Unit 3 Review: Objectives/Notes

Trace the historical development of the American two-party system.

1. 1796-1824: Federalists vs. Democratic-Republicans (Jeffersonians) 2. 1828-1856: Jackson and the Democrats vs. the Whigs. 3. 1860-1928: The Republican Era 4. 1932-1964: The New Deal Coalition 5. 1968-present: The era of divided government

Analyze the appropriate role of interest groups within a democratic environment.

1. A free society must allow for the representation of all groups, yet groups are usually more concerned with their own self-interest than with the needs of society as a whole. 2. For democracy to work well, it is important that self-interested groups not be allowed to assume a dominant position. 3. Madison's solution was to create an open system in which many groups would be able to participate. Groups with opposing interests would counterbalance each other.

Differentiate between a potential group and an actual group, and determine how the free-rider problem applies.

1. A potential group is composed of all people who might be group members because they share some common interest. 2. An actual group is composed of those in the potential group who choose to join. Groups vary enormously in the degree to which they enroll their potential membership. 3. The free-rider problem occurs when potential members decide not to join, but rather to sit back and let other people do the work (from which they will nevertheless benefit). According to Olson's law of large groups, the bigger the group, the more serious the free-rider problem.

Distinguish the essential differences between interest groups and political parties.

1. An interest group is an organization of people with similar policy goals that tries to influence the political process to try to achieve those goals. In so doing, interest groups try to influence every branch and every level of government. 2. This multiplicity of policy arenas helps distinguish interest groups from political parties. 3. Interest groups may support candidates for office, but American interest groups do not run their own slate of candidates. By contrast, interest groups in many countries with multiparty systems often form their own political parties to push for their demands. 4. Interest groups are often policy specialists, whereas parties are policy generalists. 5. Unlike political parties, interest groups do not face the constraint imposed by trying to appeal to everyone.

Assess whether or not American presidential elections lead to an increased scope of government.

1. Because states are the key battlegrounds of presidential campaigns, candidates must tailor their appeals to the particular interests of each major state. 2. Candidates end up supporting a variety of local interests in order to secure votes from each region of the country. 3. The way modern campaigns are conducted is thus one of the many reasons why politicians always find it easier to expand the scope of American government than to limit it.

Discuss the three effects that campaigns have on voters: reinforcement, activation, and conversion.

1. Campaigns can reinforce voters' preferences for candidates. 2. They can activate voters, getting them to contribute money or become active in campaigns. 3. They can convert by changing voters' minds.

Describe how the rise of television broadcasting has encouraged individualism in the American political system.

1. Candidates are now much more capable of running for office on their own by appealing to people directly through television. 2. Congress is difficult to cover on television because there are 535 members, but there is only one president, so the presidency has increasingly received more exposure vis-à-vis the Congress.

Trace the development of the mass media and the way in which presidents have used the media in different periods of our history.

1. Daily Newspapers: product of the late 19th century; presidential press conferences. 2. Magazines: newsworthy magazines are not popular and mainly read by the educated elite. 3. Radio: early 20th century; political ads and news. 4. TV: Political use began in the 1950s and 1960s; presidential debates and political ads. 5. Cable TV: news as it happens and narrowcasting to small targeted audiences.

Determine how journalists define what is newsworthy, where they get their information, and how they present it.

1. Defining Newsworthy = what is entertaining to the average viewer. 2. Finding the News = established sources and crusading (investigating for the truth). 3. Presenting = compressed 30 second news segments, headline news and sound bites of 15 seconds or less.

Explain how electoral rules such as the "winner-take-all" plurality system have helped to maintain a two-party system in the United States.

1. In this system, the party that receives a plurality (more votes than anyone else, even though it may be less than a majority) is declared the winner; the other parties get nothing. 2. This system discourages small parties.

Identify the key actions that candidates must accomplish in order to effectively organize their campaigns.

1. Line up a campaign manager. 2. Get a fund-raiser. 3. Get a campaign counsel. 4. Hire media and campaign consultants. 5. Assemble a campaign staff. 6. Plan the logistics. 7. Get a research staff and policy advisors. 8. Hire a pollster. 9. Get a good press secretary.

Identify factors that would explain why the news is typically characterized by political neutrality.

1. Most reporters strongly believe in journalistic objectivity. 2. Those who are best at objective reporting are usually rewarded by their editors. 3. Media outlets have a direct financial stake in attracting viewers and subscribers.

Review the two types of campaigns in American politics—nomination campaigns and election campaigns.

1. Nomination Campaigns = intra-party elections to win the party's nomination. 2. Election Campaigns = general election to win public office.

Examine the growth of PACs and their impact on modern campaigning.

1. PACs have proliferated in recent years and play a major role in paying for expensive campaigns. PACs contributed $178 million to congressional candidates for the 1992 campaign. 2.. Critics of the PAC system believe that this has led to a system of open graft. They fear that the large amount of money controlled by PACs leads to PAC control over what the winners do once they are in office.

Examine how political parties in a democracy serve as key linkage institutions to translate inputs from the public into outputs from the policymakers.

1. Parties pick policymakers; a nomination is the party's endorsement of a candidate. 2. Parties run campaigns; although parties coordinate the campaigns, recent technology has made it easier for candidates to campaign on their own. 3. Parties give cues to voters; even though party ties have weakened, most voters have a party image of each party; and many voters still rely on a party to give them cues for voting. 4. Parties articulate policies; within the electorate and in the government, each political party advocates specific policy alternatives. 5. Parties coordinate policy-making; each office holder is also a member of a party, and the first place they look for support is to their fellow partisans.

Describe and evaluate the caucus and primary methods of delegate selection.

1. Party caucuses: At one time, all states selected their delegates to the national convention in a meeting of state party leaders. Today, caucuses are open to all voters who are registered with the party. 2. Presidential primaries: Today, most of the delegates to the national conventions are selected in presidential primaries, in which voters in a state go to the polls and vote for a candidate or for delegates pledged to a candidate.

Understand three basic theories of interest group politics: pluralist theory, elite theory, and hyperpluralist theory.

1. Pluralist theory argues that interest group activity brings representation to all; groups compete and counterbalance one another. 2. Elite theory argues that a few groups (mostly the wealthy) have most of the power. 3. Hyperpluralist theory asserts that too many groups are getting too much of what they want, resulting in a government policy that is often contradictory and lacking in direction.

Determine methods used by political activists to get their ideas placed high on the governmental agenda.

1. Policy entrepreneurs' weapons include press releases, press conferences, letter writing, buttonholing reporters and columnists, and trading on personal contacts. 2. People in power can also use a leak, a carefully placed bit of inside information that is given to a friendly reporter.

Ascertain the major sources that people rely on for their information about politics.

1. Print Media (newspapers and magazines) 2. Broadcast Media (tv, radio) 3. Narrowcast media (cable tv, internet)

Examine and analyze the charge that the media have a liberal bias.

1. Reporters are more likely to call themselves liberal than the general public, and a 1992 survey of 1400 journalists found that44 percent identified themselves as Democrats compared to 16 percent who said they were Republicans. 2. However, there is little reason to believe that journalists' personal attitudes sway their reporting of the news. Most stories are presented in a "point/counterpoint" format in which two opposing points of view are presented.

Consider the ways that high-tech campaigning has changed the nature of American politics.

1. Television is the most prevalent means used by candidates to reach voters. 2. As one of its most important uses, computer technology targets mailings to prospective supporters. 3. The internet and use of social media is used to target supporters for campaign donations.

Summarize how the news and its presentation are important influences in shaping public opinion on political issues.

1. The decision to cover or to ignore certain issues can affect public opinion. 2. By focusing public attention on specific problems, the media influence the criteria by which the public evaluates political leaders. 3. There is also some evidence that people's opinions shift with the tone of the news coverage. Popular presidents prompt the public to support policies, but the most powerful influence is that of news commentators on public opinion change.

Explain why the rise of the "information society" has not brought about a corresponding rise of an "informed society."

1. The media do a much better job of covering the "horse race" aspects of politics than of covering substantive issues. 2. With the media's superficial treatment of important policy issues, it is not surprising that the incredible amount of information available to Americans today has not visibly increased their political awareness or participation.

Determine the consequences or effects of the American two-party system as contrasted with a multi-party system.

1. The most obvious consequence of two-party system is the moderation of political conflict and political ambiguity. 2. In multi-party systems, a coalition government is created when two or more parties join together to form a majority in a national legislature.

Understand the roles of the party-in-the-electorate, the party as an organization, and the party-in-government.

1. The party-in-the-electorate are individuals who perceive themselvesas party members; many voters have a party identification that guides and influences their votes. No dues or membership cards;one needs only to claim to be a member. 2. The party as an organization has a national office, a full-time staff,rules and bylaws, and budgets. American parties are loosely organized at the national, state, and local levels. The party organization pursues electoral victory. 3. The party-in-government consists of elected officials who call themselves members of the party (such as President and Congress). These leaders do not always agree on policy; but they are the main spokespersons of the party.

Evaluate proposals that call for a "more responsible two-party system."

1. The responsible party model calls for each party to present distinct, comprehensive programs; carry out its program if elected; implement its programs if it is the majority party or state what it would do if it were in power; and accept responsibility for the performance of the government. 2. Under this model, a party's officeholders would have firm control of the government, and they would be collectively (rather than individually) responsible for their actions.

Determine how lobbyists represent interest groups in influencing the legislative agenda.

1. They are an important source of information. Lobbyists can confine themselves to a single policy area, and thus can provide specialized expertise. 2. They can help a member with political strategy. In effect, they are free consultants. 3. They can help formulate campaign strategy and get the group's members behind a politician's reelection campaign. 4. They are a source of ideas and innovations.

Understand the significance of the weak and decentralized character of the American party system.

1. They are too decentralized to take a single national position and then enforce it. 2. Because virtually anyone can vote in party primaries, parties do not have control over those who run under their labels. 3. In America's loosely organized party system, there is no mechanism for a party to discipline officeholders and ensure cohesion in policymaking. 4. Weak parties make it easier for politicians to avoid tough decisions; this creates gridlock. 5. Divided government has meant that neither party is really in charge, and each points the finger at the other.

Evaluate the impact of third parties on American politics and the American party system.

1. Third parties have controlled enough votes in one-third of the last thirty-six presidential elections to have decisively tipped the electoral college vote. 2. They have brought new groups into the electorate and have served as "safety valves" for popular discontent. 3. They have brought new issues to the political agenda.

Explain why the authors of the textbook say that the problems of honest lobbying now appear to outweigh the traditional problems of dishonest lobbying.

Although strict lobbying laws and disclosure statements have reduced out-and-out bribery, lobbyists are now allowed to operate out in the open. For every illegal practice that makes headlines, there are 100's of legal transactions.

Examine the significance of divided government and explain how the recent pattern of divided government may explain party dealignment.

An unprecedented period of divided government (when theexecutive and legislative branches are controlled by different parties) has existed since 1968. Party dealignment means that people are gradually moving away fromboth political parties. 1. Many political scientists believe that the recent pattern of divided government means that the party system has dealigned rather than realigned. 2. Many scholars fear that the parties are becoming useless and ineffective through the pattern of divided government and dealignment.

Differentiate between the ideology or party philosophy of the Democratic and Republican parties.

Democrats: 1.Liberals (open to change) 2. Strong national government 3. Provide services 4. More government spending 5. Higher taxes Republicans: 1. Conservatives (maintain status quo) 2. Strong state governments 3. Provide protection 4. Less government spending 5. Lower taxes

Assess the crucial role of money and technology in American campaign organizations.

Does money buy victory? 1. Money is crucial to electoral victory. In this era of high-tech politics, pollsters, public relations people, direct-mail consultants, and manyother specialists are crucial to a campaign. 2. Perhaps the most basic complaint about money and politics is that there may be a direct link between dollars spent and votes received. 3. Herbert Alexander refers to "the doctrine of sufficiency" to describe the idea that it is more important to have "enough" money than to have "more" money—enough to compete effectively but not necessarily more money than the opponent.

Determine the factors that tend to make an interest group successful.

Many factors affect the success of an interest group, including the size of the group, the intensity, and its financial resources. Small groups actually have organizational advantages over large groups.

Explain the role that the profit motive plays in decisions by the mass media on how to report the news.

News reporting is a business in America in which profits shape how journalists define what is newsworthy, where they get their information, and how they present it.

Summarize the implications for the size of government that are generated by the power of PACs and special interest groups.

One can make the argument that the growth of the scope of government in recent decades accounts for a good portion of the proliferation of interest groups. As the federal government has become involved in more areas, more interest groups have risen to influence policy.

Distinguish among the various forms of interest groups, such as economic interests and public interest groups.

Political scientists loosely categorize interest groups into four main policy areas: some deal primarily with economic issues, others with issues of the environment, others with equality issues, and still others with the interests of all consumers/other public interests.

Identify the general characteristics of presidential candidates.

Presidential candidates need to be risk-takers; they need enough self confidence to put everything on the line in pursuit of the presidency.

Describe Anthony Downs' rational-choice theory as a working model of the relationship among citizens, parties, and policy.

Rational-choice theory assumes that parties and political actors have goals (such as winning elections) that are more important to the partythan ideology. 1. If both parties and voters are rational, both will try to select the best way to achieve their goals. 2. In order to win an office, the wise party pursues policies that have broad public appeal. 3. The majority of the American electorate are in the middle, and successful parties in the U.S. rarely stray far from the midpoint of public opinion. 4. Although we frequently hear criticism that there is not much difference between the Democrats and Republicans, the two parties have little choice (given the nature of the American political market). 5. The two parties have to forge different identities in order to build voter loyalty.

Explain why it is rational in the American two-party system for both Democrats and Republicans to stay near the center of public opinion.

Since the majority of voters are in the middle, politicians must not stray far from the middle in order to not alienate voters.

Describe the role of campaign strategy in winning a nomination to elective office.

Success in the nomination game generally requires money, media attention, and momentum. Candidates attempt to manipulate each of these elements through campaign strategy.

Trace the historical evolution of national party conventions as nominating vehicles for presidential candidates.

The goal of the nomination game is to win the majority of delegates' support at the national party convention.

Clarify how the media act as key linkage institutions between the people and the policymakers.

The media are so crucial in today's society that they are often referred to as the "fourth branch of government". The media have a profound impact on the political policy agenda.

Analyze the role the media play in influencing the style and substance of presidential campaigns.

The media turns the presidential campaign into a horserace by focusing too much on poll predictions rather than reporting on the candidates' positions on the issues.

Evaluate whether the "openness" of the American style of campaigning leads to a more democratic system or a less democratic system of government.

The process has also led to what some call "the permanent campaign." Some analysts believe the process of openness placesnumerous demands on citizens; many are overwhelmed by the process and do not participate.

Explain how interest groups try to shape public policy.

The three traditional strategies of interest groups are lobbying, electioneering, and litigation. In addition, groups have recently developed a variety of sophisticated techniques to appeal to the public for widespread support.

Indicate how functions of the media may help to keep government small.

The watchdog function of the media helps to keep government small. 1. Many observers feel that the press is biased against whoever holds office and that reporters want to expose them in the media. With every new proposal being met with skepticism, regular constraints are placed on the growth of government. 2. The watchdog orientation of the press can be characterized as neither liberal nor conservative, but reformist.

Analyze the impact that investigative journalism has had on public cynicism and negativism about politics.

There is evidence that TV's fondness for investigative journalism has contributed to greater public cynicism and negativism about politics.

Examine how interest group liberalism may be promoted by the network of subgovernments (or "iron triangles") in the American political system.

These subgovernments are composed of key interest groups interested in a particular policy, the government agency in charge of administering the policy, and the members of congressional committees and subcommittees handling the policy.

Describe what is meant by party eras, critical elections, and party realignment.

Throughout American history, one party has been the dominant majority party for long periods of time (referred to as party eras). 1. Party eras were punctuated by critical elections, in which new issues appeared that divided the electorate and party coalitions underwent realignment. 2. A party realignment (a rare event) is typically associated with a major crisis or trauma in the nation's history (such as the Civil War and the great Depression, both of which led to realignments). 3. A new coalition (a set of individuals or groups supporting the party) is formed for each party, and the coalition endures for many years. 4. A critical election period may require more than one election before change is apparent, but the party system will be transformed in such a period.

Contrast the American primary system of nomination with those of other nations such as Great Britain.

Unlike Britain—where campaigns are limited by law to five weeks—a presidential candidacy in the United States needs to be either announced or an "open secret" for at least a year before the election.

Identify functions of the media that may encourage the growth of government.

When they focus on injustice in society, the media inevitablyencourage the growth of government. 1. Once the media identify a problem in society, reporters usuallybegin to ask what the government is doing about the problem. 2. The media portray government as responsible for handling almost every major problem.