Unit 3 (chapter 9) History of Graphic Design

American Type Founders Company (ATF)

Formed in an effort to stabilize the industry by forcing weaker foundries out of business and thereby reducing surplus capacity

Mathew Brady

Photography in reportage Ability of Photography to provide historical record and Define human history for forthcoming Generations was dramatically proven by the New York studio photographer _______ _______. During American Civil War he set out with a handwritten card from Abraham Lincoln reading "Pass Brady" - A. Lincoln. During war he invested 100000 Fortune to send score of his photography assistant including Alexander Gardner and Timothy H O'Sullivan to document American Civil War. His photographic documentation had a profound impact upon the Public's romantic ideal of War. Battlefield photography join artist sketches as reference materials for wood engraved magazines and newspaper illustrations. Photographers would soon produce entire books featuring scenes from the Civil War. After Civil War photography became important documentary communication tool in the expansion of the new territories and the opening of the American West. Photographers including O'Sullivan were hired by the federal government to accompany Expeditions into the unexplored western territories. O'Sullivan accompanied the geological exploration of the fortieth parallel, beginning in Western Nevada. He returned to East in translated his work into illustrations for reproduction. These images of West inspired Great Migration wonderlust that eventually conquered all of North America

Camera obscura

Photography, the new communication tool: Concept behind the device used for making images by photochemical process, the Camera obscura (Latin "dark chamber") was known in ancient world as early as Aristotle's time 4th c BCE. _____ ______: a darkened room or box with small opening or lens in one side. Light rays passing though this aperture are projected onto opposite side and form a picture of bright objects outside. Artists used it as aid for drawing. 1665 small, portable, boxlike Camera obscuras were developed. Only additional element needed to fix or make permanent the image projected into camera obscura was a light-sensitive material capable of capturing this image

Victorian Era

Popular graphic of the Victorian era: Reign of Victoria (1819 to 1901) became queen of United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland in 1837, expanding 2/3 of the 19th century. ________ ____: was a time of strong moral and religious beliefs, proper social convention, and optimism. Popular motto " God's in his Heaven, all right with the world" search for design Spirit to express their epoch aesthetic confusion led to a number of often contradictory design approaches and philosophies mixed together in scattered fashion fondness for Gothic, was fostered by English architect A. W. N. Pugin Pugin Defined design is a moral act that achieved the status of art through the designers ideas and attitudes, he believed the integrity and character of a civilization were linked to its designs. Although he said he look to earlier periods particular Gothic not for style but for principle, the net result of his influence was a wide mimicking of Gothic architecture, ornaments, and letterforms (English) Owen Jones became major design influence at mid-century and made a systematic study of Islamic design. The Victorian love of exorbitant complexity was expressed by gingerbread woodwork applied to domestic architecture; ornate, extravagant embellishments on manufactured products from silverware to large furniture; and elaborate boarders and letter in in graphic design

allegory

The design language of chromolithography Chromolithography spread from Boston to other major cities and by 1860 about 60 chromolithography firms employed 800 people. Chromolithography popularity grew and 1890 700 lithographic firms employed over 8,000 people. Prang And his competitors produced label from a can of beans, Nursery catalogue cover, early Christmas card, die-cut friendship card album, advertising trade cards. Letterpress printers and admirers of fine typography and printing were appalled that design was done on artist drawing board instead of composers metal press bed. designers could invent any letter form that suited their fancy and exploit and unlimited palette of bright, vibrant color never before available for printed communication Vitality of graphic Revolution stemmed from talented artist who created the original designs, frequently in watercolor and skilled craftsmen who trace the original art onto Stone. They translated design onto 5, 10, 20, or more separate Stones. Colored ink apply to the stones came together in perfect registration, recreating hundreds of glowing depictions of the original. List of Lithography firms rather than individual artist or craftsman was credited with chromolithographs and the name of many designers were lost history. Jone's grammar of ornament: upper left corner of the peacock trade card is being peeled away to reveal a geometric pattern underneath. Trompe-l'oeil Devices such as this delighted 19th century graphic artist. The premium booklet "Our navy" montages use complex three-dimensional ornaments and ribbons as compositional devices that unify the layout by tying disparate elements together as they move forward and backward in illusionistic space. Poster for the Hoe printing press demonstrates a new freedom in lettering 1) lines of lettering became elastic, running an arcs or at angles, and even overlap images 2) Blended and graduated colors flow on lettering and backgrounds 3) ruled borders are free to notch and curve at will Victorian passion for ____ and personification is seen in Cincinnati industrial Exposition poster. Complex montage designs promoting traveling shows, literary works, and theoretical performances engaged viewers. These advertisements are designed for greater viewing time than contemporary posters because of the slower pace of 19th century life and the relative lack of competition from other colorful images. Labels and packages became important areas for Chromolithography. Lithographing On tin sheets to make packages post significant technical difficulties. Nonporous metal cannot absorb printing inks and Sheet Metal and stone printing services are hard and inflexible. Mid-century transfer printing processes were developed. Reversed images were printed on thin paper and then transferred onto sheet metal under great pressure. The paper backing was soaked off, leaving print image on tinplate. Robert Barclay received patent for offset lithographic painting on tin. Ink applied to image drawn on Stone was picked by non-absorbent cardboard impression cylinder and immediately off set on to sheet metal. He later used rubber coated cylinder to imprint the metal. Printed tin packages for food and tobacco products were widely used throughout Europe and America during late 19th and early 20th centuries. by century and golden era of Chromo lithography came to close. Most famous lithographic art reproduction firms in the United States, Currier & Ives produced a variety of sentimental images as well as commercial advertising and went bankrupt shortly after. Public taste and development of the photoengraving were making the use of chromolithography from hand prepared Stones obsolete

Halftone screen

_______- breaks image down into a series of dots that at distance look like continuous tone reproducing tones of original photograph. Before it was possible to print photographs, photography was used as a research tool in developing wood-engraved illustrations. The documentary reality of photography helped illustrators capture current events. During the 1860s and 1870s wood engravings drawn from photographs became prevalent in mass communications (Figs. 9-35 and 9-36). An example is found in the photograph "Freedmen on the Canal Bank at Richmond," attributed to New York photographer Mathew Brady (c. 1823-96). Arriving in Richmond, Virginia, shortly after the evacuation and destruction by fire of most of the business district on 2 April 1865, when the Union forces broke through the Confederate defenses of the city, Brady turned his camera upon a group of former slaves who suddenly found themselves freedmen. A moment in time was preserved; a historical document to help people understand their history was formed with the timeless immediacy of photography. As the means to reproduce this image was not yet available, Scribner's magazine turned to an illustrator to reinvent the image in the language of a wood engraving so that it could be reproduced. Beginning with Talbot, researchers believed a photographic printing plate could print the subtle nuances of tone found in a photograph if a screen changed continuous tones into dots of varying sizes. Tones could then be achieved in spite of the even ink application of the relief press. During the 1850s Talbot experimented with gauze as a way to break up tones. Many individuals worked on the problem and contributed to the evolution of this process. A major breakthrough occurred on 4 March 1880, when the New York Daily Graphic printed the first reproduction of a photograph with a full tonal range in a news- paper (Figs. 9-37 and 9-38). Entitled "A Scene in Shantytown," it was printed from a crude halftone screen invented by Stephen H. Horgan. The screen broke the image into a series of minute dots whose varying sizes created tones. Values from pure white paper to solid black ink were simulated by the amount of ink printed in each area of the image. During the 1880s and 1890s, photomechanical reproduction began to rapidly make obsolete the highly skilled craftsmen who transferred artists' designs to handmade printing plates. Up to a week had been required to prepare a complex wood engraving; the photographic processes reduced the time from art to printing plate to one or two hours, which greatly reduced costs. is the reprographic technique that simulates continuous tone imagery through the use of dots, varying either in size or in spacing, thus generating a gradient-like effect. "Halftone" can also be used to refer specifically to the image that is produced by this process. William Fox Talbot is credited with the idea of halftone printing. In an 1852 patent he suggested using "photographic screens or veils" in connection with a photographic intaglio process (Beginning with Talbot, researchers believed a photographic printing plate could print the suitable nuances of tones found in a photograph if a screen change continuous tones onto dots of varying size. ) Stephen H. Horgan while working for the New York Daily Graphic. The first printed photograph was an image of Steinway Hall in Manhattan published on December 2, 1873. The Graphic then published "the first reproduction of a photograph with a full tonal range in a newspaper" on March 4, 1880 (entitled "A Scene in Shantytown") with a crude halftone screen. The first truly successful commercial method was patented by Frederic Ives of Philadelphia in 1881.[4][6] Although he found a way of breaking up the image into dots of varying sizes, he did not make use of a screen. Georg Meisenbach patented a halftone process in England.He used single lined screens which were turned during exposure to produce cross-lined effects. He was the first to achieve any commercial success with relief halftones. Shortly afterwards, Ives, this time in collaboration with Louis and Max Levy, improved the process further with the invention and commercial production of quality cross-lined screens The relief halftone process proved almost immediately to be a success. The use of halftone blocks in popular journals became regular during the early 1890s

Positive

________- contact Sir John Herschel tackled the problem of photography in addition to duplicating Talbot's results -shared knowledge with with Talbot... adopted this means of fixing the image -reversed image, negative -contact, positive -Herschel named "photography"

Bracket

________- curved or wedge-like connection between the stem and serif of some fonts. (Egyptian font)

Century

"Harper's Weekly's" leading competitors in the magazine field were the "Century" magazine and " Scribner's monthly". all three of these major periodicals for printed by the printing firm of Theodore Low De Vinne. He and his staff keep it quiet, dignified, but rather dry lay out to all three. In "Century" 1) Text was sent in two columns of 10 point type and wood Engravings were dropped in adjacent to appropriate copy 2) Article titles were set in 12 point all capitals and centered above the beginning page of the article. De Vinne was dissatisfied with the tiny modern typefaces first used in this magazine so he commissioned type designer Linn Boyd Benton to cut a black or, more readable face, slightly extended with thicker Center strokes, and short slab serif. Now called ______, this unusual legible style is widely used. 1) large-x height 2) slightly expanded characters have made it very popular for children's reading matter Rising literacy, low-cost production, and growing advertising revenues push the number of newspapers and magazines published in u.s. from 800 to 5000 between 1830 and 1860. 1870s magazines for extensively for General advertising. 1841 Volney Palmer establish predecessor to Modern Advertising agency. Another advertising agents, NW Ayer and Son gave his client open contracts that allow them access to real rates Publications were charging the agencies. she provided Services clients are not equipped to perform and Publishers didn't offer such as copywriting ( he offered copywriting, art Direction, production, and medium selection ).

cylinder

1815 William Cowper obtained patent for printing press using curving stereotyped plates wrapped around a _______. 1) 2,400 impressions per hour 2) could print 1,200 sheets on both sides per hour 1827 Cowper and Ambrose Applegath were commissioned to develop 4 cylinder steam powered press using curved stereotypes plates made rapidly from papier-mache mold. 1) 4,000 sheets per hour, both sides

chromolithography

1850s the word Victorian begin to be used to express a new conscious of the industrial eras Spirit, culture, and moral standards. 1849 Prince Albert conceived the idea of a grand Exhibition with hundreds of exhibitors from all industrial Nations. This became the Great Exhibition Of 1851, an important summation of the progression of the Industrial Revolution and a catalyst for future developments. This event is commonly called The Crystal Palace Exhibition after the 75000 square meter steel-and-glass prefabricated exhibition Hall that remains a landmark in architectural design. Victorian graphic design captured and conveyed the values of the era. sentimentality, nostalgia, and a Canon of idealized beauty were expressed through printed images of children, maidens, puppies, and flowers. Values of Home, religion, and patriotism or symbolize was sentimentality and piety. The production medium for this outpouring of Victorian popular Graphics was ____________, an innovation of the Industrial Revolution at Unleashed a flood of colorful printed images.

Louis Prang, L. Prang and Company, scraps

1860 until 1900 where heydays of Chromolithography. American lithography maintain its German connection during this period. Victorian graphics It's most prolific innovator in _________ _____, a German immigrant to America whose work and influence were international. 1) Master complexity of his father's fabric printing business 2) his knowledge of printing chemistry, color, business management, designing, engraving, and printing was of Great Value when he formed a Chromolithography firm with Julius Mayer. 3) He initially designed and prepared the stones and Mayer did the printing on a single hand press. His colorful work was very popular and the firm grew rapidly. there was 7 presses when Prang bought Mayers share and changed its name to ____________ in 1860. Popular narrative and romantic paintings of Victorian era Was closely linked with graphic illustrations of chromolithographers, Including prang, who often commissioned art and held competitions to acquire subjects for printed images. In addition to Art reproduction and civil war maps and scenes, he produced millions of album cards called _______. Collecting these beautiful art bits was a major Victorian Pastime and Prang's wild flowers, butterflies, children, animals, and birds became ultimate expression of the periods love for sentimentalism, Nostalgia, and Traditional Values. Prang's meticulously true, naturalistic images followed in the tradition of Sharp and Bufford. He has been called the father of the American Christmas card for his pioneering work in Holiday graphics. The earliest Christmas card however is thought to have been in 1843 hand-tinted, dark sepia lithograph by British painter John Callcott Horsley. He published in English Christmas card in 1873 and American Christmas cards the following year. Typical images included Santa Claus, reindeer, and Christmas trees. A full line of design for Easter, birthdays, Valentine, and New Year's Day cards were produced annually by l. Prang & Company during the early 1880s (9.54). 1) Sometimes used as many as 40 stones for one design 2) exceptional quality was achieved by dropping buffords Master black plate in favor of a slow building in tightening of the image through the use of many plates bearing subtle colors album cards evolved into advertising trade cards in 1870s. Prang's distribution of 20 to 30 thousand business cards with floral designs at Vienna International exhibition popularized chromolithographic advertising cards. Sold in bulk, tray cards enable merchants or manufacturers to print in advertising message on the back or in an open area on the front. unable to find high-quality, non-toxic art materials for children, he began to manufacture and distribute watercolor sets and crayons. Finding a complete lack of confident educational materials for teaching industrial artist, fine artist, and children, he devoted his energy to develop and publish art instruction books ("Prang's Chromo" - artist journal and "Modern Art quarterly")

L. Prang and Company

1880 through early 1890s Chromolithographed labels "Prang produced millions of album cards called scrap. Collecting these beautiful art bits was a major Victorian pastime, and Prang's wildflowers, butterflies, children, animals, and birds became the ultimate expression of the period's love for sentimentalism, nostalgia, and traditional values."

Monotype machine, American Type Founders Company (ATF)

1887 Tolbert Lanston invented ______ _______: cast single characters from hot metal It was a decade before it was efficient enough to put into production Since most type was machine set, metal type faced dwindled. Since text type was now machine set, less foundry type was needed. Devastating price wars and cutthroat competition resulted in discounted of 50% + another 10% for cash payment. Consortiums, such as 1892 merger of 14 foundries into ___________ were formed in effort to stabilize the industry by forcing weaker foundries out of business which reduced surplus capacity. Design piracy was rampant. After foundries released new typefaces, competitors electroplated to and then cast and sold types from counterfeit matrixes. By end of century the type-foundry business stabilized. Handset metal typography found smaller but significant niche providing display type for ads and editorial headlines until advent of photography in 1960s.

Victorian Era

A time of strong moral and religious beliefs, proper social conventions, and optimism -reign of Victoria -"God's in his heaven, all's right with the world" -fondness for the Gothic -began to be used to express a new consciousness of the industrial era's spirit, culture, and moral standards -sentimentality, nostalgia, and a canon of idealized beauty were expressed through printed images of children, maidens, puppies, and flowers

Charles Stanhope,

A revolution in printing: Industrial revolution radically altered printing. Inventors applied mechanical theory and metal parts to handpress increasing efficiency and size of impressions. Several improvements to make handpress stronger and more efficient culminated in _______ ______ producing the printing press (9.21) in 1800 was constructed completely of cast-iron. Metal screw mechanism required 1/10th manual force needed to print on wooden press, and Stanhope's press could print a sheet double the size William Bulmer's printing office experimented with Stanhope's prototype and innovations served to improve a partially mechanized handicraft. Next step: convert printing into high speed factory operation. (German) Friedrich koenig, presented plans for steam powered printing press. His press printed 400 sheets per hour (Stanhopes could only do 250 sheets per hour) Koenig's first power press was designed like hand press connected to a steam engine. Its innovations included: 1) a method of inking the type by rollers rather than hand inking balls 2) horizontal movement of type forms in the bed of the machine and movement of tympan and frisket were automated This press was prelude to Koenig's development of stop-cylinder steam-powered press, which operated much faster. In this design: 1) type form was on flat bed, which moved back and forth beneath a cylinder 2) during printing phase the cylinder rotated over the type, carrying the sheet to be printed 3) while cylinder was still, pressman fed a fresh sheet paper onto cylinder John Walter II of "Times" in London commissioned Koenig to build 2 double-cylinder steam powered presses (9.22) 1) were capable of printing 1,100 impressions an hour on sheets of paper 90 cm long and 56 cm wide 2) the steam powered press created immediate savings in composing room, became previously the "Times" had been typesetting a duplicate of each edition so two handpresses could print each page Due to new press the newspaper could reach subscribers several hours earlier

Fourdrinier machine

All across Europe and America books and newspaper printers used steam powered presses. Cowper and Ambrose Applegath press made 23 impressions for every 1 stanhope press and prices ↓ while side of editions ↑. 1830s printing began expansion as newspaper, books, jobbing printers proliferated Value of high speed steam powered printing would have been limited without Nicolas-Louis Robert. He developed prototype for paper making machine. 1803 first production paper machine was operative at Frogmore, England. This machine, similar to Robert's was poured a suspension of fiber and water in thin stream upon vibrating wire-mech conveyor belt on which an unending sheet of paper could be manufactured. Henry and Sealy Fourdriner who invested their fortune financing and promoting what is called the _______ ____ acquired the rights.

Mathew Brady

Before it was possible to print photographs, photography was used as research tool in developing wood engraved illustrations. Documentary reality of Photography helped illustrators capture current events. During 18 60s and 70s wood Engravings drawn from photographs became prevalent in Mass Communications. An example of this: " Friedman On the Canal bank at Richmond" by New York photographer _____ ______. After leaving Richmond Virginia after the destruction by fire of most of the business districts when the UN forces broke through the Confederate defenses of the city, Brady turned his camera Upon A group of former slaves who suddenly found themselves freedmen. A moment in time was preserved, a historical document to help people understand their history was formed with the Timeless immediacy of Photography. As means to reproduce this image was not yet available, "Scribner's" magazine turn to illustrators to reinvent the image in the language of a word engraving so that it could be reproduced.

halftone screen

Beginning with Talbot, researchers believed a photographic printing plate could print the suitable nuances of tones found in a photograph if a screen change continuous tones onto dots of varying size. Tones could then be achieved in spite of the even ink application of the relief press. During 1850s Talbot experienced with gauze as a way to break up tones. Many individuals worked on the problem and contribute to evolution of this process. Major breakthrough though occurred on March 4th 1880 when the "New York daily graphic" printed the first reproduction of a photograph with a fulltone range in a newspaper. " A scene in shantytown" was printed from a crude ______ _____ invented by Stephen H Horgan. The screen broke the image into a series of minute dots whose varying sizes created tones. Values from pure white paper to solid black Ink were stimulated by the amount of ink printed in each area of the image Frederick E Ives: developed early halftone process and worked on first commercial production of halftone printing plates. Sum of all minute dots Produce the illusion of continuous tones. Max & Louie's Levi helped produce consistent commercial halftones using etched glass screens. 1) A ruling machine was used to inscribe parallel lines in a acid resistant coating on optical clear glass. 2) After acid was used to etch the rule two lines onto Glass, indentations were filled with an opaque material. Two sheets of this ruled glass were sandwich together face-to-face with one set of lines running horizontal in the other vertical. The amount of light passing through each little square formed by the line determined how big each dot would be. Halftone images could be made from this screen. The era of photographic reproduction had arrived First photomechanical color illustrations were produced in 1881. time consuming, photomechanical color separation remained experimental until end of the century. During 1880s and 90s photomechanical reproduction begin to rapidly make obsolete the high skilled craftsmen who transferred artist designs to handmade printing plates. Up to the week had been required to prepare a complex wood engraving, photographic process reduce the time from art to printing plates 2 1 or 2 hours which greatly reduced cost

Rotary lithographic press

Boston school of Chromolithography American Chromolithography: began in Boston where Schools of lithographic naturalism pioneered. Richard M Hoe perfected _______ _______ _____, nicknames " the lightning press" because it could print six times as fast as the lithograph flatbed presses. this Innovation proved important boost in lithography's competition with Letterpress. Economical color printing, ranging from art reproduction to advertising graphics poured from the press in millions of Impressions each year. Next major innovator of Chromolithography was John H Bufford: his crayon style images achieved remarkable realism. He often used 5 or more colors and his meticulous tonal drawing of his Black stone always became the master plate. for example original Master tonal drawings was precisely duplicated on lithographic Stone. Then separate stones for prepared to print the fleshtones, red, yellow, blue, and slate gray background. Brown's, grays, and oranges were created when five Stones were over printed in perfect registration. The color range of the relation with separated in component parts and then reassembled and printing. The near photographic lithographic crayon drawing glowed with the bright under printed yellow and reds of the folk costumes Hallmarks of buffered designs for meticulous and convincing tonal drawings and the integration of image and lettering into unified design.

Beauty

Charles Dana Gibson image of a woman and squared jawed men establish to canon of physical ____ in the mass media that endured for decades. Howard Pyle had the broadest influence in his work and as a teacher made him the major force that launched the period called the Golden Age of American Illustrations. 1890s until 1940s this period in history of visual communication America was largely dominated by the illustrator. Impact of Photography, the new communication tool, on graphic illustration can be traced through his career which evolved with the new Production Technologies. At age 34 he received his first commission for a tonal illustration. The new photomechanical halftone process made possible the conversion of the white, black, and Grey in Pyle's oil and gouache painting into minute black dots that were Blended by the human eye to produce the illusion of continuous tone. In addition to this process impact upon engravers, illustrators were faced with the need either to shift from pen and ink art to tonal, painted illustrations or to faced a dwindling market for their work.

external

Defining the medium: During the same decade that inventors were expanding photography's technical boundaries, artist and adventurers were exploring its image-making potential. Photography accurately reflects the _____ World using a precise and repeatable image. However merely isolating a single moment in time was not enough for some 19th century Photographers; they Defined and extended the aesthetic and communicative frontiers of the new material. Early effort to introduce design concerns into photography began May 1843 when David Octavius Hill decided to immortalized the 474 for ministers who withdrew their congregations from Presbyterian Church Informed Free Church of Scotland. He teamed up with photographer Robert Adamson who had made calotypes for about a year. Using his knowledge of portraiture the resulting calotypes were Lauded as Superior to Rembrandt paintings. Together they created landscape photographs that Echo the visual order found in landscape paintings of the period. Julia Margaret Cameron: extended the artistic potential of photography through portraitures that recorded " Faithfully the greatness of the inner man as well as the features of the outerman" Frenchman F. T. Nadar: his portraits of writers, actors, and artists have directly and dignified Simplicity and provided invaluable historical records. 1886 first photographic interview was published in " le journal illustre". Nadar's son Made series of 21 photographs as Nadar interviewed the eminent hundred-year-old scientist Michel Eugene Chevreul.

lithography, Planographic printing, Chromolithographie

Development of Lithography: Lithography was invented by Aloys Senefelder. he was seeking a cheap way to print his own traumatic works by experimenting with edge stone and metal release. He eventually arrived at idea that stone could be etched away around grease-pencil writing in made into relief printing plates. He needs his process __________ ( from Greek "lithos" "stone" and "Graphein" "to write") After experimentation he published his "vollständiges lehrbuch der steindruckerey." In lithographic printing the image to be printed is neither raised, as relief printing, nor incised, as in intaglio printing. Rather formed on flat plane of printing surface. Printed from a flat surface called ________ _______. Lithography is based on the simple chemical principle that oil and water do not mix. And images drawn on a flat stone surface with oil-based crayon, pen, or pencil. Water is spread over the stone to moisten all areas except the oil-based image what repels the water. Then oil-based ink is rolled over the stone, and adhering the image but not to the wet areas of the stone. A sheet of paper is placed over the image and they printed press is used to transfer the ink image onto the paper. In early 1800s, Senefelder began experimenting with multi colors lithography and in 1819 his book predicted that one day the process would be perfected to allow reproduction of paintings. Applying colored to printed images by hand have been a slow and costly process. German printers spearheaded color lithography in the French Godefroy Eagelmann patent a process called ___________. after analyzing color contained within the image, the printer separated them into a series of printed plates and printed these component colors one by one. Frequently one printing plate, often black, establish the image after separate plate printed other colors. Arrival of color printing would soon have fast social and economic ramifications.

Tuscan-style letters

Figgin's 1815 specimen book presented first 19th century version of _____-____ _______ (9.10) Tuscan-style letters characteristics: 1) serifs extend and curve and was put through many different variations often with budges, cavities, and ornaments. It seems English typefounders tried to invent every possible design permutation by modifying forms or proportions and applying decoration to their alphabets. 1815 Figgin showed styles that projected illusion of 3 dimensions and appeared as bulky objects. This was popular (especially in Germany) and began to show perspective clones for every imaginal style. Typefounders varied depth of shading, producing everything from pencil thin shadows to deep perspectives. Because contrivances (perspectives, outline, reversing, expanding, condensing) could multiply each typefaces into kaleidoscope of variations, foundries proliferated fonts with boundless enthusiasm. Mechanization of manufacturing processes during Industrial Revolution made application of decoration more economical and efficient. designers of furniture, household objects, and even typefaces delighted in design intricacy. Pictures, plant motifs, and decorative designs were applied to display letterforms throughout Europe and US.

Industrial Revolution

Graphic Design and the Industrial Revolution ________ ________- occurred first in England between 1760 and 1840 was a radical process of social and economic change. Energy was a major impetus for conversion from agricultural society to industrial. James Watt perfected steam engine (1780s) before that animals and human power were used for sources of energy. During 19th century the amount of energy generated by steam power increased and the last three decades, electricity and gasoline-fueled engine expanded productivity. Factory system with machine manufacturing and divisions of labor was developed. New materials (iron and steel) became available. Cities grew as people moved to work in factories. Political power shifted from aristocracy to capitalist manufacturers, merchants, and working class. Growing scientific knowledge grew and applied to manufacturing process and materials. People's sense of dominion over nature and faith in the ability to exploit the Earth's resources for materials needs created a heady confidence. 1) In West, capitalist replaced landowner as most powerful force 2) Investment in machines for mass manufacture became basis for change in industry 3) demand from rapid growing urban population with buying power simulated technological improvements. Thus enabled mass production (↑ availability and ↓ cost) 4) Cheaper/abundant merchandise stimulated mass market and greater demand. Supply-and-demand cycle became force behind relentless industrial development, graphics played important role in marketing factory output.

walter crane

Images for children: Before Victorian era, Western countries had a tendency to treat children as little adults. Victorians developed a more tender attitude in this expression through development of toy books, colorful picture books for preschool children. English artist produced books that were well-designed Illustrated with a restraint use of color established an approach to Children's Graphics that is still used today. _____ _______: One of the earliest and most influential designers of children's books (9.65). 1) apprenticed wood engraver 2) "Railroad alphabet" published at age 20 Long series of his toy books broke with the traditions of printed material for children. Early graphics for children insisted on didactic or moral purposes and always taught or preach to the young, crane only to entertain. He's one of the earliest Western graphic designers to be significantly influenced by the Japanese woodblock. After acquiring some Japanese prints he drew inspiration from the flat colors and flowing Contours. His unprecedented designs prompted numerous commissions for tapestries, stained glass windows, wallpaper, and fabric. He remained active and two 20th century and played an important role in the Arts and Crafts movement and had significant impact on Art and Design in education

Eadweard Muybridge

In addition to providing images of exotic, far off scenes, Technical Innovations in photography help popularized the median. Stereoscopic images viewed through stereoscopes were created by using special cameras with two lens that attempted to recreate human Vision. The resulting stereocards feature two images that give the effect of three-dimensional depth on two dimensional cards. A popular Victorian parlor activity, stereo cards became highly collectible especially in the US. _______ _______: Lives in San Francisco and Photographed Yosemite, Alaska, and Central America. He was commissioned by Leland Stanford to document his belief that a Trotting Horse lifted all four legs off the ground simultaneously, a $25,000 wager rested on the outcome. While working on the problem he became interested in photographing a horse's stride at regular intervals. Success came in 1877 and 1878 when a battery of 24 cameras facing an intense white background in dazzling California light was equipped with rapid drop shutters that were slam down by Springs and rubber bands as a Trotting Horse broke threads attached to the shutters. the resulting sequence of photographs arrested the horses momentum and time and space and Stanford won the bet (9.46). Innovation of kinetic medium of changing light passing through a series of still photographs joined together by human eye through the persistence of vision was a logical extension of Muybridge's innovation Innovations in photography Photography was becoming an increasingly important reproduction tool by 20th century. New technologies radically altered existing ones in both printing techniques an illustration change dramatically. As photo mechanical reproduction replaced handmade plates, illustrators came and you freedom of expression. Photography gradually monopolized factual Documentation and pushed Illustrated towards fantasy and fiction. Textectural and tonal properties of halftone images change visual appearance of printed page

fat faces, robert Thorne, William Caslon IV, Vincent Figgins

Innovations in typography Before 19th c: dissemination of info through books and broadsheets was dominant function. Faster pace and mass-communication needs of increasingly urban and industrialized society produced rapid expansion of jobbing printers, advertising, and posters. No longer enough for 26 letters to function as phonetic symbols. Industrial age transformed them into abstract visual forms projecting concrete shapes of strong contrast and large size. Letterpress printers faced competitive pressure from lithographic printers, whose skilled craftsmen rendered plates directly from artists sketches and craftsmen images and letterforms limited only by artist's imagination. Letterpress printers turned to typefounders to expand their design possibilities. early 19th c saw outpouring of new type designs. England played pivotal role in development; major design innovations were achieved by London typefounders. Thomas Cotterell: began trend of sand-casting large, bold display letters Other founders designed and cast fatter letters and type design grew bolder the invention of fat face, a major category of type design innovated by ______ _______ (9.3). 9.3: 1821 publication of "New Specimen of Printing Type, Late R. Thorne's" thought that Thorne designed first fat faces ____ _____: typestyle is a roman face whose contrast and weight have been increased by expanding the thickness of heavy strokes. The stroke width has ration 1:2:5 or 1:2 to capital height. Thorne's Fann Street Foundry was competitive with... ______ ________ ___ and _______ _______ When Thorne's died William Throrowgood (used lottery winnings to buy Thorne's foundry at an auction) published the 132 page book of specimens that had been typeset and was ready to print when Thorne died.

Harpers

James (1795-1869) and John (1797-1875) Harper used modest savings—and their father's offer to mortgage the family farm if necessary—to launch a New York printing firm in 1817.9-68 Their younger brothers Wesley (1801-70) and Fletcher (1807- 77) joined the firm in 1823 and 1825, respectively. Eighteen-year-old Fletcher Harper became the firm's editor when he became a partner, and the company's own publishing ventures grew dramatically over the decades. By midcentury, Harper and Brothers had become the largest printing and publishing firm in the world. In the role of senior editor and manager of publishing activities, Fletcher Harper shaped graphic communications in America for half a century. The firm opened the era of the pictorial magazine in 1850 when the 144-page Harper's New Monthly Magazine (Fig. 9-69) began publication with serialized English fiction and numerous woodcut illustrations created for each issue by the art staff. The monthly magazine was joined by Harper's Weekly, a periodical that functioned as a newsmagazine, in 1857. Harper's Bazar [sic] for women was founded in 1867, and Harper's Young People addressed the youth audience in 1879. Harper's Weekly billed itself as "a journal of civilization" and developed an elaborate division of shop labor for the rapid production of woodblocks for printing cartoons and graphic reportage (Fig. 9-70) based on drawings from artist/correspondents, including Thomas Nast (1840-1902). James and John harper used modest savings and their fathers offer to mortgage the Family Farm if necessary to launch a New York printing for him in 1817. Their younger brothers Wesley and Fletcher join the firm in 1823 and 1825. 18 year old Fletcher Harper became the firm's editor when he became a partner and the company's own publishing ventures grew over the decades. By mid-century, Harper and brothers had become the largest Printing and Publishing firm in the world. In the role of senior editor and manager of the publishing activities, Fletcher Harper shaped graphic Communications in America for half a century

Robert Thorne

Other founders designed and cast fatter letters, and type grew steadily bolder. This led to the invention of fat faces (Fig. 9-3), a major category of type design innovated by Cotterell's pupil and successor, Robert Thorne (d. 1820), possibly around 1803. A fat-face typestyle is a roman face whose contrast and weight have been increased by expanding the thickness of the heavy strokes. The stroke width has a ratio of 1:2.5 or even 1:2 to the capital height. These excessively bold fonts were only the beginning, as Thorne's Fann Street Foundry began an active competition with William Caslon IV (1781-1869) and Vincent Figgins (1766-1844). Invented fat face 1) bracketing (slight slope)

decreased

Social cost of Industrial Revolution: Workers traded poor fields for urban factories worked 13 hours a day for little wages in lived in squalid, unsanitary tenements The huge workforce of Men, women, and children often suffered from shutdowns by overproduction, depressions, economic panics, business and bank failures, and loss of jobs to newer technological improvements 19th century: growth of a middle class Greater human equality sprang from American and French revolution and led to increased public education and literacy. Graphic communications became more important and widely accessible during this period. Technology lowered unit costs and increased production of printed materials. Thus, greater availability created more demand and era of mass communication dawned. Handicrafts _______: Earlier printer was involved in all aspects of his craft (typeface design to page layout to actual printing). In 19th c, the specialization of factory system fractured graphic communications into separate design and production components. 1) range of typographic sizes and letterform styles increased 2) invention of photography expanded meaning of visual documentation and pictorial information. 3) use of color lithography passed the aesthetic experience of colorful images from privileged to whole of society

wood engraving

The application of photography to printing: beginning in 1840, Rising employment of ______ _______ that started with Thomas Bewick Foster an effective use of images in editorial and advertising communication. Because wood engraving blocks for type high and could be locked onto a Letterpress printed with type while copper plates and steel Engravings or lithographs had to be printed as a separate press run, wooden engravings dominated books, magazines, and newspaper illustrations. Preparation of wood engraved printing blocks were costly and numerous inventors and Tinkers continue the search begun by Niepice To find economical and reliable photoengraved process for preparing printing plates. Once a patent became a matter of Rex competitors searched for a loophole to circumvent the inventors legal rights making the identification of many inventors difficult. 1871 John Calvin Moss of New York Pioneer pioneered commercially feasible photoengraving method for translating line artwork in into metal letterpress plates. Negative of original illustration was made on a copy camera suspended from the ceiling by a rope to prevent vibration. 1) In highly secret process, a negative of original art was contact printed to a metal plate coated with a light-sensitive gelatin emulsion and then etched with acid. 2) Tools for refinement, the metal plate was mounted on a type high block of wood. The gradual implications of photoengraving cut the cost and time required to produce printing blocks and achieved greater Fidelity to the original

Kodak camera

The clarity of Daguerreotype was superior to the softness of calotype images. To make a positive calotype print, a sheet of light sensitive paper was lightly sandwich underneath the calotype negative and placed in bright sunlight. Because the Sun's rays were diffused by the fibers of paper negative, the positive print was slightly blurred. But because negative could be exposed to other light sensitive materials to make unlimited number of prints and could later be enlarged, reduced, and used to make photo-process printing plates, Talbot's invention radically altered course of photography and graphic design. Dagurrer's process was dominant because Talbot's potpourri of exclusive patents slowed spread of his method. The softness of calotypes was not without character, having textural quality similar to charcoal drawing, a search began for suitable vehicle to adhere light-sensitive material to glass so extremely detailed negatives and positive lantern slides could be made. A wet-plate process was announced by Fredrick Archer. By candlelight in darkroom, a clear viscous liquid called collodion was sensitized with iodine compounds, poured over glass plate, immersed in silver nitrate bath and exposed and developed in camera while still wet. Photographers throughout the world adopted archers process. Because he did not patent his process and it enable much shorter exposure time either than Daguerreotype or calotypes, it almost completely replaced them by mid-1850s. American Dry plate manufacturer, George Eastman put power of photography into hands of public by introducing _____ _____ 1888. 1) ordinary citizens now had ability to create images and keep graphic record of their lives and experience

Joseph Niepce, Heliogravure

The inventors of photography: Photography and graphic communication have been closely linked beginning with the first experiments to capture an image of nature with a camera ____ ____: A Frenchman who produced a photographic image, began his research by seeking an automatic means of transferring drawings onto printed plates. As a lithographic printer of popular religious images, he searched for a way to make plates other than by drawing them. 1822, he coated a pewter sheet with a light-sensitive asphalt called bitumen of Judea, which hardens when exposed to light. He the contact printed a drawing which had been oiled to make it transparent to the pewter with sunlight. Niepce Wash the pewter plate with lavender oil to remove the parts not hardened by light, then he etched it with acid to make an incision copy of the original. He called this invention _______ (sun engraving). 1826 he expanded his Discovery by putting one of his pewter plates in the back of this camera obscura and pointed out the window. This allows him to make a picture directly from nature, the earliest extant photograph is a pewter sheet that he exposed all day (9.27). When he removed it from the camera obscura and washed it with lavender oil, a hazy image of the sunlit buildings outside his work room window was captured . He continue his research with light sensitive materials including silver-coated copper.

Ottmar Mergenthaler, Linotype machine

The mechanization of typography Setting type by hand and then redistributing it into job case remained slow and costly process. By mid 19th c, press could produce 25,000 copies per hour but each letter in every word had to be set by hand. Experiments were made to work perfect machine to compose type and first patent for composing machine was registered in 1825. By time ______ _______ perfected his ______ ______, 330 machines had been patented in Europe and America and thousands patent claims were on file. Before Linotype machine, high cost and slow pace of composition limited largest daily newspapers to 8 pages and books remained fairly precious. Mergenthaler (German) 1) July 3, 1886 demonstrated keyboard-operated machine (9.23) Many earlier inventors tried to make machine that compose metal type mechanically by automating the traditional typecase. Others tried a typewriter affair that pressed letters into papier-mache mold or attempted to transfer lithographic images onto metal relief. Mergenthaler's breakthrough (9.24) involved the use of small brass matrixes with female impressions of the letter forms, numbers, and symbols. Each time operator pressed a key, a matrix for character was released. it slide down a chute and was automatically lined up with other character in that line. Melted lead was poured into line of matrixes to cast a slug bearing the raised line of type. 1) could be do the work of 7 or 8 compositors This lead to strikes and violence threatened many installations. 2) caused explosion of graphic material, creating thousands of new jobs 3) price of newspaper went from 3 cents to 1 or 2. 4) book publishing expanded rapidly (fiction, biographies, technical books, histories, educational text, classical literature) Linotypes led to surge in production of periodicals, and illustrated weeklies like "Saturday Evening Post" and "Collier's"

James, John Harper, Harper's New Monthly Magazine, Harper's Weekly, Thomas Nast

The rise of American editorial and advertising design: _______ and _______ ______: Used modest savings and their fathers offer to mortgage the Family Farm if necessary to launch a New York printing for him in 1817. Their younger brothers Wesley and Fletcher join the firm in 1823 and 1825. 18 year old Fletcher Harper became the firm's editor when he became a partner and the company's own publishing ventures grew over the decades. By mid-century, Harper and brothers had become the largest Printing and Publishing firm in the world. In the role of senior editor and manager of the publishing activities, Fletcher Harper shaped graphic Communications in America for half a century Innovative book design was not concerned for most publishing firms in America and Europe. With rapid expansion of reading public and economies resulting from new technologies, Publishers focused on large press runs in modest prices. Modern style fonts often second rate Derivatives of bodoni and Didot designs were composed in workday page layouts. The firm opened the era of pictorial magazine in 1850 when the 144 page "________________" begun publication with serialized English fiction in numerous woodcut illustrations created for each issue by the art staff. The monthly magazine was joined by "_______" a periodic that functioned as a news magazine, in 1857. " Harper's Bazaar" for women and " Harper's Weekly" build itself as a journal of civilization developed an elaborate division of shop labor for the rapid production of wood blocks for printing cartoons and graphic reportage based on drawings from artistic/correspondent, including _______ ______.

Sans-serif type, William Caslon IV

Third major typographic innovation of early 1800s ____-____ ____: in 1816 specimen book issued by ______ ______ ____ 1) one line of medium weight serifless capitals proclaimed " W Caslon Junr Letter Founder" (9.17) a) closely resembles Egyptian face with serifs removed b) name Caslon adopted for this style- 2 line English Egyptian- supports theory it origins in Egyptian type (English denoted type size roughly = to 14 point, thus 2 lines English indicated display type of about 28 points) San Serifs: 1) early sans serfs used primary for subtitles and descriptive materials under excessively bold fat faces and Egyptian. 2) little noticed until 1830s, when several typefounders introduced new sans-serifs styles a) each designer and foundry attached name: Caslon used Doric Thorowgood called his grotesques Blake and Stephenson named theirs sans-surryphs In U.S, Boston Type and Stereotype Foundry named first American sans-serif faces Gothics Figgins 1832 specimen sheet named his sans serifs and the name stuck (9.18) 3) Germans had strong interest in sans serifs and Schelter & Giesecke foundry issued first sans-serifs with lowercase alphabet. 4) mid century increased in use

ornament

Victorian typography: Victorian era progressed the taste for _____ elaboration became a major influence on typeface and lettering design. Early 19th century elaborate type were based on letterforms with traditional structure. Shadows, outlines, and embellishments were applied while retaining the classical letter structure. Second half of century, advances in industrial technology permitted metal type foundries to push elaboration including the fans for Distortion of basic letter forms to an extreme degree. To produce more intricate types, punch Cutters cut their designs and soft metal and then electroplated them to make a harder punch able to stamp the design onto a brass Matrix. Chromo lithography was its uninhabited lettering was a major source of inspiration for foundries and letterpress Printers seeking to maintain their share of fiercely competitive graphic art industry. Outlandish in fantasy lettering enjoyed great popularity and many trademarks of the era reflect the Victorian love for ornamental complexity. Typography purist view type designs of Ihlenburg, Cumming and their contemporaries as aberrations in the evolution of typography, a commercial Venture intended to give Advertisers novel visual Expressions to Garner attention to their message while providing foundries with a consistent theme of original need typefaces to sell to printers. Victorian era popular graphic stem from its prevailing attitudes and sensibilities. Many Victorian design conventions could still be found in early Decades of the twentieth century particularly in commercial promotion.

wood types, compositor

Wood-type poster: In casting it was difficult to keep metal in liquid state while pouring and uneven cooling often created concave printing surfaces. Many printers found large metal types to be prohibitively expansive, brittle, and heavy. American, Darius Wells began to experiment with hand-carved wooden types and 1827 invented lateral router that enabled economical mass manufacturing of wood types for display printing. 1) durable, light, less expensive than metal types 2) wooden types overcame printer's initial objections and had impact on poster and broadsheet design March 1828 Wells launched wood-type industry with his first specimen sheet. After William Leavenworth combined pantograph with router, a new wood-type fonts could be introduced so easily that customers were invited to send a drawing of one letter of a new style, manufactory offered to design and produced an entire font based on sketch without additional charge for design and pattern drafting. This new display typography and increasing demand for public posters by clients led to poster houses specializing in letterpress display material. 18th c, job printing had been sideline of newspaper and book printers. 1) design of handbills, wood type posters, broadsheets did not involve graphic designers _________, often in consultation with the client, selected and composed the type, rules, ornaments, and wood-engraved or metal-stereotyped stock illustration that filled the typecases. Designer had access to large range of typographic sizes, styles, weights, and novel ornamental effects, and the prevailing design philosophy often encouraged eclectic style. They locked all elements tightly on press enforced on horizontal and vertical stress on the design (basic organizing principle). Design decisions were pragmatic. 1) Long words or copy dictated condense types, short words or copy were set in expanded fonts. 2) Important words given emphasis through use of largest available type sizes There was practical side to extensive mixing of styles because many fonts, each having limited number of characters, were available at typical print shop. Wood and metal types were used together freely. Typographic poster houses (with wood type) declined in 1870 as improvements in lithographic printing resulted in more pictorial and colorful posters Importance of traveling entertainment shows (a mainstay client of poster houses) declined. Growth of magazines and newspapers with space for advertising and legislative restrictions on posting began to shift commercial communication away from posted notices.

William Henry Fox Talbot, Photograms, negative, positive, The Pencil of Nature

_____ ______ _____ ______: Pioneered a process that formed the basis for both photography and photographic printing plates. He began by doing a series of experience with paper treated with silver compounds, chosen because he knew silver nitrate was sensitive to light. In his early exploration he floated paper in a weak brine solution, let it dry, and then treated it with a strong solution of silver nitrate to form an insoluble light-sensitive silver chloride compound in the paper. When he held a piece of lace or a leaf tight against the paper with a panel of glass and exposed it in sunlight, the paper around the object slowly darken. Washing this image with a salt solution or potassium iodide would fix it somewhat by making the unexposed silver compounds insensitive to light. He called these images made without a camera photogenic drawings, today we call images made by manipulating with objects the light strikes photographic paper ________. During his 1835 Experiments he began to use his treated paper in a camera obscura to create minute Photographic images that rendered light areas dark and dark areas light. These images were mirror images of nature. Sir John Herschel after hearing of Talbot and Daguerre Tackle the problem of Photography. In addition to replicating Talbot's results, He was the first sodium Thiosulfate To fix or make permit the image by halting the action of light. February 1st 1839 he shared this knowledge with Talbot. Talbot and Daguerre adopted this mean of fixing the image. During that month Talbot Reverse image by contact printing reverse image to another sheet of his sensitized paper in sunlight. Herschel name the reverse image of a ______ and call the contact a _____. these terms and Herschel's later name for Talbot's invention, photography (from the Greek photos graphos meaning " light drawing") Late 1840s Talbot managed to increase light sensitivity of his paper, exposed a latent image, then developed it after it was removed from camera. He called this process calotype (from Greek kalos typos, meaning "beautiful impression") and used the name talbotype at suggestion of friends. 1844 he began publishing his book ____ _____ __ _____" in installments for subscribers (9.32). Each copy featured 24 photographs mounted by handIn foreword Talbot expressed desire to present "some of the beginnings of new art". At 1st volume illustrated completely with photographs.

Rotary lithographic press

_____- Richard Hoe -"the lightning press" because it could print six times as fast as the lithographic flatbed presses then in use

Eadweard Muybridge

_____- Leland Stanford, a former governor of California and the president of the Central Pacific Railroad, commissioned Muybridge to document his belief that a trotting horse lifted all four feet off the ground simultaneously; a twenty-five-thousand-dollar wager rested on the outcome. While working on the problem, Muybridge became interested in photographing a horse's stride at regular intervals. Success came in 1877 and 1878, when a battery of twenty-four cameras—facing an intense white background in the dazzling California sunlight—was equipped with rapid drop shutters that were slammed down by springs and rubber bands as a trotting horse broke threads attached to the shutters. The resulting sequence of photographs arrested the horse's movement in time and space, and Stanford, a breeder and racer of trotters, won the bet (Fig. 9-46). The development of motion-picture photography, the kinetic medium of changing light passing through a series of still photographs joined together by the human eye through the persistence of vision, was the logical extension of Muybridge's innovation. 9.46 motion, forerunner of motion pictures Persistence of vision: the retention of a visual image for a short duration of time after you don't see the image any more and when done in secession it creates the illusion of movement "persistence of vision" this man engaged in a debate, when a horse ran - at any time were the horses feet all off the ground? • Took a succession of images • How can we use these still images together to suggest movement • 1879 "zoopraxiscope" - put in a player that spins it, horse/figure seems to jump • This was a prerequisite for movies

Lithography

_____- Lithography was invented by Bavarian author Aloys Senefelder (1771-1834) between 1796 and 1798. Senefelder was seeking a cheap way to print his own dramatic works by experimenting with etched stones and metal reliefs. He eventually arrived at the idea that a stone could be etched away around grease- pencil writing and made into a relief printing plate. Senefelder named his process lithography (from the Greek lithos, "stone," and graphein, "to write"). In lithographic printing the image to be printed is neither raised, as in relief printing, nor incised, as in intaglio printing. Rather, it is formed on the flat plane of the printing surface. Printing from a flat surface is called planographic printing. After analyzing the colors contained within the original image, the printer separated them into a series of printing plates and printed these component colors, one by one. Frequently, one printing plate (often black) established the image after separate plates printed other colors. The arrival of color printing would soon have vast social and economic ramifications. American chromolithography began in Boston, where several outstanding practitioners pioneered a school of lithographic naturalism. They achieved technical perfection and imagery of compelling realism. The next major innovator of chromolithography in Boston was John H. Bufford (d. 1870), a masterly draftsman whose crayon-style images achieved a remarkable realism. After training in Boston and working in New York, Bufford returned to Boston in 1840. Specializing in art prints, posters, covers, and book and magazine illustrations, Bufford often used five or more colors. The meticulous tonal drawing of his black stone always became the master plate. For an edition such as the c. 1867 "Swedish Song Quartett" [sic] poster (Fig. 9-52) for example, the original master tonal drawing was precisely duplicated on a lithographic stone. Then, separate stones were prepared to print the flesh tones, red, yellow, blue, and the slate-gray background. Browns, grays, and oranges were created when these five stones were overprinted in perfect registration. The color range of the original was separated in component parts and then reassembled in printing. The near- photographic lithographic crayon drawing glowed with the bright underprinted yellows and reds of the folk costumes. In 1864, Bufford's sons entered his firm as partners. The senior Bufford maintained artistic direction responsibilities until his death in 1870. Hallmarks of Bufford designs were meticulous and convincing tonal drawing and the integration of image and lettering into a unified design. drawing on varian stone (limestone) with pencils or washes that contains grease. Then treat stone with mixture of nitrogen acid and water and gum Arabic. It accepts ink the areas you drew and must keep stone damp. Started out as way to reproduce drawings. Invented by Alois Senefelder -experimenting with etched stones and metal reliefs -based on the simple chemical principle that water and oil do not mix -idea that stone could be etched away around grease pencil writing and made into a relief printing plate -neither raised or incised... formed on the flat plane of a printing surface... planographic printing 1. Use a limestone block with a smooth surface 2. The image is drawn on the stone with an oily crayon 3. A mixture of acid and gum Arabic are applied to the stone 4. Water is then applied to the stone, soaking into the stone in areas not protects by the oily crayon drawing 5. Ink is rolled onto the stone, which only sticks to the areas with the drawing (not to the wet areas) 6. A piece of paper is placed on the block and rolled through a press

Linotype machine

_____- Setting type by hand and then redistributing it into the jobcase remained a slow and costly process. By the middle of the nineteenth century, presses could produce twenty-five thousand copies per hour, but each letter in every word in.every book, newspaper, and magazine had to be set by hand. Dozens of experimenters worked to perfect a machine to compose type, and the first patent for a composing machine was registered in 1825. By the time Ottmar Mergenthaler (1854-99) perfected his Linotype machine in 1886, about three hundred machines had been patented in Europe and America, and several thousand patent claims were on file. Many people, including the writer Mark Twain, invested millions of dollars in the search for automatic typesetting. Before the Linotype was invented, the high cost and slow pace of composition limited even the largest daily newspapers to eight pages, and books remained fairly precious. Mergenthaler's brilliant breakthrough (Fig. 9-24) involved the use of small brass matrixes with female impressions of the letterforms, numbers, and symbols. Ninety typewriter keys controlled vertical tubes that were filled with these matrixes. Each time the operator pressed a key, a matrix for that character was released. It slid down a chute and was automatically lined up with the other characters in that line. Melted lead was poured into the line of matrixes to cast a slug bearing the raised line of type. (9.24) not completely automatic, it produces an entire line of metal type all at once. Revolutioned type setting and newspapers. Created by Ottmar Mergenthaler -received name from enthusiastic reaction -involved the use of small brass matrixes with female impressions of the letterforms, numbers and symbols -led in a surge in the production of periodicals and printed weeklies -workhorse of typesetting with keyboards and matrixes available in over a thousand languages, faster than 7 or 8 hand compositors

Camera obscura

_____- The concept behind the device used for making images by photochemical processes, the camera obscura (Latin for "dark chamber"), was known in the ancient world as early as the time of Aristotle in the fourth century bce. A camera obscura is a darkened room or box with a small opening or lens in one side. Light rays passing through this aperture are projected onto the opposite side and form a picture of the bright objects outside. Artists have used a camera obscura as an aid to drawing for centuries. Around 1665, small, portable, boxlike camera obscuras were developed (Fig. 9-25). The only additional element needed to "fix" or make permanent the image projected into a camera obscura was a light-sensitive material capable of capturing this image. darkened box with a convex lens or aperture for projecting the image of an external object onto a screen inside. It is important historically in the development of photography. The image project is reversed. Lead to photographer

Compositor

_____- a person who arranges type for printing or keys text into a composing machine. ____ often in consultation with the client, selected and composed the type, rules, ornaments, and wood-engraved or metal-stereotyped stock illustration that filled the typecases.

Ottmar Mergenthaler

_____- invented linotype

Mathew Brady

_____- photographer who took photos during civil war 9.43 Timothy O'Sulliven

Louis-Jacques Daguerre, Daguerreotype

_____-____ _______: theatrical performer and painter who participated in invention of the diorama. He persevered and on January 7th 1839 he perfected process was presented to the French Academy of Sciences. members marveled at the clarity in minute detail of his ___________ print and the credible accuracy of the images. And he's perfected process, a highly polished silver plated copper sheet was sensitized By placing it, Silverside down, over a container of iodine crystals. After the rising iodine vapor combined with the silver to produce light-sensitive silver iodide, the plate was placed in the camera and exposed to light coming through the lenses, to produce a latent image. The exposed plate over a dish of heated Mercury form the visible image. After Mercury Vapors formed alloyed with the exposed areas of silver, unexposed silver iodide was removed, and the image was fixed with a salt bath. Bare metal appears black in areas where no light had Struck it. Luminous, vibrant image was a base relief of mercury and silver compounds that vary in intensity in direct proportion to the amount of light that had struck the plate during exposure. Daguerreotype Had limitations. 1) for each plate was a one-of-a-kind image of predetermined size and process required meticulous polishing, sensitizing, and development 2) Polish surface had tendency to produce glare and unless it was viewed at just the right angle the image had a curious habit of reversing itself and appearing as a negative

Randolph Caldecott

______ _______: Had passion for drawing and took Evening lessons in painting, sketching, in modeling. Steady stream of freelance assignments encouraged him to move to London and turn professional at the age of 26. He possessed and unique sense of absurd and his ability to exaggerated movement and facial expressions of both people and animals brought his work to life. He created a world where dishes and plates were personified, cats make music, children are at the center society, and adults became servants. His humorous drawing style became a prototype for children's books and later for animated films. ABC block games were also prevalent during the Victorian period, and retain the charm of a bygone era.

Harper's Weekly

______ a periodic that functioned as a news magazine, in 1857. Build itself as a journal of civilization developed an elaborate division of shop labor for the rapid production of wood blocks for printing cartoons and graphic reportage based on drawings from artistic/correspondent Full page illustrations on covers

Monotype machine

______- Consists of a keyboard and casting machine Invented by Tolbert Lanston -cast single letters from hot metal -not too efficient, found niche as display typed in advertising and editorial headlines

William Caslon IV

______- William Caslon was the grandfather of this revolution (Fig. 9-1). His heirs, along with two of his former apprentices, Joseph Jackson (1733-92) and Thomas Cotterell (d. 1785), who had been dismissed for leading a workers' revolt, became successful type designers and founders in their own right. 9.18 shows first san serif Third major typographic innovation of the 18oo's -issued by William Caslon -origins in egyptian style, serif less, dubbed by Figgins

Walter Crane

______- Before the Victorian era, Western countries had a tendency to treat children as little adults. The Victorians developed a more tender attitude, and this was expressed through the development of toy books, colorful picture books for preschool children. Several English artists produced books that were well designed and illustrated, with a restrained use of color, establishing an approach to children's graphics that is still in use today. Walter Crane (1845-1915) was one of the earliest and the most influential designers of children's picture books (Fig. 9-65). Apprenticed as a wood engraver as a teenager, Crane was twenty years old in 1865 when his Railroad Alphabet was published. A long series of his toy books broke with the traditions of printed material for children. Earlier graphics for children insisted on a didactic or moral purpose, and always taught or preached to the young; Crane sought only to entertain. He was one of the earliest Western graphic designers to be significantly influenced by the Japanese woodblock. After acquiring some Japanese prints from a British sailor in the late 1860s, Crane drew inspiration from the flat color and flowing contours. His unprecedented designs prompted numerous commissions for tapestries, stained-glass windows, wallpaper, and fabrics. Crane remained active into the twentieth century. He played an important role in the Arts and Crafts movement, discussed in chapter 10, and had a significant impact on art and design education. wrote children book 9.65 "Absurd ABC" -taught ABC His style: Linear, and washes/ water color

Louis-Jacques Daguerre

______- Daguerre had been conducting similar research, Niépce warmed to him, and they shared ideas until Niépce died of a stroke in 1833. Daguerre persevered, and on 7 January 1839 his perfected process was presented to the French Academy of Sciences. The members marveled at the clarity and minute detail of his daguerreotype prints and the incredible accuracy of the images. In his perfected process, a highly polished silver-plated copper sheet was sensitized by placing it, silver side down, over a container of iodine crystals. After the rising iodine vapor combined with the silver to produce light- sensitive silver iodide, the plate was placed in the camera and exposed to light coming through the lens, to produce a latent image. Placing the exposed plate over a dish of heated mercury formed the visible image. After the mercury vapors formed an alloy with the exposed areas of silver, the unexposed silver iodide was removed, and the image was fixed with a salt bath. The bare metal appeared black in areas where no light had struck it. The luminous, vibrant image was a base relief of mercury and silver compounds that varied in intensity in direct proportion to the amount of light that had struck the plate during exposure. In one giant leap, the technology for making pictures by machine was realized. The man getting his shoes shined was the only thing exposed due to the long shutter speeds in Daugerotypes. invented a positive method of photography took long exposure time (on metal) They would coat wet plates in the dark then slide it into the camera and then expose it to light (wet plate, one of a kind) 1) polish a (copper with silver) metal plate 2) and put on iodide and then placed in camera obscura 3) and given time to expose 4) when taken out of camera in darken room you see nothing on the plate 5) It is put in container with mercury and heat mercury, the fumes bring out the image positive image People of all times could afford to have their photo taken

Clarendon typeface

______- In 1845 William Thorowgood and Company copyrighted a modified Egyptian called Clarendon (Fig. 9-8). Similar to the Ionics, these letterforms were condensed Egyptians with stronger contrasts between thick and thin strokes and somewhat lighter serifs. modified slab serif 1) little curve on slabs 2) ear on g 3) vertical stress 4) very little thick and thin strokes 5) thick, horizontal serifs Copyrighted by William Thorowgood and Company -condensed egyptians with stronger contrasts between thick and thin strokes and somewhat lighter serifs

Wood type

______- Many printers found large metal types to be prohibitively expensive, brittle, and heavy. An American printer named Darius Wells (1800-75) began to experiment with hand-carved wooden types and in 1827 invented a lateral router that enabled the economical mass manufacture of wood types for display printing. Durable, light, and less than half as expensive as large metal types, wood type rapidly overcame printers' initial objections and had a significant impact on poster and broadsheet design. Beginning in March 1828, when Wells launched the wood-type industry with his first specimen sheets, American wood-type manufacturers imported typeface designs from Europe and exported wood type. Soon, however, wood-type manufactories sprang up in Europe, and by midcentury American firms were creating innovative decorative alphabets of their own. Although designers were limited by the vertical horizontal nature of the printing press and the fact that objects usually could not overlap, a lot of vitality can be seen in the use of sans serif fonts. Darius Wells -lateral router enabled the economical mass manufacture of wood types for display printing -durable, light, less than half as expensive as large metal types -has significant impact on posters and broadsheets design

Harper's New Monthly Magazine

______- begun publication with serialized English fiction in numerous woodcut illustrations created for each issue by the art staff. monthly magazine of literature, politics, culture, finance, and the arts. Use of engraving for illustrations

Fourdrinier machine

______- designed to print large and long sheets of paper (paper making in rolls) These rolls of paper could be feed through presses Created by Henry and Sealy Fourdrinier -first productive paper machine... gave the world economic and abundant paper and put themselves in financial hardship in the process

Randolph Caldecott

_______- As a bank clerk in his twenties, Randolph Caldecott (1846-86) developed a passion for drawing and took evening lessons in painting, sketching, and modeling. He possessed a unique sense of the absurd, and his ability to exaggerate movement and facial expressions of both people and animals brought his work to life. Caldecott created a world where dishes and plates are personified, cats make music, children are at the center of society, and adults become servants. His humorous drawing style became a prototype for children's books and later for animated films Named after Randolph Caldecott, a 19th-century British illustrator renowned for his pen and ink drawings that accompanied early children's books, the annual Caldecott Medal recognizes "the year's most distinguished American picture book for children." It's been given out since 1937 and is basically the Oscars of illustrated kid's books. Did childern books Possessed a unique sense of the absurd, and his ability to exaggerate movement and facial expressions of both people and animals brought his work to life -humorous drawing style became a prototype for children's books and later for animated films

Scrap

_______- In addition to art reproductions and Civil War maps and scenes, Prang produced literally millions of album cards called scrap . Collecting these "beautiful art bits" was a major Victorian pastime, and Prang's wildflowers, butterflies, children, animals, and birds became the ultimate expression of the period's love for sentimentalism, nostalgia, and traditional values. Victorian era collected poster cards, posters stylized images of wild flowers, children, butterflies, animals, birds Shows Victorian values of nostalgia and tradition -banners Printing on tin products and labels Prang -Album cards, collecting these was a Victorian past time -"beautiful art bits"... wildflowers, butterflies, children, animals, and birds became the ultimate expression of the period's love for sentimentalism, nostalgia, and traditional values

Joseph Niepce

_______- Joseph Niépce (1765-1833), the Frenchman who first produced a photographic image, began his research by seeking an automatic means of transferring drawings onto printing plates. As a lithographic printer of popular religious images, Niépce searched for a way to make plates other than by drawing. In 1822 he coated a pewter sheet with a light-sensitive asphalt, called bitumen of Judea, which hardens when exposed to light. Then he contact-printed a drawing, which had been oiled to make it transparent, to the pewter with sunlight. Niépce washed the pewter plate with lavender oil to remove the parts not hardened by light, and then he etched it with acid to make an incised copy of the original. Niépce called his invention heliogravure In 1826 Niépce expanded his discovery by putting one of his pewter plates in the back of his camera obscura and pointing it out the window. This allowed him to make a picture directly from nature; the earliest extant photograph is a pewter sheet that Niépce exposed all day (Fig. 9-27). When he removed it from the camera obscura and washed it with lavender oil, a hazy image of the sunlit buildings outside his workroom window was captured. Niépce continued his research with light- sensitive materials, including silver-coated copper. Frenchman who first produced photographic image-created heliogravure coated an asphalt surface onto metal plate creating an etching. transfered image by sun exposure. Found asphalt was sensitive to light.

Thomas Nast

_______- Nast, a precociously talented artist, had switched from public school to art school after the sixth grade and began his career as a four-dollar-per-week staff illustrator for Leslie's Weekly when he was fifteen years old. Fletcher Harper hired him when he was twenty-two to make battlefield sketches during the Civil War. The power of his work was such that President Abraham Lincoln called Nast "the best recruiting sergeant" and General Ulysses S. Grant declared that Nast had done as much as anyone to bring the conflict to a close. Public response to Nast's work was a major factor in propelling Harper's Weekly's circulation from one hundred thousand to three hundred thousand copies per issue. Nast also took on the governmental corruption of the political boss William Marcy Tweed, who controlled New York politics from infamous Tammany Hall. Tweed claimed that he did not care what the papers wrote because voters couldn't read, but "they could sure see them damn pictures." Nast's relentless graphic attack culminated on election day in a double-page cartoon of the "Tammany tiger" loose in the Roman Colosseum, devouring liberty, while Tweed as the Roman emperor surrounded by his elected officials presided over the slaughter (Fig. 9-71a). The opposition won the election. In 1872 Nast continued his relentless assault on Tammany Hall with a crowd of citizens hanging posters against corruption (Fig. 9-71b). 9.71a political cartoon Tiger kills Liberty and corruption of Tweed Made donkey and elephant for republic and democratic He created and popularized santa claus

Lord Stanhope

_______- The printing presses used by Baskerville and Bodoni in the 1700s were remarkably similar to the first one used by Gutenberg over three centuries earlier. Inevitably, the relentless progress of the Industrial Revolution radically altered printing. Inventors applied mechanical theory and metal parts to the handpress, increasing its efficiency and the size of its impression. Several improvements to make the handpress stronger and more efficient culminated in Charles Stanhope producing a printing press (Fig. 9-21) in 1800 that was constructed completely of cast-iron. The metal screw mechanism required approximately one-tenth the manual force needed to print on a wooden press, and Stanhope's press could print a sheet double the size. The next step actually converted printing into a high-speed factory operation. Friedrich Koenig, a German printer who arrived in London around 1804, presented his plans for a steam-powered printing press to major London printers. Finally receiving financial support in 1807, Koenig obtained a patent in March 1810 for his press, which printed 400 sheets per hour, far more than the 250 sheets per hour that could be printed on the Stanhope handpress. These were soon capable of printing 1,100 impressions an hour on sheets of paper that were 90 centimeters (35 inches) long and 56 centimeters (22 inches) wide. 9.21 Before lots of print was on press. Lord Stanhope invented a press (stanhope press) 1) first all metal press (all iron) (250 per hour) 2) print double the size and with less force 9.22 Fredrick Koenig: First steam powered press 400 sheets per hour Had rollers (Brayers) that inked plates rather than do it by hand

Sans-serif type

_______- The third major typographic innovation of the early 1800s, sans-serif type, made its modest debut in an 1816 specimen book issued by William Caslon IV Buried among the decorative display fonts of capitals in the back of the book, one line of medium-weight serifless capitals proclaimed "w caslon junr letter founder." It closely resembled an Egyptian face with the serifs removed, which is probably how Caslon IV designed it. The name Caslon adopted for this style— two lines English Egyptian—tends to support the theory that it had its origins in an Egyptian style. Sans serifs, which became so important to twentieth-century graphic design, had a tentative beginning. The cumbersome early sans serifs were used primarily for subtitles and descriptive material under excessively bold fat faces and Egyptians. They were little noticed until the early 1830s, when several typefounders introduced new sans-serif styles. Each designer and foundry attached a name: Caslon used Doric, Thorowgood called his Grotesques, Blake and Stephenson named their version sans-surryphs, and in the United States, the Boston Type and Stereotype Foundry named its first American sans-serif faces Gothics. Vincent Figgins dubbed his 1832 specimen sans serif (Fig. 9-18) in recognition of the font's most apparent feature, and the name stuck. Third major typographic innovation of the 18oo's -issued by William Caslon -origins in egyptian style, serif less, dubbed by Figgins

Louis Prang

_______- Victorian graphics found a most prolific innovator in Louis Prang (1824-1909), a German immigrant to America whose work and influence were international. After mastering the complexities of his father's fabric-printing business, twenty-six-year-old Prang arrived in America in 1850 and settled in Boston. His knowledge of printing chemistry, color, business management, designing, engraving, and printing itself was of great value when he formed a chromolithography firm with Julius Mayer in 1856. Initially Prang designed and prepared the stones and Mayer did the printing on a single handpress. Prang's colorful work was very popular, and the firm grew rapidly. There were seven presses when Prang bought Mayer's share and changed its name to L. Prang and Company in 1860. Popular narrative and romantic painting of the Victorian era was closely linked with the graphic illustration of chromo- lithographers, including Prang, who often commissioned art and held competitions to acquire subjects for printed images. Prang's meticulously drawn, naturalistic images followed in the tradition of Sharp and Bufford. He has been called the father of the American Christmas card for his pioneering work in holiday graphics. The earliest Christmas card, however, is thought to be an 1843 hand-tinted, dark sepia lithograph by British painter John Callcott Horsley (1817-1903). After producing Christmas images suitable for framing in the late 1860s, Prang published an English Christmas card in 1873 and American Christmas cards the following year. Typical images included Santa Claus, reindeer, and Christmas trees. A full line of designs followed, and Easter, birthday, Valentine, and New Year's Day cards were produced annually by L. Prang and Company during the early 1880s (Fig. 9-54). chromolithgrapher 9.53 father of american Christmas card

Vincent Figgins

_______- his 1815 printing specimens showed a full range of modern styles and antiques (Egyptians), the second major innovation of nineteenth-century type design (Fig. 9-4).By 1840 Figgins's antique fonts had become far more refined (Fig. 9-5). Figgins called these Antiques , otherwise known as Egyptian, or Slab-Serif designed Egyptian 5 line pica: first example of a three dimensional font Did not have enough money to buy master's, Joseph Jackson, foundry because of top bidder Caslon... created his own foundry -type design and mathematical, astronomical, and other symbolic material -modern and antique fonts

Planographic printing

_______- printing on a flat surface

Negative

_______- reversed image Sir John Herschel tackled the problem of photography in addition to duplicating Talbot's results -shared knowledge with with Talbot... adopted this means of fixing the image -reversed image, negative -contact, positive -Herschel named "photography"

Egyptian type

________: The antiques convey a bold, mechanical feeling through slablike rectangular serifs, even weight throughout the letters, and short ascenders and descenders. In Thorowgood's 1821 specimen book of Thorne's type, the name Egyptian—which is still used for this style—was given to slab-serif fonts (Fig. 9-6). Perhaps the name was inspired by the era's fascination with all aspects of ancient Egyptian culture, an interest that was intensified by Napoleon's invasion and occupation of Egypt in 1798-99. Design similarities were seen between chunky geometric alphabets and the visual qualities of some Egyptian artifacts. As early as the 1830s, a variation of Egyptian, having slightly bracketed serifs and increased contrast between thicks and thins, was called Ionic (Fig. 9-7). aka slab serif 1) sharp angle on bracketing 1) convey bold, mechanical feeling through slablike rectangular serifs 2) even weight throughout letters 3) short ascenders and descender Name give to slab serif fonts -inspired by era's fascination with Egyptian culture Name came from Thorowgood's 1821 specimen book of Thorne's type Figgins 1815 specimen showed full range from modern styles to antiques (Egyptian)- 2nd major innovation of 19th c type design

Photograms

_______--William Henry Fox Talbot began a series of experiments with paper treated with silver compounds, chosen because he knew silver nitrate was sensitive to light. In his early explorations he floated paper in a weak brine solution, let it dry, and then treated it with a strong solution of silver nitrate to form an insoluble light-sensitive silver-chloride compound in the paper. When he held a piece of lace or a leaf tight against the paper with a pane of glass and exposed it in sunlight, the paper around the object slowly darkened. Washing this image with a salt solution or potassium iodide would fix it somewhat by making the unexposed silver compounds fairly insensitive to light. Talbot called these images, made without a camera, photogenic drawings (Fig. 9-29); today we call images made by manipulating objects with the light striking photographic paper _________ . he floated paper in a weak brine solution, let it dry, and then treated it with a strong solution of silver nitrate to form an insoluble light-sensitive silver chloride compound in the paper. When he held a piece of lace or a leaf tight against the paper with a panel of glass and exposed it in sunlight, the paper around the object slowly darken. Washing this image with a salt solution or potassium iodide would fix it somewhat by making the unexposed silver compounds insensitive to light. He called these images made without a camera photogenic drawings, today we call images made by manipulating with objects the light strikes photographic paper _________. Images made by manipulating objects with the light striking photographic paper -Talbot -treated paper in a camera obscura to create minute photographic images that rendered light areas dark and dark areas light... mirror images of nature

Thomas Nast

________ _______: 1) talented artist 2) began as a week staff illustrator for "Leslie's Weekly" when he was 15. 3) Fletcher Harper hired him when he was 22 to make battlefield sketches during Civil War. After Civil War, Nast remained with " Harper's Weekly" where he drew his image directly on wood Block in Reverse for Craftsman to cut. His deep social and political concerns with him to strip away detail and introduce symbols and labels for increase communicative effects in his work. He had been called the father of American political cartooning. The graphic symbols Nast popularized in focused included a number of important images such as Santa Claus, John bull, the Democratic donkey, Republican elephant, Uncle Sam, in Columbia. He also took on governmental Corruption of political boss William Marcy Tweed, who control New York politics from Infamous Tammany Hall. Nast's Relentless graphic attack cumulated on Election Day in a double-page cartoon of the "Tammany tiger" loose in the Roman Colosseum, Devouring Liberty, while Tweed as the Roman Emperor surrounded by his elected officials preside over the slaughter (9.71 a). After Richard Harper died a more conservative editorial staff took over the magazine Nast declare " policy always strangles individuals." President Theodore Roosevelt recognize that Nast's Graphics help the Republican party and a pointed him Consul General to Ecuador, where he died of yellow fever 6 months after his arrival.

William Henry Fox Talbot

________- Around the same time in England, William Henry Fox Talbot (1800-77) pioneered a process that formed the basis for both photography and photographic printing plates. While sketching in the Lake Como region of Italy in 1833, Talbot became frustrated with his limited drawing ability and his difficulty in recording beautiful landscapes. He reflected on "how charming it would be if it were possible to cause these natural images to imprint themselves durably, and remain fixed upon the paper." After returning to England he began a series of experiments with paper treated with silver com- pounds, chosen because he knew silver nitrate was sensitive to light. In his early explorations he floated paper in a weak brine solution, let it dry, and then treated it with a strong solution of silver nitrate to form an insoluble light-sensitive silver-chloride compound in the paper. When he held a piece of lace or a leaf tight against the paper with a pane of glass and exposed it in sunlight, the paper around the object slowly darkened. Washing this image with a salt solution or potassium iodide would fix it somewhat by making the unexposed silver compounds fairly insensitive to light. Talbot called these images, made without a camera, photogenic drawings (Fig. 9-29); today we call images made by manipulating objects with the light striking photographic paper photograms . Upon learning about the research of Daguerre and Talbot, the eminent astronomer and chemist Sir John Herschel (1792-1871) tackled the problem of photography. In addition to duplicating Talbot's results, he was the first to use sodium thiosulfate to fix or make permanent the image by halting the action of light. On 1 February 1839 he shared this knowledge with Talbot. Both Daguerre and Talbot adopted this means of fixing the image. During that month Talbot solved the problem of the reversed image by contact printing his reverse image to another sheet of his sensitized paper in sunlight. Herschel named the reversed image a negative (Fig. 9-30) and called the contact a positive (Fig. 9-31). These terms and Herschel's later name for Talbot's invention, photography (from the Greek photos graphos, meaning "light drawing"), have been adopted throughout the world. Talbot contact printed the paper negative to get the first paper positive film print. first photo on paper Photograms- laying objects on a sheet of paper that was light sensitive and exposing it to sunlight (he called them photogenic drawings) -negative image, positive shapes make negative He is credited with taking the negative and contact printing them to another sheet of paper to make positive. Made soft image, not a lot of detail

Daguerreotype

________- a highly polished silver-plated copper sheet was sensitized by placing it, silver side down, over a container of iodine crystals. After the rising iodine vapor combined with the silver to produce light- sensitive silver iodide, the plate was placed in the camera and exposed to light coming through the lens, to produce a latent image. Placing the exposed plate over a dish of heated mercury formed the visible image. After the mercury vapors formed an alloy with the exposed areas of silver, the unexposed silver iodide was removed, and the image was fixed with a salt bath. The bare metal appeared black in areas where no light had struck it. The luminous, vibrant image was a base relief of mercury and silver compounds that varied in intensity in direct proportion to the amount of light that had struck the plate during exposure. In one giant leap, the technology for making pictures by machine was realized. Had limitations... negative prints, slow exposure could only capture stationary objects, meticulous process per print -luminous, vibrant image was a base relief of mercury and silver compounds that varied in intensity in direct proportion to the amount of light that had struck the plate during the exposure

Fat faces

________- typestyle is a roman face whose contrast and weight have been increased by expanding the thickness of the heavy strokes. The stroke width has a ratio of 1:2.5 or even 1:2 to the capital height. By Robert Thorne Designed by Robert Thorne -roman face whose contrast and weight have been increased by expanding the thickness of the heavy strokes

Vincent Figgins, Egyptians, Egyptian, bracketed, Clarendon

_________, Joseph Jackson's apprentice, stayed with him and in charge of the operation after his death. He built a reputation for type design and mathematical, astronomical, and other symbolic material, numbering in the hundreds of sorts. 1) He design complete range of romans and begun to produce scholarly and foreign faces 2) rapid tilt in typographic design taste towards modern-style romans and new jobbing styles after turn of century affected him but he responded and 1815 printed specimens a full range of modern styles and antiques (Egyptians) _________: 2nd major innovation of 19th century type design 1840 Figgin's antiques fonts became more refined Antiques (Egyptians): 2) convey bold, mechanical feeling through slablike rectangular serifs 2) even weight throughout letters 3) short ascenders and descender In Thorowgood's specimen book of Thorne's type the name ________ was given to a slab serif fonts. This name was inspired by era's fascination with ancient Egyptian culture (Napoleon's invasion and occupation of Egypt). Design similarities between chunky geometric alphabet and visual qualities of some Egyptian artifacts. 1830s, variation of Egyptian having slightly ________ serifs and increased contrast between thicks and thins was called Ionic. William Thorowgood and Company copyrighted a modified Egyptian letterforms called _________. Similar to Ionics, these letterforms were were condensed Egyptians with stronger contrast between thick and thin strokes and somewhat lighter serifs. A larger and more condensed version was issued by Sheffield-based Stephenson Blake foundry in 1835.

Century Schoolbook typeface / Morris Benton

_________- ATF, Benton carefully studied human perception and reading comprehension to develop Century Schoolbook, designed for and widely used in textbooks. Theodore Low De Vinne of the Century magazine, leading competitor of Harper's Weekly, commissioned Linn Boyd Benton to cut a blacker, more readable, slightly extended with thicker thin strokes and short slab serifs 1) unusually legible style possesses large x height 2) slightly expanded characters have made it very popular for children's reading matter Century is a family of serif type faces particularly intended for body text. The family originates from a first design, Century Roman cut by American Type Founders designer Linn Boyd Benton in 1894 for master printer Theodore Low De Vinne, for use in his Century magazine.

Tuscan-style letters

_________- Figgins's 1815 specimen book also presented the first nineteenth-century version of Tuscan-style letters (Fig. 9-10). This style, characterized by serifs that are extended and curved, was put through an astounding range of variations during the nineteenth century, often with bulges, cavities, and ornaments. It seems that the English typefounders were trying to invent every possible design permutation by modifying forms or proportions and applying all manner of decoration to their alphabets. In 1815 Vincent Figgins showed styles that projected the illusion of three dimensions (Fig. 9-11) and appeared as bulky objects rather than two-dimensional signs. This device proved popular, and specimen books, especially in Germany, began to show perspective clones for every imaginable style (Fig. 9-12). slab serifs with serifs on steroids 1) extending, curved, bulging, tapered, 2) 1850s (wild west) In Figgins' 1815 specimen book -characterized by serifs that are extended and curved

Kodak camera

_________- The scope of photography was seriously limited by the need to prepare a wet plate immediately before making the exposure and to develop it immediately afterwards. Research finally led to the commercial manufacture of gelatin-emulsion dry plates by several firms in 1877. The three-decade heyday of the collodion wet plate rapidly yielded to the dry-plate method after 1880. An American dry-plate manufacturer, George Eastman (1854-1932), put the power of photography into the hands of the lay public when he introduced his Kodak camera (Fig. 9-33) in 1888. It was an invention without precedent, for ordinary citizens now had the ability to create images and keep a graphic record of their lives and experiences. George Eastman To get photography to mass they had to solve problem of wet plate. He perfected gelatin emulsion use of dry plates which put power of photography in average person's hands. Point and shot (Browine)

The Pencil of Nature

_________- William Henry Fox Talbot, book Each copy featured 24 photographs mounted by hand... "some of the beginnings of new art" -milestone in the history of books

Chromolithography

_________- a colored picture printed by lithography, especially in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. A poster for the Hoe printing press (Fig. 9-57) demonstrates a new freedom in lettering: lines of lettering become elastic, running in arcs or at angles, and even overlap images; blended and graduated colors flow on lettering and back- grounds; and ruled borders are free to notch and curve at will. The vitality of this graphic revolution stemmed from the talented artists who created the original designs, frequently in watercolor, and the skilled craftsmen who traced the original art onto stones. They translated designs into five, ten, twenty, or even more separate stones. Colored inks applied to these stones came together in perfect registration, recreating hundreds or even thousands of glowing duplicates of the original. The lithography firm, rather than the individual artists or craftsmen who created the work, was credited on chromolithographs, and the names of many designers are lost to history.A poster for the Hoe printing press (Fig. 9-57) demonstrates a new freedom in lettering: lines of lettering become elastic, running in arcs or at angles, and even overlap images; blended and graduated colors flow on lettering and back- grounds; and ruled borders are free to notch and curve at will. From Boston, chromolithography quickly spread to other major cities, and by 1860 about sixty chromolithography firms employed eight hundred people. Chromolithography's popularity continued to grow, and by 1890 seven hundred lithographic firms employed over eight thousand people. Labels and packages became important areas for chromolithography (Fig. 9-61). Lithographing on tin sheets to make packages posed significant technical difficulties. Nonporous metal could not absorb printing inks, and sheet-metal and stone printing surfaces were equally hard and inflexible. At midcentury, transfer-printing processes were developed. Reversed images were printed onto thin paper and then transferred onto sheet metal under great pressure. The paper backing was soaked off, leaving printed images on the tin plate. By century's end, the golden era of chromolithography was coming to a close. One of the most famous lithographic art reproduction firms in the United States, Currier & Ives, produced a variety of sentimental imagery as well as commercial advertising, and went bankrupt shortly after the turn of the century. Godefroy Engelmann -after analyzing the colors contained on the original image, the printer separated them into a seres of printing plates and printed these component colors, one by one -had vast social and economic ramifications

Heliogravure

_________-Joseph Niépce coated a pewter sheet with a light-sensitive asphalt, called bitumen of Judea, which hardens when exposed to light. Then he contact-printed a drawing, which had been oiled to make it transparent, to the pewter with sunlight. Niépce washed the pewter plate with lavender oil to remove the parts not hardened by light, and then he etched it with acid to make an incised copy of the original. "Sun engraving" -Coated a pewter sheet with a light sensitive asphalt called bitumen of Judea. Then he contact-printed a drawing which had been oiled to make it transparent to the pewter with sunlight... then washed the pewter paper with lavender oil to remove the parts not hardened by light../ etched it with acid to make an incised copy of the original Took drawing, coated it in oil to make it translucent and contact printing it to etching (9.27) first photograph (on metal)

Industrial Revolution

__________- The Industrial Revolution, which is usually said to have occurred first in England between 1760 and 1840, was a radical process of social and economic change. Energy was a major impetus for the conversion from an agricultural society to an industrial one. Until James Watt (1736-1819) perfected the steam engine, which was deployed rapidly starting in the 1780s, animal and human power were the primary sources of energy. Over the course of the nineteenth century, the amount of energy generated by steam power increased a hundredfold. During the last three decades of the century, electricity and gasoline-fueled engines further expanded productivity. A factory system with machine manufacturing and divisions of labor was developed. New materials, particularly iron and steel, became available. Cities grew rapidly, as masses of people left a subsistence existence on the land and sought employment in the factories. Political power shifted away from the aristocracy and toward capitalist manufacturers, merchants, and even the working class. The growing body of scientific knowledge was applied to manufacturing processes and materials. Occured first in England betewen 1760 to 1840, Radical process of social and economic change -Energy was major impetus for conversion from agricultural society to industrial one -steam-power, electricity, and gas-fueled engines further expanded productivity -iron and steel became available -moved away from humanist values -photography, ranging specimen sheets