeners. The conclusion fulfills these purposes: Provides closure. The conclusion wraps up the speech for the audience's benefit. Restates the main point. The conclusion provides a final opportunity for the speaker to summarize the main point. Calls the audience to action. Here are some effective ways to conclude your speech: Summarize the main points. Refer back to the introduction. Answer the question raised in the introduction.

Main Idea

The main idea of a passage is what the text is primarily about. It's the "big idea," or the most important idea that the author wants to communicate to readers. The author develops this main idea throughout the text by adding details. Details are the parts of the text that support the main idea and make the text interesting. Determining the main idea and separating it from the supporting details will help you better understand the content. Next, you'll practice this approach.

Preparing for a Group Discussion

The topic of your discussion will be the idea of change. In the natural world, change can be dramatic. For example, a caterpillar experiences rapid changes as it develops into a butterfly. Many plants sprout new buds in the spring and shed their leaves and flowers in the fall, forming a cycle. Landforms such as mountains change more slowly, over thousands or millions of years. For this discussion, think about a significant change that has happened in your life. First, you'll write about that event in detail, including how you felt about it and how it affected you. In your group discussion, you'll present a description of that change. Then you'll discuss the stresses and difficulties change brings, as well as some strategies for overcoming those challenges.

Reviewing

When your draft is complete, review it to add details and make sure it flows well. Here are some items to check: Essay structure: Did you include all parts of your outline? Clarification of ideas: Did you explain your topic in enough detail? Do your ideas flow smoothly within each paragraph and from paragraph to paragraph?

Paraphrasing and Summarizing

You can also include information from a source by paraphrasing or summarizing it. Paraphrasing involves rewriting part of a source in your own words. These words can be close to the original words but not quite the same. Summarizing involves describing one or more ideas in a source. A summary usually sums up the central point and avoids small details. Summarization helps present information from a source in a few words or sentences.

Research Sources

You can consult a variety of sources when conducting research for your speech: The library. The library is a credible place to locate sources for research. Reference books such as encyclopedias are written by known experts. The Internet. The Internet is a good source of information. However, be aware of consulting dubious websites, such as amateur blogs. It's better to consult trusted university or government websites for research purposes. Interviews. Interviewing people who are experts on a topic is a good way to gather supporting evidence. Your own experiences. Your experiences may be effective evidence. But be careful not to generalize them too much. Not everyone in similar circumstances will share them.

Focus on Language

You've seen that it's important to edit your essay to elevate the quality of your writing. Editing includes checking that the spelling and punctuation are correct in your writing. Because a misspelled word or incorrectly placed punctuation mark could alter the meaning of a sentence, editing is an important step in the writing process. Semicolons A semicolon links two main clauses in the same sentence without using a connector such as but or and. A semicolon in the middle of a sentence makes you pause before reading the rest of the sentence. Semicolons indicate that the two clauses are connected. Jenny sat down to eat lunch; her dog begged for morsels of her sandwich. You can also use a semicolon before a transitional word, such as however, therefore, or moreover, and before a transitional expression, such as for example, in addition, or since then. Thomas plagiarized his term paper; therefore, he will fail the class.

Outlining

After brainstorming, an outline can help you organize your thoughts. Outlines show how ideas connect and help you determine the order in which to present them. For an informative essay, an outline helps keep track of important details about the topic. Here are some advantages of creating an outline: helps you organize your ideas presents your ideas in a logical form shows the relationship among ideas creates an ordered overview of your writing To create an outline, first determine your essay's purpose, audience, and topic. Next, brainstorm ideas for your written piece. Then begin organizing by grouping related ideas together.

Drafting, Reviewing, and Revising

After outlining, the next step is creating a draft. A draft is the first version of an essay. When writing a first draft, effective paragraph writing skills are important. An effective paragraph should include these elements: Unity: The paragraph should have a single focus. Coherence: Coherence makes the paragraph understandable. Sticking to the same idea throughout the paragraph helps create coherence. You can also use the same keywords in more than one sentence. Using parallel structure for each sentence improves coherence. Topic sentence: The topic sentence states the paragraph's main idea. It is often the paragraph's first sentence. Appropriate development: Make sure the topic is discussed thoroughly throughout the paragraph

Informative Essays

An informative essay provides details about a topic. Here are some sample writing prompts for an informative essay: How did an invention change your life? What is diversity?

Identifying the Main Idea

As you look for a paragraph's topic and main idea, ask yourself these questions: What is this paragraph about? What is the main idea? How do the details support the main idea? Let's try out this strategy on a sample paragraph. What is this paragraph about? It's about new information that historians use to write more accurately about early Chinese history. What is the main idea? Viewpoints on China's history have radically changed. How do the details support the main idea? They give reasons why historians' views on Chinese history have changed, such as details uncovered during recent archaeological excavations.

Focus on Language

Before proofreading and publishing, it's important to review the language in your essay. Let's look at some important grammatical rules. Clauses and Phrases A clause is a group of words that contain a subject and a verb. In the following example, the subject is bolded and the verb is underlined. Bob ate the granola bar A phrase is a group of words without a subject-verb component. It functions as a single part of speech. In the example below, all the words work together to form a noun phrase. my best friend

Analyze the Details

Details are specific pieces of information that help the author expand on the topic being discussed. For example, a brochure from a candidate running for office states that the current senator voted no on a bill to increase funding for schools. What the brochure doesn't say, however, is that this senator tried to submit his own bill with even more funding for schools. The details matter. You can interpret an author's attitude toward a subject by the details he or she doesn't include as much as by the details he or she does include

Discussion for Group-Paced Class

If you're in a group-paced class, form a group with at least two other students. Each member of your group will take turns being presenter, observer, and notetaker. While one student presents information to the group, a second student will take notes, and a third student will act as observer. During the discussion, each presenter will present one question or point from the Lesson Activity. Then the group will discuss it. Each student should spend 10 to 15 minutes presenting and discussing a point. In these discussion guidelines, you'll find some suggested questions to pose as a notetaker and observer. It will be helpful if the whole group reads these guidelines before you begin your discussion. Even when you're not in the role of notetaker, you should take brief notes during the discussion. Doing so will help you complete the discussion summary

Discussion for a Self-Paced Class

If you're in a self-paced class, find at least two people to participate in a discussion with you. If possible, they should be about your age so that you can have a thoughtful discussion with peers. You are the only presenter in this discussion. In this role, you're responsible for moving the discussion along and making sure all the important material is covered. Assign one member of your group to be a notetaker and another to be an observer. Refer to these lists of questions for a notetaker and observer to consider. Set a time and place for the discussion. Share these discussion guidelines with the other group members before the discussion. Start the discussion by presenting one of the discussion points or questions that you came up with in the Lesson Activity. Then discuss it with your group for 20 to 30 minutes. After your discussion, use the notetaker's notes to write a summary of the discussion.

Author's Point of View

Like the main idea, the author's point of view can also help you better understand informational text. An author's point of view is different from a fictional narrator's point of view. The narrator's point of view is the perspective through which the narrator tells a story. It could be first person, second person, or third person. Point of view varies depending on what the narrator knows about the characters' thoughts and feelings. An author's point of view is based on the author's personal beliefs about a topic. You can identify the author's point of view by carefully reading the text. Sometimes, you can learn more about the author's point of view by examining the context in which the text was written. That includes finding more information about the purpose of the text and the author's background. Don't assume a writer's personal beliefs match the content of the text. Also be aware that some texts are not highly shaped by a writer's beliefs.

Essay Structure

Remember to structure your informative essay clearly. Include an introductory paragraph, a body paragraph, and a concluding paragraph. Introductory paragraph: Your introductory paragraph should hook the reader within the first few sentences and provide background information on the topic. It should also include your thesis statement, which is the essay's main idea. Body paragraph: In the body, include supporting details for your thesis statement. The body paragraph should have a clear topic sentence, evidence to support the main idea, and a summary that explains the evidence. Concluding paragraph: The concluding paragraph should restate your main idea or thesis statement and summarize the supporting details and examples from the essay's body.

Body

The body presents information that supports the thesis statement. It forms the middle part of an essay and takes up most of the essay. Each body paragraph should have a clear and focused topic that builds on the thesis statement. Be sure to begin a new paragraph when you're introducing a new topic. It's also important to include supporting information from credible research sources in each body paragraph. The purpose of the body in a research paper is to develop the argument or analysis.

Introduction

The most important aspect of the introduction is the thesis statement. The thesis statement contains the argument or main idea that the student has chosen to explore in the essay. It presents the main purpose of the essay. It also informs readers about what they can expect from the essay.

The Purpose of Group Discussion

The purpose of a discussion is to bring people and information together to create fresh ideas. When you participate in a discussion with others, you are exposed to perspectives other than your own. This exposure allows every member of the discussion to explore ideas more in-depth than would be possible alone. In this way, group discussions offer a rich learning experience. Imagine doing these tasks alone versus with a group: summarizing a film analyzing a literary work generating ideas for an upcoming project reviewing for a test solving problems reviewing a piece of writing You could perform any of these tasks on your own. But discussing them with a group would allow you to consider other perspectives on the task.

What's the Main Idea

To define a main idea, start with the big picture. Everything you write, whether it's for a school assignment or for fun, has a specific focus, or topic. A topic is the subject of a piece of writing. You can usually identify a topic by a noun or noun phrase. A topic may be a person such as George Washington, a place such as Japan, or an activity such as social networking. Each paragraph also has a topic. For example, in a piece about George Washington, you might have one paragraph about his early life, one about his role in the American Revolution, and a few about his presidency.

Focus on Language

Words don't randomly spill from our mouths—or pens or cursors—any more than clear paragraphs are made of randomly organized ideas. Words in sentences can be connected in many ways. One way to learn unfamiliar words is to understand the basic relationship between words. You'll practice using three types of word relationships to find the meanings of new words: synonyms, antonyms, and analogies

Point of View

Writers use these points of view: First person: The narrator is involved in the story and tells his or her own version of events. Second person: The narrator tells a story by speaking directly to the reader. Third person: The narrator describes the events without being involved in the story.

Tone in Poetry

Writers use word meanings to create a specific tone in a poem. Tone is the poem's attitude or mood. Poets use the connotative meanings of words to create tone and appeal to readers' emotions.

What Is a Writing Strategy?

"We are all apprentices in a craft where no one ever becomes a master." —Ernest Hemingway (1899-1961) Writing can seem like a daunting task. Maybe it doesn't come naturally to you. Don't be discouraged. Writing is a skill that can be improved through practice. And having a writing strategy to follow can make that practice easier. A writing strategy is a process used to craft a paper, such as an essay, research paper, or book report. This process can change depending on the type of paper, but developing and using a general writing strategy will help get you started writing any kind of paper.

Developing a Research Paper

A research paper is presented in the form of an essay. It presents an argument or analyzes a point of view. Research paper writers usually support their argument or analysis with information from reliable sources. Keep in mind that the research essay isn't simply a summary of the information found in other sources. It must use the information to offer a fresh view on the topic or issue.

Subjective Tone

A text with a subjective tone includes words that describe the writer's feelings, judgments, or opinions. A subjective tone is usually more personal, emotional, and informal than an objective one. In some cases, a text with a subjective tone might include clear bias on the part of the writer. For example, personal essays are usually written in a subjective tone. The following paragraph is an example of the subjective tone. Note how it is informal and personal. I really enjoy exercising. My favorite way to stay fit is to practice yoga. Do you know that yoga is one of the oldest forms of exercise? It was invented centuries ago. Yoga helps me keep my muscles toned and flexible. The best part about yoga is that I don't need any fancy equipment—all I need is my yoga mat! The quiet meditation portion of yoga class is very soothing and calming. I would recommend yoga after a stressful day at school or work.

Analysis Essays

An analysis essay closely examines another piece of writing or data. In English classes, this type of essay is often used to examine pieces of fiction or poems. Here are some sample writing prompts: How does the story demonstrate the theme of "the importance of finding yourself"? How do the characters in the two stories convey a message?

Objective Tone

An objective tone is unemotional and includes only facts. Authors use this tone to show their impartiality toward a topic. An objective tone doesn't indicate whether an author is for or against a particular topic. This approach makes the text feel unbiased and neutral. For example, textbooks and manuals are usually written in an objective tone. They mostly include facts and reasonable explanations. As you read the following text about trees in California, notice how the objective tone makes it impartial: Giant sequoias and California redwoods exist primarily in the forests of northern California. These two types of trees are different species, but they do have commonalities. Both giant sequoias and redwoods have the potential to grow to an enormous size and live for a very long time.

Elements of an Outline

An outline has four main elements: Parallelism: Each heading and subheading should have parallel structure, which involves using the same grammatical elements and word patterns. Coordination: The information in each heading should have the same importance. The same goes for the subheadings. Subordination: Heading information should be more general, while information in subheadings should be more specific. Division: Each heading should have two or more subheadings.

Audience and Style

Audience and Style Purpose and audience help shape the content and delivery of your information. They also influence your tone and word choice. Writers use different tones in different pieces of writing, depending on what they want to convey. Here, we'll focus on formal and informal tones. Tone To determine whether to adopt a formal or an informal tone, writers should consider their relationship to the audience. A formal tone is more serious, while an informal tone is more casual. Writing for a particular audience is similar to having a conversation. We change our tone and way of speaking to adapt to different audiences. For example, you would probably speak differently to an elderly neighbor or to your school principal (formal) than you would to your friends or classmates (informal).

Descriptive Writing

Descriptive writing involves painting a picture in words for readers. The writer describes a person, place, experience, emotion, or situation through the use of vivid language. Descriptive writing uses details to discuss a subject rather than simply stating what a subject is outright. A writer using descriptive language, for example, may say that this sunset is a blaze of orange and yellow stretching toward the horizon.

Developing a Writing Strategy

Developing an effective writing strategy can help you succeed in the written exercises and reports you're assigned in all of your class subjects. Typically, a writing strategy consists of four phases: Prewriting: This stage consists of gathering all the information you need to start writing. It includes brainstorming ideas and doing research. Drafting: In this stage, you write a rough draft of your essay. Revising: This stage involves revising your initial draft to enhance and polish your essay. Editing or proofreading: During this stage, you proofread your essay for any small surface errors that you may have overlooked during the revising phase. Although it's a good idea to follow the phases in the order noted above, you can modify the order or skip a step if that works best for you. You'll get the hang of it, and after some practice might not need to go through every single step.

Prewriting

During the prewriting stage, brainstorm to identify the essay's type, purpose, audience, and point of view. Many writers use a graphic organizer to identify the key elements of their essays. Based on the writing prompt in the previous section, you know that you'll be writing an informative essay. You'll define and explain the topic of "change." Take a closer look at how you can begin brainstorming for your essay.

Focus on Language

Editing and Audience Awareness Although it's important to determine the audience before you write a paper or prepare for a presentation, be sure to consider the audience all the way through the drafting and revising stages. Part of considering the audience involves editing a text for clarity, grammar, and spelling.

Purpose

Every type of essay has a clear purpose. Common types of purpose include the following: to persuade to inform to entertain to express feelings

Types of Evidence

Evidence refers to the information, facts, and figures that make up research. The purpose of evidence is to explain or clarify a point. It helps win over audience trust and confidence. Here are some common types of evidence: Stories. Stories enable the speaker to connect with the audience on a personal level. Quotes. A speaker usually includes quotes and opinions from experts in a speech. This information convinces the audience of the validity of the speaker's viewpoints. Statistics. Statistics refer to the numerical representation of data or information. They help the audience visualize concepts such as proportion and percentages. Facts. The presentation of facts also helps strengthen the speaker's arguments.

Persuasive Essays

In a persuasive essay, the writer takes a stand on a topic and uses evidence to convince the reader to agree with that stand. These essays are also called argumentative essays. Here are some sample writing prompts: Which type of animal makes the best pet? Should students have a shorter school day?

Research Essays

In a research essay, the writer presents factual information about a topic gathered from reliable resources. Consider these sample writing prompts for a research essay: Why do we need sleep? How do black holes form in space?

Analyzing Audience

It's important to identify your audience before you start writing. You need to have a clear sense of whom you will be addressing. Different audiences will have different backgrounds, attitudes, and expectations. You'll need to gather background information about your audience members so you can tailor your message to them. Essential information such as age, gender, cultural background, and education level can help you know your audience and what they may already know about the topic. It's important to identify your audience before you start writing. You need to have a clear sense of whom you will be addressing. Different audiences will have different backgrounds, attitudes, and expectations. You'll need to gather background information about your audience members so you can tailor your message to them. Essential information such as age, gender, cultural background, and education level can help you know your audience and what they may already know about the topic.

Literal and Figurative Language

Just as a word can have more than one meaning, combinations of words and phrases can also have more than one meaning. These meanings can be either literal or figurative. A literal meaning is the basic meaning or dictionary definition of a word or phrase. For example, the literal meaning of the phrase "break a leg" is "to break a bone in the leg." A person with a broken leg wears a cast to help the broken bone heal.

Interaction Strategies in Group Discussion

Now let's look at some strategies you can use to carry out an effective group discussion: Take time to think about your ideas and organize them before you speak. When you don't understand what a person has said, politely ask the person to clarify his or her point. Make sure everyone gets an equal chance to speak in the group. During the discussion, ask the group members to be respectful and serious. Remind them that they can learn from others if they respect different positions on topics. At the end of the discussion, evaluate and reflect on the points discussed.

Engaging in a Discussion

Now that you've thought about the difficulties and consequences of change, you'll prepare for and engage in a group discussion. Depending on the people who will participate in your group discussion, you may need to choose one of the following discussion formats: self-paced group-paced If you're working through this lesson alone, then you're in a self-paced class. In this discussion format, you'll be the only presenter. You'll ask other people to join you in the discussion. If at least two other students are taking the same lesson, you're in a group-paced class. You'll collaborate with these other students in the discussion. In this discussion format, each member will take turns being the presenter, the notetaker, and the observer.

Purpose Statement

Once you've determined your target audience, you'll develop a purpose statement. This statement says what you want to accomplish in your speech. While coming up with a purpose statement, ask yourself these questions: What do I want my audience to know? What do I want my audience to feel? What do I want my audience to do? These questions will help you to construct a solid purpose statement. Now consider this purpose statement for a speech about developing good study habits: I want my audience to understand what good study habits are and incorporate them into their school routine.

Outlining Your Speech

Outlining is a great way to organize your research and ideas for a speech. Major Features of an Outline Introduction. The introduction captures the audience's attention. It also provides information about the speaker and the purpose of the speech. Main ideas. Your speech should include about two to five main ideas. The most common outlining system uses Roman numerals (I, II, III, IV . . .) to list the main ideas. Subtopic. A subtopic provides information in support of the main topic. You can use capital letters (A, B, C . . .) to indicate subtopics. Details. Any extra information that relates to the topic at hand is a detail. Use cardinal numbers (1, 2, 3 . . .) to indicate the extra details to include. Conclusion. The conclusion summarizes the main idea and encourages the audience to take action.

Examine Word Choice

Pay attention to the writer's choice of words and phrases. Ask yourself if certain words have positive or negative meanings. Check the tone the words convey. For example, does it sound serious, humorous, scholarly, or warm? Read this excerpt from the speech Frederick Douglass gave in 1876 at the unveiling of the Emancipation Memorial in Washington, DC: I congratulate you, also, upon the very favorable circumstances in which we meet today. They are high, inspiring, and uncommon. They lend grace, glory, and significance to the object for which we have met. Nowhere else in this great country, with its uncounted towns and cities, unlimited wealth, and immeasurable territory extending from sea to sea, could conditions be found more favorable to the success of this occasion than here. In the excerpt, words such as inspiring, uncommon, unlimited wealth, and great country portray a positive and inspiring tone with a hint of patriotism.

The Art of Persuasion

Persuasion refers to convincing others to adopt your beliefs by making arguments. When used effectively, persuasion can inspire an audience (small or large) to take action. As Elijah already noted, you'll write your own persuasive speech in this lesson. You'll use logical arguments to convince your audience that your ideas are important. Your goal will be to show your audience why your ideas are worth considering and accepting

Researching Your Speech

Research is a crucial part of speechwriting. Let's see how you can incorporate research into your speech. Relevant Sources Locating and selecting accurate information is essential. It enables speakers to present relevant, supporting evidence. Relevant, supporting evidence about the topic lends credibility to your speech. Well-researched and credible evidence will help you win audience confidence and trust. For all of these reasons, you'll want to choose high-quality sources.

Using Research Sources

Research sources are a valuable part of a research paper. They provide important information about the paper's topic that can support and build on your thesis statement. As you've seen, research sources can be either in print or on the Internet.

Conclusion

The conclusion, which is the final part of an essay, serves two main purposes. The conclusion restates the thesis statement. It also summarizes the main points in the body paragraphs.

Proofreading and Publishing

The final two steps of the writing process are proofreading and publishing. During the proofreading step, edit your essay again for the following items: Grammar: Is it correct? Check for dangling modifiers and correct use of clauses and phrases. Spelling: Are the words spelled correctly? Did you use vivid language? Punctuation: Did you punctuate each sentence correctly? Is your capitalization correct? The final step is publishing. Your essay is completed and ready to submit to your teacher, supervisor, or readers. The publishing step includes all the revisions you have completed.

Preparing and Organizing for a Research Paper

The first step in preparing and organizing for a research paper is brainstorming. Brainstorming helps you get down your thoughts in an orderly way. It also helps you narrow your focus before you start an essay. Often, your teacher will give you a writing prompt before you begin the brainstorming process. Take a look at this sample writing prompt: Modern technology is making its way into every part of society. Is modern technology more harmful than it is helpful? Brainstorm ideas related to the prompt. Here are two examples of possible ideas: modern technology does society more harm than good modern technology does society more good than harm You can defend any side of the topic described in the prompt

Understanding Group Discussions

The meaning of the word discuss can be traced back to dis-, meaning "apart," and quatere, meaning "to shake." As the history of this word suggests, discussions can be as powerful as an earthquake. Bringing people together to talk about and exchange ideas can shake things up and create new ideas. In this lesson, you'll practice conducting an effective discussion. Ideally, your group discussion won't cause massive destruction like an earthquake, but it will help you probe ideas deeply. You'll learn how to prepare for a discussion and will read guidelines about how to conduct one.

Revising

The next step is revising. During this step, you'll expand on your topic and make corrections. A good revision strategy is peer review. Ask another student to review your essay and suggest changes to improve it. If a peer isn't available, go through the essay on your own and look for areas that need revisions. Ask yourself these questions: How could this paragraph flow better? Could I change the language to make it more interesting for the reader?

A Sample Outline

The outline is different for each type of essay. A general outline for creating an informative essay includes these elements: Introductory Paragraph hook background information main idea Body Paragraph supporting idea evidence summary of evidence Concluding Paragraph restate the main idea connect to the introductory paragraph provide a summary

Introductions and Conclusions

The quality of the introduction and conclusion can make or break a speech. Let's look at some effective introduction and conclusion techniques. Introduction A solid introduction is crucial to the success of a speech. The introduction should typically fulfill two purposes: Grab the audience's attention. Capture the audience's attention with a "hook." If the introduction fails to engage people, they may lose interest in the speech. Prepare the audience. The introduction must inform the audience about the speech's main idea. Here are some approaches to try that can make your speech engaging: Ask a question. Share a startling statistic. Make a reference to a historical event. Begin with a quote from an expert.

Audience

Think of your audience as your readers. The audience for an academic essay usually includes peers and teachers. Determining your audience will help you write the essay in a way that they'll understand. Ask yourself the following questions to determine your audience and what they might know about the topic: Who are the readers I'm trying to reach? If readers have no knowledge of or interest in the topic, how can I get their attention? Will the audience agree with my point of view? What will I do if the audience doesn't agree with my point of view?

Content and Word Choice

To communicate effectively, writers must adjust the content and language of their work to fit an audience. Different audiences will require different degrees of information and detail. An audience that is unfamiliar with a topic will require more information, context, and background. This audience may also need more examples to help explain unfamiliar concepts. It's important to consider word choice for an audience. Determine when to use technical terms that are specific to a certain topic and when to use slang and informal expressions. A more experienced audience is more likely to understand technical terms, while a less experienced audience will require familiar terms and everyday speech. Also think about when to use simple or complex phrasing and when to use short or long sentences. Using short, direct statements will help a less experienced audience grasp unfamiliar ideas.

Internal Accounting Controls

To follow its budget, a business must monitor and control its transactions. Internal accounting controls are policies and procedures that a business follows. Such controls help a business use its resources to the best possible extent. The goal is to minimize production costs and increase profits. Using such controls, a business can also check if employees are misusing its assets. Therefore, internal controls safeguard company assets. They also help prevent fraud, theft, forgery, and embezzlement. Such controls also ensure timely and accurate recording of financial transactions. So, they add to the credibility of a business's financial statements.

How to Participate in a Discussion

To participate fully in a discussion, it helps to come prepared. In many cases, that involves preparing for the topic of discussion. For example, you might prepare by analyzing an assigned reading or doing some research. For this lesson, you'll write about the topic before starting the discussion. Becoming familiar with the format of the group discussion will also help you be prepared. In some cases, a group discussion is led by a teacher with a preplanned structure. In other cases, students arrange group discussions that encourage free-flowing conversation. Understanding the format and function of a discussion will help you know how and when to participate in it. This lesson will walk you through the steps you'll need to prepare for your discussion. Following these steps will allow you to share your thoughts while being mindful of others.

Tuning in to Tone

Tone gives readers an idea of the author's attitude toward a topic. The tone helps an author express a certain point of view. Writers build the tone in their works by using specific words and details. Try to determine the tone in this paragraph about the Great Barrier Reef: I think everyone should visit the Great Barrier Reef once in their lives. When I saw this marvel for the first time, it took my breath away. It's amazing how something that big is made up of living organisms. The reef is so enormous that it can be seen from space. It's no surprise that the reef is counted as one of the seven natural wonders of the world. The writer's use of the word marvel and the phrase "took my breath away" show a positive, enthusiastic attitude about visiting the Great Barrier Reef.

Focus on Language

We've looked at the changes that can happen in people's lives. Words can also change. Let's start with the root, the base of a word. We can form different words from a single root. For example, we can make the words bicycle, unicycle, or cyclist from the root cycl. Most roots have formed from other languages, such as Greek or Latin. The root cycl is actually based on a Greek word that means "circle." Affixes are word parts that are added to the beginning or end of a root to create a new word. Depending on where an affix is added to a word, it can be either a prefix or a suffix. Here are some ideas to keep in mind: A prefix is a word part placed before a root to form a new word. Words such as rewind and recycle are formed by adding the prefix re- to the words wind and cycle. A suffix is a word part added to the end of a root. The words lovely and generously are formed by adding -ly to the roots love and generous.

In-Text Citations

When using information from a source, you must cite it in your essay. This type of citation is called an in-text citation. It is used to cite direct quotations, paraphrases, and summaries. Let's look more closely at these three ways of presenting information. Direct Quotations A direct quotation is a word-for-word copy of another author's words that you include in your own paper. When using direct quotations to support your thesis statement, choose them carefully. Direct quotations are an effective way to build on your main idea or support your claim. But they need to serve a purpose. Use direct quotations only if they are directly related to your thesis statement.

Using Context Clues

When you come across a new word or phrase, you can often figure out its meaning by looking at the words around it. Following are some of the ways that context clues can help demonstrate the meaning of an unfamiliar word. Synonyms Synonyms are words that have the same meaning. Example: Benny's shame over breaking Adam's toy convinced Mom of his remorse. The words remorse and shame are synonyms for the feeling of guilt. Antonyms Antonyms are words that have opposite meanings. Example: Mae was gregarious, unlike her sister, who was shy. The words gregarious and shy are antonyms. Gregarious people are sociable. Shy people are nervous in social situations. Definition or Explanation Sometimes you'll find an unfamiliar word defined or explained in the text. Example: My sister listens to music incessantly, or all the time. The word incessantly is defined in the same sentence as meaning "all the time." Punctuation Clues Punctuation marks can provide clues to the meaning of a word. Example: She was discourteous in class—often speaking loudly and rudely to others. The phrase "often speaking loudly and rudely to others" is set apart with a dash. It provides a clue to the meaning of the word discourteous.

identify your audience and purpose:

When you select a topic, it's important to identify who your target audience is and what kind of information you want to get across. Once you know your audience, it's easier to figure out the tone or style that you should use in your writing. For example, the tone for an essay directed at your classmates would be much different from the tone used in an essay for the school board. Understanding your intended audience's background, such as age and level of education, will also help you choose the kind of information to include in your essay. In addition to identifying your audience, think about what you want your essay to accomplish. Are you writing an essay to convince your audience of something? Or do you want to inform them about certain issues that are important to you? Your purpose will determine the type of essay that you write: persuasive, expository, narrative, or descriptive.

Determining the Purpose and Topic

You've probably thought about the importance of purpose and audience when you're reading or writing. These two elements also matter for speeches. Imagine you're planning to speak to your younger sister to encourage her to clean her room. But later, you need to convince your teacher that you deserve a higher grade than you received on a project. What you say and how you say it will be different because the audiences and the purposes are different. Determine what your speech aims to do. Most speeches are made for these reasons: to persuade the audience in favor of a viewpoint to inform the audience about a topic or issue to entertain the audience Audience Does your audience have knowledge of the topic, or are you presenting new information? Who do you want to reach? Watch this brief video to see some different ways you could shape your speech.

Working on Writing

You've seen how other writers construct paragraphs with a main idea and supporting details. And you've noticed that they usually communicate their main ideas in topic sentences. Now it's time for you to practice what you've learned. You'll write a paragraph about one of your favorite hobbies. Your paragraph will have the four components you've learned about: topic, main idea, topic sentence, and supporting details.