Unit 4 study guide APUSH

Slidell's mission/rejection, declaration of war on Mexico, Bear Flag Revolt, American troops ordered to Rio Grande

Slidell's mission rejected: The Mexican government rejected Slidell's mission. After Mexican forces attacked at Matamoros, the United States declared war on Mexico on May 13, 1846.President Polk dispatched John Slidell, a Louisiana lawyer, to Mexico City in the fall of 1845. Slidell was born in New York city in 1793 and had moved to New Orleans in 1819. There he had practiced law, served as a federal district attorney and a member of the U.S. House of Representatives from 1843 to 1845. His assignment from Polk was to negotiate the following: Mexican recognition of the Rio Grande as the border between Texas and the United States American forgiveness of the claims by U.S. citizens against the Mexican government. The purchase of the New Mexico area for $5 million. The purchase of California at any price. Mexican governmental affairs were in turmoil and the Slidell Mission was not received. Slidell returned to the United States and recommended to the president that strong action be taken against Mexico. Later in 1853, he was elected to the U.S. Senate as a representative of Louisiana. He resigned in 1861 to support the Confederacy. During the War, he conducted diplomacy for the Confederacy in France, where he remained until the fall of the Empire in 1870 when he moved to Britain. He died there in 1871. American troops ordered to Rio grande: On January 13, 1846, he ordered four thousand men, under General Zachary Taylor, to march from the Nueces River to the Rio Grande, provocatively near Mexican Forces. Polk's presidential diary reveals that he expected at any moment to hear of a clash. When none occurred after an anxious wait, he informed his cabinet on May 9, 1846, that he proposed to ask Congress to declare war on the basis of (1) unpaid claims and (2) Slidell's rejection. These, at best, were rather flimsy pretexts. Two cabinet members spoke up and said that they would feel better satisfied if Mexican troops should fire first.On April 25, 1846, Mexican troops had crossed the Rio Grande and attacked General Taylor's command, with a loss of sixteen Americans killed or wounded. Polk, further aroused, sent a vigorous war message to Congress. He declared that despite "all our efforts" to avoid a clash, hostilities had been forced upon the country by the shedding of "American blood upon the American soil." A patriotic Congress overwhelmingly voted for war, and enthusiastic volunteers cried, "Ho for the Halls of the Montezumas!" and "Mexico or Death!" Inflamed by the war fever, even antislavery Whig bastions melted and joined with the rest of the nation, though they later condemned "Jimmy Polk's war." As James Russell Lowell of Massachusetts lamented, Polk would have explained that American blood had been shed on soil that the Mexicans had good reason to regard as their own. A gangling, rough-featured Whig congressman from Illinois, one Abraham Lincoln, introduced certain resolutions that requested information as to the precise "spot" on American soil where American blood had been shed. He pushed his "spot" resolutions with such persistence that he came to be known as the "spotty Lincoln," who could die of"spotted fever." The more extreme antislavery agitators of the North, many of them Whigs, branded the president a liar-"Polk the Mendacious." Did Polk provoke war? Declaration of war on mexico: Polk pushed for a declaration of war A group of politicians, though, wanted to know where exactly was the spot of the fighting before committing to war ."Pushed by Polk, Congress declared war, and so began the Mexican-American War. Polk hoped that once American had beaten Mexico enough, he could get California and end the war, and the recently dethroned Santa Anna told the U.S. that if he could return to Mexico, he would take over the government, end the war, and give California to the U.S. He lied. Bear Flag revolt: In helping to overthrow Mexican rule in 1846, he collaborated with American naval officers and with the local Americans, who had hoisted the banner of the short -lived California Bear Flag Republic. General Zachary Taylor meanwhile had been spear-heading the main thrust. Known as "Old Rough and Ready" because of his iron constitution and incredibly soldierly appearance-he sometimes wore a Mexican straw hat-he fought his way across the Rio Grande into Mexico. After several gratifying victories, he reached Buena Vista. There, on February 22-23, 1847, his weakened force of five thousand men was attacked by some twenty thousand march-weary troops under Santa Anna. The Mexicans were finally repulsed with extreme difficulty, and overnight Zachary Taylor became the "Hero of Buena Vista." One Kentuckian was heard to say that "Old Zack" would be elected president in 1848 by "spontaneous combustion." Sound American strategy now called for a crushing blow at the enemy's vitals-Mexico City. General Taylor, though a good leader of modest -sized forces, could not win decisively in the semideserts of northern Mexico. The command of the main expedition, which pushed inland from the coastal city ofVera Cruz early in 1847, was entrusted to General Winfield Scott. A handsome giant of a man, Scott had emerged as a hero from the War of 1812 and had later earned the nickname "OldFuss and Feathers" because of his resplendent uniformsand strict discipline. he succeeded in battling his way up to Mexico City by September 1847 in one of the most brilliant campaigns in American military annals.

Causes and results of the Panic of 1837

A financial crisis in the US built on speculative fever. The end of the 2nd Bank of the US created runaway inflation. But, in NYC, every bank began to accept payment only in gold and silver coinage that forced a dramatic and deflationary backlash. This was based on the assumption of former president, Andrew Jackson, that the government was selling land for state bank notes of questionable value. the panic was followed by a five-year depression that involved the failure of banks and then record-high unemployment rates. The panic of 1837 punctured the economic boom sparked by state banks' loose lending practices and over speculation. Contraction of the nation's credit in 1836 led to widespread debt and unemployment. Martin Van Buren spent most of his time in office attempting to stabilize the economy and ameliorate the depression. The Panic of 1837 was partly caused by the economic policies of President Jackson, who created the Specie Circular by executive order and refused to renew the charter of Second Bank of the United States.Other causes of the Panic of 1837 included the failure of the wheat crop, a financial crisis and depression in Great Britain that led to restrictive lending policies.President Martin Van Buren was blamed for the Panic of 1837 and proposed the system for the retaining government funds in the United States Treasury and its sub-treasuries to address the situation but met with strong opposition by the Whigs, led by Henry Clay. Andrew Jackson, the 'man of the people', had also suffered financially during the Panic of 1819. The experiences suffered by so many American citizens, including Andrew Jackson, fostered a profound mistrust of banks, bankers and paper money. When Jackson became president he swore to bring about the destruction of the Second Bank of the United States and so the Bank War began and the national bank was destroyed. Government money was deposited into Jackson's state "Pet Banks". Unregulated Wildcat banks also emerged, especially in the frontier towns of the west, where there was extensive land speculation. The Wildcat Banks were not backed by specie (meaning gold and silver) and distributed practically worthless currency backed by questionable securities. There were massive amounts of banknotes in circulation without deposits, or gold or silver to cover them. Andrew Jackson issued the Specie Circular at the end of his presidency to end reckless land speculation. The Specie Circular demanded that payments for the purchase of public lands were made exclusively in gold or silver. It also dried up credit, leading to the Panic of 1837

Acquisition of Oregon, Texas, and California - Know the means by which they were acquired, the challenges, boundaries and the dates***

Acquisition of Oregon: In 1846, the Oregon boundary dispute between the U.S. and Britain was settled with the signing of the Oregon Treaty. The British gained sole possession of the land north of the 49th parallel and all of Vancouver Island, with the United States receiving the territory south of that line. Acquisition of Texas: The Annexation of Texas, the Mexican-American War, and the Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo, 1845-1848. During his tenure, U.S. President James K. Polk oversaw the greatest territorial expansion of the United States to date. Acquisition of California: The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, by which California was ceded to the United States by Mexico, was signed on February 2, 1848, and was proclaimed by the President on June 19, 1848, and news of the same reached California and proclaimed by Governor Mason on August 7, 1848.

The Corrupt Bargain

After the Era of Good Feelings, politics was transformed. The big winner of this transformation was the common man. Specifically, the common white man as universal white manhood suffrage (all white men could vote) became the norm. In the election of 1824, there were four towering candidates: Andrew Jackson of Tennessee, Henry Clay of Kentucky, William H. Crawford of Georgia, and John Q. Adams of Massachusetts. All four called themselves Republicans. Three were a "favorite son" of their respective region but Clay thought of himself as a national figure (he was Speaker of the House and author of the "American System"). In the results, Jackson got the most popular votes and the most electoral votes, but he failed to get the majority in the Electoral College. Adams came in second in both, while Crawford was fourth in the popular vote but third in the electoral votes. Clay was 4th in the electoral vote. By the 12th Amendment, the top three electoral vote getters would be voted upon in the House of Reps. and the majority (over 50%) would be elected president. Clay was eliminated, but he was the Speaker of the House, and since Crawford had recently suffered a paralytic stroke and Clay hated Jackson, he threw his support behind John Q. Adams, helping him become president. When Clay was appointed Secretary of the State, the traditional stepping-stone to the presidency, Jacksonians cried foul play and corruption. Jackson said he, the people's choice, had been swindled out of the presidency by career politicians in Washington D.C. John Randolph publicly assailed the alliance between Adams and Clay. Evidence against any possible deal has never been found in this "Corrupt Bargain," but both men flawed their reputations.

Jackson's treatment of Native Americans

Andrew Jackson's desire to serve the interests of the common man did not extend to African and Indians. It was during his administration that the policy of "removal" (forcing Indians to move to lands west of the Mississippi River) became the official federal strategy. Removal efforts were centered on the so-called "Five Civilized Tribes," the Cherokee, Choctaw, Creek, Chickasaw and Seminole. They were regarded as "civilized" in that they had adopted many white ways. The Cherokee in Georgia, for example, had received recognition of their semiautonomous status in a federal treaty in 1791. They had given up their semi-nomadic way and become farmers, ranchers, and cotton producers. They developed their own constitution, built roads and churches, developed a successful educational system, and owned slaves. The Cherokee refused all inducements to sell their highly prized and fertile lands. In 1828, the State of Georgia enacted a law that gave authority over all Indian land matters to the state government. The Cherokee resisted and took their case to court, arguing that their treaty rights had been established by the federal government in 1791, and could not be abrogated by the state. The initial case was dismissed, but in 1832, the John Marshall Court ruled that only the federal government had authority over Indian lands. Giving the federal government power to deal with Indian tribes rather than the states did not do the Indians any good. Jackson was committed to the policy of removing Indians from desirable lands and relocating them to what became Oklahoma. In his second State of the Union speech in 1830, Jackson noted the progress of this policy with satisfaction: By 1838, the policy of relocation had essentially cleared the natives from the southeastern lands east of the Mississippi River. The Cherokee were the last to go, being forced to leave most of their possessions behind, including their livestock. Their "Trail of Tears" extended 1,200 miles, from Georgia to present-day Oklahoma. The Cherokee trek was supervised by an

South Carolina's Nullification

Calhoun had supported the Tariff of 1816, but he realized that if he were to have a political future in South Carolina, he would need to rethink his position. Some felt that this issue was reason enough for dissolution of the Union. Calhoun argued for a less drastic solution — the doctrine of "NULLIFICATION." According to Calhoun, the federal government only existed at the will of the states. Therefore, if a state found a federal law unconstitutional and detrimental to its sovereign interests, it would have the right to "nullify" that law within its borders. Calhoun advanced the position that a state could declare a national law void.In 1832, Henry Clay pushed through Congress a new tariff bill, with lower rates than the Tariff of Abominations, but still too high for the southerners. A majority of states-rights proponents had won the South Carolina State House in the recent 1832 election and their reaction was swift. The SOUTH CAROLINA ORDINANCE OF NULLIFICATION was enacted into law on November 24, 1832. As far as South Carolina was concerned, there was no tariff. A line had been drawn. Would President Jackson dare to cross it?Jackson rightly regarded this STATES-RIGHTS challenge as so serious that he asked Congress to enact legislation permitting him to use federal troops to enforce federal laws in the face of nullification. Fortunately, an armed confrontation was avoided when Congress, led by the efforts of Henry Clay, revised the tariff with a compromise bill. This permitted the South Carolinians to back down without "losing face." In retrospect, Jackson's strong, decisive support for the Union was one of the great moments of his Presidency. If nullification had been successful, could secession have been far behind?nullification crisis (1832-1833) showdown between President Andrew Jackson and the South Carolina legislature, which declared the 1832 tariff null and void in the state and threatened secession if the federal government tried to collect duties. It was resolved by a compromise negotiated by Henry Clay in 1833

Battle of San Jacinto

During the Texan War for Independence, the Texas militia under Sam Houston launches a surprise attack against the forces of Mexican General Santa Anna along the San Jacinto River. The Mexicans were thoroughly routed, and hundreds were taken prisoner, including General Santa Anna himself. After gaining independence from Spain in the 1820s, Mexico welcomed foreign settlers to sparsely populated Texas, and a large group of Americans led by Stephen F. Austin settled along the Brazos River. The Americans soon outnumbered the resident Mexicans, and by the 1830s attempts by the Mexican government to regulate these semi-autonomous American communities led to rebellion. In March 1836, in the midst of armed conflict with the Mexican government, Texas declared its independence from Mexico. The Texas volunteers initially suffered defeat against the forces of Santa Anna-Sam Houston's troops were forced into an eastward retreat, and the Alamo fell. However, in late April, Houston's army surprised a Mexican force at San Jacinto, and Santa Anna was captured, bringing an end to Mexico's effort to subdue Texas. In exchange for his freedom, Santa Anna recognized Texas's independence; although the treaty was later abrogated and tensions built up along the Texas-Mexico border. The citizens of the so-called Lone Star Republic elected Sam Houston as president and endorsed the entrance of Texas into the United States. However, the likelihood of Texas joining the Union as a slave state delayed any formal action by the U.S. Congress for more than a decade. Finally, in 1845, President John Tyler orchestrated a compromise in which Texas would join the United States as a slave state. On December 29, 1845, Texas entered the United States as the 28th state, broadening the irrepressible differences in the U.S. over the issue of slavery and igniting the Mexican-American War.

Election of 1824, 1832, and 1844 - candidates, characteristics, outcome, and significance

Election 1824:No one won a majority of electoral votes, so the House of Representatives had to decide among Adams, Jackson, and Clay. Clay dropped out and urged his supporters in the House to throw their votes behind Adams. Jackson and his followers were furious and accused Adams and Clay of a "corrupt bargain.", John Quincy Adams won after Henry Clay gave his support to Adams, securing his Presidency. When Adams appointed Clay as his secretary of state, Jackson's supporters raged that a corrupt bargain had cheated Jackson of presidency. Henry Clay: United States politician responsible for the Missouri Compromise between free and slave states (1777-1852), Senator who persuaded Congress to accept the Missouri Compromise, which admitted Maine into the Union as a free state, and Missouri as a slave state, Distinguished senator from Kentucky, who ran for president five times until his death in 1852. He was a strong supporter of the American System, a war hawk for the War of 1812, Speaker of the House of Representatives, and known as "The Great Compromiser." Outlined the Compromise of 1850 with five main points. Died before it was passed however. John Q. Adams: supporters( national republicans) faced with issues such as a contrary congress and a public that was deeply suspicious of him because of his Federalist roots. And both Jackson's and Adams supporters had a lot of mudslinging and propaganda. 6th president from 1825-1829; served in the Senate and House of Representatives; son of President John Adams; helped formulate the Monroe Doctrine as Secretary of State; lost his re-election to Andrew Jackson; viewed as one of the greatest diplomats in American history Andrew Jackson: 7th president; commander of the American forces at the Battle of New Orleans in 1815; dominated American politics in the 1820's and 1830's; shaped modern Democratic Party; protector of popular democracy and individual liberty for American citizens but also supported slavery and Indian removal; nicknamed "Old Hickory." Election 1832: The presidential campaign for Andrew Jackson had started early-on February 9, 1825, the day of John Quincy Adams's controversial election by the House- and it continued noisily for nearly four years. Even before the election of 1828, the temporarily united Republicans of the Era of Good Feelings had split into two camps. One was the National Republicans, with Adams as their standard-bearer. The other was the Democratic-Republicans, with the fiery Jackson heading their ticket. Rallying cries of the Jackson zealots were Bargain and Corruption," Huzza for Jackson," and "All Hail Old Hickory." Jacksonites planted hickory poles for their hickory-tough hero; Adamsites adopted the oak as the symbol of their oakely independent candidate. Jackson's followers presented their hero as a rough-hewn frontiersman and a stalwart champion of the common man. They denounced Adams as a corrupt aristocrat and argued that the will of the people had been thwarted in 1825 by the backstairs bargain of Adams and Clay. The only way to right the wrong was to seat Jackson, who would then bring about reform" by sweeping out the Adams. Jackson was no frontier farmer but a wealthy planter. He had been born in a log cabin but now lived in a luxurious manor off the labor of his many slaves. And Adams, though perhaps an aristocrat, was far from corrupt. If anything, his uncompromising morals were too elevated for the job. Mudslinging reached new lows in 1828, Adam's supporters described Jackson's mother as a prostitute and his wife as an adulteress; they printed black-bordered handbills shaped like coffins, recounting his numerous duels and brawls and trumpeting his hanging of six mutinous militiamen. Jackson men also hit below the belt. President Adams had purchased, with his own money and for his own use, a billiard table and a set of chessmen. Jacksonites, these items became gaming tables" and gambling furniture" for the presidential palace." Criticism was also directed at the large sums Adams had received over the years in federal salaries, well earned though they had been. He was even accused of having procured a servant girl for the lust of the Russian tsar-in short, of having served as a pimp. Election 1844: Issues were Texas and Expansion of America.: Oregon was the expansion part./Democrats chose candidate James K. Polk/ No one really knew about him./For expansion/ Whigs chose Henry Clay/ Against expansion/ Northern Whigs and Southern Whigs/ Northern Whigs changed themselves to the Liberty Party/ Candidate for them was James Birney/Takes a lot of votes from Clay/Loses the Presidency James K. Polk: slave owning southerner dedicated to Democratic party. U.S. House of Representative from TN 1825-39 acting as the Speaker from 1835-39. Became Gov. of TN 1939-1841. In 1844, he was a "dark horse" candidate for president, and he won the election. A nationalist that campaigned on Manifest Destiny: Annex Texas, Occupy Oregon 54' 40" or fight. Most territory added than any other President accept Jefferson. Oregon Treaty, reestablished an independent Treasury System, Walker Tariff, Mexican War, treaty of Guadalupe 1848. Official U.S. territory of Oregon 1848.He was a friend and follower of Andrew Jackson. He opposed Clay's American System, instead advocating lower tariff, separation the treasury and the federal government from the banking system. Dark horse In politics, a candidate with little apparent support who unexpectedly wins a nomination or election.

Tariff of 1828 - terms and effect

Enacted during the presidency of John Quincy Adams, it was labeled the Tariff of Abominations by its southern detractors because of the effects it had on the antebellum Southern economy. ... The reaction in the South, particularly in South Carolina, would lead to the Nullification Crisis that began in late 1832. The tariff sought to protect northern and western agricultural products from competition with foreign imports; however, the resulting tax on foreign goods would raise the cost of living in the South and would cut into the profits of New England's industrialists. Nevertheless, President John Quincy Adams approved the bill on May 19, 1828, helping to seal his loss to Andrew Jackson in the 1828 presidential election. Later that year in response to the tariff, Vice President John C. Calhoun of South Carolina anonymously penned the South Carolina Exposition and Protest, articulating the doctrine of nullification. The doctrine emphasized a state's right to reject federal laws within its borders and questioned the constitutionality of taxing imports without the explicit goal of raising revenue. Calhoun later took credit for the doctrine in 1832 to the detriment of his presidential ambitions. Following their statesman's lead, the South Carolina legislature used Calhoun's reasoning to nullify the Tariff of 1832, which had earlier replaced the Tariff of Abominations. While other southern states disagreed with the tariff, South Carolina was the only state to invoke nullification. Following a few tense months, South Carolina eventually accepted a compromise tariff in the winter of 1833. The constitutional crisis was only temporarily averted, as tensions remained throughout the Union.

Battle of the Alamo

In December 1835, in the early stages of Texas' war for independence from Mexico, a group of Texan (or Texian) volunteers led by George Collinsworth and Benjamin Milam overwhelmed the Mexican garrison at the Alamo and captured the fort, seizing control of San Antonio. By mid-February 1836, Colonel James Bowie and Lieutenant Colonel William B. Travis had taken command of Texan forces in San Antonio. Though Sam Houston, the newly appointed commander-in-chief of the Texan forces, argued that San Antonio should be abandoned due to insufficient troop numbers, the Alamo's defenders-led by Bowie and Travis-dug in nonetheless, prepared to defend the fort to the last. These defenders, who despite later reinforcements never numbered more than 200, included Davy Crockett, the famous frontiersman and former congressman from Tennessee, who had arrived in early February. On February 23, a Mexican force comprising somewhere between 1,800 and 6,000 men (according to various estimates) and commanded by General Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna began a siege of the fort. The Texans held out for 13 days, but on the morning of March 6 Mexican forces broke through a breach in the outer wall of the courtyard and overpowered them. Santa Anna ordered his men to take no prisoners, and only a small handful of the Texans were spared. One of these was Susannah Dickinson, the wife of Captain Almaron Dickinson (who was killed) and her infant daughter Angelina. Santa Anna sent them to Houston's camp in Gonzalez with a warning that a similar fate awaited the rest of the Texans if they continued their revolt. The Mexican forces also suffered heavy casualties in the Battle of the Alamo, losing between 600 and 1,600 men. From March to May, Mexican forces once again occupied the Alamo. For the Texans, the Battle of the Alamo became a symbol of heroic resistance and a rallying cry in their struggle for independence. On April 21, 1836, Sam Houston and some 800 Texans defeated Santa Anna's Mexican force of 1,500 men at San Jacinto (near the site of present-day Houston), shouting "Remember the Alamo!" as they attacked. The victory ensured the success of Texan independence: Santa Anna, who had been taken prisoner, came to terms with Houston to end the war. In May, Mexican troops in San Antonio were ordered to withdraw, and to demolish the Alamo's fortifications as they went.

The Whigs - members and beliefs

It originally formed in opposition to the policies of President Andrew Jackson (in office 1829-37) and his Democratic Party. The Whig Party nominated several presidential candidates in 1836. General William Henry Harrison of Ohio was nominated in the 1840. Preeminent leader Henry Clay of Kentucky in 1844. Guided by their most prominent leader, Henry Clay, they called themselves Whigs—the name of the English anti monarchist party—the better to stigmatize the seventh president as 'King Andrew.' They were immediately derided by the Jacksonian Democrats as a party devoted to the interests of wealth and aristocracy, a charge they were never able to shake completely. Yet during the party's brief life, it managed to win support from diverse economic groups in all sections and to hold its own in presidential elections. Although unable to unite behind a single candidate in 1836, thus permitting Jackson's handpicked successor Martin Van Buren to obtain an electoral majority, the Whigs won a popular vote for their candidates that was close to the popular tally for the Democrats. And in 1840 and 1848, the party captured the White House. Their only loss in a presidential election during the decade occurred in 1844 when Clay lost by a hair to the Democrats' dark horse James K. Polk, who had greater appeal to voters favoring the expansion both of territory and slavery. But in 1852, as slavery's expansion became the great issue of American politics, the Whigs suffered a drastic decline in popularity. And by 1854 they had given up the ghost, no longer able to hold the support of 'cotton Whigs,' who found a more congenial political home in the Democratic party, or of 'conscience Whigs,' who helped form the new Republican party.

Political parties in the Jackson era

Jackson's policies followed the era of Jeffersonian democracy which dominated the previous political era. Jackson's supporters began to form the modern Democratic Party; they fought the rival Adams and Anti-Jacksonian factions, which soon emerged as the Whigs.

Andrew Jackson's political philosophy/beliefs

Jacksonian Democracy The idea of spreading political power to the people and ensuring majority rule as well as supporting the "common man" Kitchen Cabinet Jackson's group of unofficial advisors consisting of newspaper editors and Democratic leaders that met to discuss current issues. Jackson used them more than his official Cabinet. Spoils System Key to Jacksonian Democracy. People use to generally stay in office even after their party left. Jackson distributed federal jobs to his supporters. People who used to be in office left or were kicked out. "Reward supporters, because common man can do any job." Nullification Crisis Southerners declared federal protective tariffs null and void, Jackson responded with Force bill and suggested compromising over tariff; John C Calhoun was a big advocate John Calhoun Jackson's once vice president who supported S. Carolina/ the Southerners during the Nullification crisis.

James K. Polk - ascendance to presidency, actions and achievements

James Polk (1795-1849) served as the 11th U.S. president from 1845 to 1849. During his tenure, America's territory grew by more than one-third and extended across the continent for the first time. Before his presidency, Polk served in the Tennessee legislature and the U.S. Congress; in 1839 he became governor of Tennessee. A Democrat who was relatively unknown outside of political circles, Polk won the 1844 presidential election as the dark horse candidate. As president, he reduced tariffs, reformed the national banking system and settled a boundary dispute with the British that secured the Oregon Territory for the United States. Polk also led the nation into the Mexican-American War (1846-48), in which the United States acquired California and much of the present-day Southwest. Polk kept his campaign promise to be a one-term president.In 1844, James Polk unexpectedly became the Democrats' nominee for president. He emerged as a compromise candidate after the more likely choice, former president Martin Van Buren (1782-1862), who had lost his reelection bid in 1840, failed to secure the party's nomination. Polk thus became America's first dark horse presidential candidate. George Dallas (1792-1864), a U.S. senator from Pennsylvania, was chosen as Polk's running mate. In the general election, Polk ran against U.S. Senator Henry Clay (1777-1852), a Kentuckian and a founder of the Whig Party. The Whigs used the campaign slogan "Who is James K. Polk?"-an allusion to the fact that Polk was not well known outside the world of politics. However, Polk's expansionist platform favoring the annexation of Texas appealed to voters. He narrowly won the presidency with 49.5 percent of the popular vote and an electoral margin of 170-105. At age 49, James Polk was younger than any previous president when he entered the White House. A workaholic, America's new chief executive set an ambitious agenda with four major goals: cut tariffs, reestablish an independent U.S. Treasury, secure the Oregon Territory and acquire the territories of California and New Mexico from Mexico. Polk eventually achieved all his goals. He was a champion of manifest destiny-the belief that the United States was fated to expand across the North American continent-and by the end of his four years in office, the nation extended, for the first time, from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean. In 1845, the United States completed its annexation of Texas, which became the 28th state on December 29. This move led to a breakdown in diplomatic relations with Mexico (from which Texas had revolted in 1836). After the United States sent troops to a disputed border region around the Rio Grande River, the Mexican-American War (1846-48) broke out. The United States won the two-year battle, and as a result, Mexico relinquished its claims to Texas. It also recognized the Rio Grande as America's southern border and, in exchange for $15 million, ceded the land that makes up all or parts of present-day California, Arizona, Colorado, Nevada, New Mexico, Utah and Wyoming. (Despite the U.S. victory, the war proved controversial and reignited the slavery extension debate that would ultimately result in the American Civil War in the 1860s.) With the Oregon Treaty of 1846, Polk managed another significant land acquisition-this time without going to war-when his administration diplomatically settled a border dispute with the British and gained full control of the present-day states of Washington, Oregon and Idaho, as well as parts of Montana and Wyoming. On the domestic front, Polk reduced tariffs in an effort to stimulate trade and created an independent U.S. Treasury. (Federal funds had previously been deposited in private or state banks.) Also during this time, the U.S. Naval Academy, Smithsonian Institution and Department of Interior were each established, and in addition to Texas, two more states-Iowa (1846) and Wisconsin (1848)-joined the Union.

John C. Calhoun

John C. Calhoun (1782-1850), was a prominent U.S. statesman and spokesman for the slave-plantation system of the antebellum South. As a young congressman from South Carolina, he helped steer the United States into war with Great Britain and established the Second Bank of the United States. Calhoun went on to serve as U.S. secretary of war, vice president and briefly as secretary of state. As a longtime South Carolina senator, he opposed the Mexican-American War and the admission of California as a free state, and was renowned as a leading voice for those seeking to secure the institution of slavery.A nationalist at the outset of his political career, Calhoun was one of the leading War Hawks who maneuvered the unprepared United States into war with Great Britain in 1812. After the Treaty of Ghent that ended that conflict, Calhoun was responsible for establishing the Second Bank of the United States, and he wrote the bonus bill that would have laid the foundation for a nationwide network of roads and canals if President James Madison had not vetoed it.A candidate for the presidency in 1824, Calhoun was the object of bitter partisan attacks from other contenders. Dropping out of the race, he settled for the vice presidency and was twice elected to that position. But after Andrew Jackson's assumption of the presidency in 1829, Calhoun found himself isolated politically in national affairs. At first he supported the Tariff of 1828, the so-called Tariff of Abominations, but responding to his constituents' criticism of the measure and believing that the tariff was being unfairly assessed on the agrarian South for the benefit of an industrializing North, Calhoun drafted for the South Carolina legislature his Exposition and Protest. In this essay he claimed original sovereignty for the people acting through the states and advocated state veto or nullification of any national law that was held to impinge on minority interests. He later developed the argument in his two essays Disquisition on Government and Discourse on the Constitution, presenting the classic case for minority rights within the framework of majority rule. A moderate during the nullification crisis of 1832-1833, Calhoun joined with Henry Clay in working out the Compromise Tariff. By then he had resigned from the vice presidency and had been elected a senator from South Carolina. For the rest of his life he defended the slave-plantation system against a growing antislavery stance in the free states. He continued his strident defense of slavery even after he joined the Tyler administration as secretary of state. In that position he laid the groundwork for the annexation of Texas and the settlement of the Oregon boundary with Great Britain. Reelected to the Senate in 1845, he opposed the Mexican-American War because he felt American victory would result in territorial concessions that would place the Union at jeopardy. Similarly he opposed the admission of California as a free state, and the free-soil provision in the Oregon territorial bill. In his last address to the Senate, he foretold the disruption of the Union unless the slave states were given adequate and permanent protection for their institutions. Calhoun, along with Daniel Webster, Henry Clay, and Andrew Jackson, dominated American political life from 1815 to 1850. A tall, spare individual, Calhoun was a gifted debater, an original thinker in political theory, and a person of broad learning who was especially well read in philosophy, history, and contemporary economic and social issues. His public appearance as the so-called Cast Iron Man was belied by his personal warmth and affectionate nature in private life.

John Tyler - Reason why he was on the 1840 VP ticket; characteristics

John Tyler (1790-1862) served as America's 10th president from 1841 to 1845. He assumed office after the death of President William Henry Harrison (1773-1841), who passed away from pneumonia after just a month in the White House. Nicknamed "His Accidency," Tyler was the first vice president to become chief executive due to the death of his predecessor. A Virginian, he was elected to the state legislature at age 21 and went on to serve in the U.S. Congress and as governor of Virginia. A strong supporter of states' rights, Tyler was a Democratic-Republican; however, in 1840 he ran for the vice presidency on the Whig ticket. As president, Tyler clashed with the Whigs, who later tried, unsuccessfully, to impeach him. Among his administration's accomplishments was the 1845 annexation of Texas. Before he died, Tyler voted for Virginia's secession from the Union and was elected to the Confederate Congress.In 1840, the Whigs selected Ohio politician William Henry Harrison to run for president and chose Tyler as their vice presidential nominee in an attempt to attract states' rights Southerners. The Whigs positioned Harrison as a symbol of the common man and promoted his image as an Indian fighter on the American frontier, using the campaign slogan "Tippecanoe and Tyler too" (a reference to Harrison's military leadership against a coalition of Indian forces at the 1811 Battle of Tippecanoe in Indiana). Harrison's Democratic opponent, President Martin Van Buren (1782-1862), who was unpopular with Americans for his mismanagement of the financial crisis known as the Panic of 1837, was painted by the Whigs as an out-of-touch, wealthy elite. In fact, he came from humble roots while Harrison and Tyler were well-educated and hailed from prominent families. The Harrison-Tyler ticket won the White House with an electoral vote of 234-60 and approximately 53 percent of the popular vote. The 68-year-old Harrison was inaugurated on March 4, 1841. He died a month later, on April 4, from pneumonia.He had kept Harrison's cabinet in place; however, all but one of them resigned after Tyler vetoed bills designed to create a new national bank. The president was disavowed by the Whigs, who in 1843 tried-but failed-to impeach him. Despite the fact that he was a man without a party, Tyler was still able to rack up a list of achievements as chief executive. In 1841, he signed the Pre-Emption Act, which spurred Western settlement by allowing a person to stake a claim on 160 acres of public land and purchase it from the government. In 1842, Tyler's administration ended the Seminole War in Florida and settled a dispute between the U.S. and British North American colonies over boundary issues (including the Maine-Canada border) with the Webster-Ashburton Treaty. In 1844, the U.S. signed the Treaty of Wanghia with China, giving America access to Asian ports. In March 1845, shortly before Tyler left office, he signed a bill annexing Texas (which officially joined the Union as the 29th state in December of that year). On his final full day as president, Tyler signed a bill making Florida the 27th state.

Maine border dispute and settlement/

Maine boundary dispute: Britain want to build a road connecting Halifax, Nova Scotia and Quebec the road ran through disputed territory. Led to Aroostook War in 1838 in Aroostook river valley. Conflict led to full scale shooting war between Canadian lumberjacks and Maine militia. Webster-Ashburton Treaty: British diplomat, Lord Ashburton and Daniel Webster met to negotiate. US and Britain each kept half of territory, US received more of the territory. U.S also received some land from Minnesota and later a priceless iron ore was found there. This treaty created compromise and improved US-Britain relationships. Oregon Country: It had been disputed among Russia, Spain, Britain and the U.S. Spain gave its possessions to the U.S. in the Florida peace treaty of 1819. Russia retreated to the 54-40 line due to US and British treaties, so Britain and IS became the only occupiers of the land. Oregon country Dispute: disputed area was between Columbia river and 49th parallel. US wanted boundary to be 54-40 line. US and Britain settled on 49th parallel. It was quickly passed in 1846 because Senate wanted to end the dispute due to the war with Mexico.

Moses and Stephen Austin

Moses Austin and his son, Stephen F. Austin, were the first Texas empresarios. Stephan: granted a huge tract of land by Mexicans to bring Americans into Texas where they would be properly Mexicanized (must be Roman Catholic) There were also stipulations 1: must become mexican citizens 2: covert to catholic 3: no slavery all were ignored by amereicans. Moses Austin born in CN, although determined to be Spanish (cheap land and freedom from laws); pledged allegiance to the King of Spain - Louisiana Purchase made him, once more, a citizen of the U.S.; asked to establish a colony of 300 families in Texas (governor thought that he could possibly;civilize; Austin); he died a year later and his son took up his father's work. Stephen Austin son of Moses Austin; took up his dream; learned Spanish and established a colony where there was no 'drunkard, gambler, profane swearers, or idler; even banished some families for being undesirable and ordered public flogging; Mainly Scot-Irish made up most of the colony.

Officers in the Mexican American War and in what areas/regions they led

On April 25, 1846, Mexican cavalry attacked a group of U.S. soldiers in the disputed zone under the command of General Zachary Taylor, killing about a dozen. They then laid siege to an American fort along the Rio Grande. Taylor called in reinforcements, and-with the help of superior rifles and artillery-was able to defeat the Mexicans at the battles of Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma. Following those battles, Polk told the U.S. Congress that the "cup of forbearance has been exhausted, even before Mexico passed the boundary of the United States, invaded our territory, and shed American blood upon American soil." Two days later, on May 13, Congress declared war, despite opposition from some northern lawmakers. No official declaration of war ever came from Mexico. At that time, only about 75,000 Mexican citizens lived north of the Rio Grande. As a result, U.S. forces led by Col. Stephen W. Kearny and Commodore Robert F. Stockton were able to conquer those lands with minimal resistance. Taylor likewise had little trouble advancing, and he captured Monterrey in September. With the losses adding up, Mexico turned to old standby General Antonio López de Santa Anna, the charismatic strongman who had been living in exile in Cuba. Santa Anna convinced Polk that, if allowed to return to Mexico, he would end the war on terms favorable to the United States. But when he arrived, he immediately double-crossed Polk by taking control of the Mexican army and leading it into battle. At the Battle of Buena Vista in February 1847, Santa Anna suffered heavy casualties and was forced to withdraw. Despite the loss, he assumed the Mexican presidency the following month. Meanwhile, U.S. troops led by Gen. Winfield Scott landed in Veracruz and took over the city. They then began marching toward Mexico City, essentially following the same route that Hernán Cortés followed when he invaded the Aztec empire. The Mexicans resisted at Cerro Gordo and elsewhere, but were bested each time. In September 1847, Scott successfully laid siege to Mexico City's Chapultepec Castle. During that clash, a group of military school cadets-the so-called niños héroes-purportedly committed suicide rather than surrender.In the Southwest, U.S. operations led by Stephen W. Kearny (led 1700 troops from Leavenworth to Santa Fe) and John C. Fremont (leader of the Bear Flag Revolt in California) were successful. "Old Rough and Ready" Zachary Taylor, a general, he fought into Mexico, reaching Buena Vista, and repelled 20,000 Mexicans with only 5000 men, instantly becoming a hero. General Winfield Scott led American troops into Mexico City.

Anglo-Texan rebellion against Mexico

One major reason for the Anglo Texas rebellion against Mexican rule was Anglo Texas wanted to break away from an authoritarian government. Volumes sufficient to fill multiple warehouses have been written about the Texas Revolution of 1836 in the century and a half since it culminated in the seventeen minute Battle of San Jacinto. Few topics have inspired such polarized feelings. Many blame Mexico's loss of her northernmost regions on a conscious premeditated conspiracy of Anglo-Americans in the United States to steal Texas by whatever means possible. This conspiracy, supported by the American government in Washington, D.C., first bore fruit in 1835-36 with the Texas Revolution and culminated ten years later with the Mexican War which resulted in the loss of the present-day states of New Mexico, Colorado, Nevada, Utah, Arizona, and California. At the other end of the continuum are those who blame the Mexican people for the misrule of Texas and the ruthless dictatorship of Santa Anna for provoking a fully justified rebellion by Anglo-Americans and Tejanos. While such extreme positions are far too simplistic to explain the events of 1835-36, they continue to be voiced today - a century and a half after the fact. Certainly one of the most important reasons for Mexico's loss of Texas was the historic expansionism of the United States, which had been growing by leaps and bounds even prior to the American war of independence. British colonists had occupied and developed the Tidewater and Piedmont areas of the Atlantic Seaboard and were occupying the Appalachians when revolution broke out. Americans now, they conquered and peopled the Ohio River Valley, the Transmississippi West of Kentucky and Tennessee, then Florida, and portions of the massive Louisiana Purchase territory. By the time Mexico gained its independence from Spain, Americans were already on the border of the new nation - and in some cases were already over the border. Whether it was because they wanted new virgin farmland, or they wanted to make the United States a transcontinental nation stretching from the Atlantic to the Pacific, or they wanted to fulfill what they saw as America's divine mission to bring Christianity and civilization to all of North America - "they wanted" is the key phrase. Because the United States had been expanding for its entire history, many Americans were determined to see that trend continue - either through purchase, or negotiations, or militarily. They looked upon American acquisition of vast areas of Northern Mexico as an inevitability. The policy of the American government for the sale of unoccupied land within its borders to settlers also, unwittingly, encouraged many Americans to migrate to Mexican Texas after 1821. In the decade and a half before the revolution in Texas, the United States government offered unoccupied land within its borders to settlers at the price of $1.25 an acre with an 80 acre minimum tract purchase. This worked well as long as credit was readily available. However, a financial panic swept the United States beginning in 1819. This made money incredibly tight. The government sold land on a cash-only basis and with money now scarce, many Americans found the Republic of Mexico's giveaway of large tracts of land to settlers willing to becoming law-abiding citizens of the Republic an irresistable offer. This however is a far cry from proving a premeditated conspiracy by American government officials to "steal" Texas from Mexico. While such allegations were made in both the United States and Mexico during and after the revolution, such a conspiracy - much less that it was responsible for events in Texas - has never been proven. Nonetheless, without a multitude of Anglo-Americans in Texas (who missed their old country, its governmental system and methods) a revolutionary war would not have broken out in Texas in 1835.

South Carolina Exposition

Summary and Definition: The 1828 South Carolina Exposition was an explanation written by John C. Calhoun that reinforced the doctrine, or principle, of Nullification. The 1828 South Carolina Exposition was written in response to the 1828 Tariff of Abominations that favored the commercial interests of the North at the expense of the South. John Quincy Adams was the 6th American President who served in office from March 4, 1825 to March 4, 1829. One of the important events during his presidency was the 1828 South Carolina Exposition. The South Carolina Exposition was written in secret by John C. Calhoun in December 1828. At the time the South Carolina Exposition was written, John C. Calhoun was a powerful politician, vice president under John Quincy Adams with future ambitions to become president. He would continue his role of vice president under Andrew Jackson. John C. Calhoun did not publicly admit authorship of the South Carolina Exposition until 1832, during the Nullification Crisis, when he resigned in protest against Jackson's continuing support of the 1828 Tariff of Abominations. The purpose of the 1828 South Carolina Exposition was to introduce a document that reinforced the principle of Nullification in relation to the series of protectionist tariffs (taxes) that were passed to give protection to the Industrialists and manufacturers in the North at the expense of the South. The South Carolina legislature asked John C. Calhoun to prepare a report on the tariff situation. His 35,000 word draft would become his "Exposition and Protest". However, as John C. Calhoun was Vice-President, and presided over the debates of the Senate, the ideas contained in the South Carolina Exposition document were conveyed in a series of speeches by Senator Robert Hayne of South Carolina.

Causes for the Mexican-American War

Texas gained its independence from Mexico in 1836. Initially, the United States declined to incorporate it into the union, largely because northern political interests were against the addition of a new slave state. The Mexican government was also encouraging border raids and warning that any attempt at annexation would lead to war. Nonetheless, annexation procedures were quickly initiated after the 1844 election of Polk, who campaigned that Texas should be "re-annexed" and that the Oregon Territory should be "re-occupied." Polk also had his eyes on California, New Mexico and the rest of what is today the U.S. Southwest. When his offer to purchase those lands was rejected, he instigated a fight by moving troops into a disputed zone between the Rio Grande and Nueces River that both countries had previously recognized as part of the Mexican state of Coahuila.

The Bank of the U.S. and Jackson's Bank War

The Bank War was the name given to the campaign begun by President Andrew Jackson in 1833 to destroy the Second Bank of the United States, after his reelection convinced him that his opposition to the bank had won national support. The Second Bank had been established in 1816, as a successor to the First Bank of the United States, whose charter had been permitted to expire in 1811.In 1832, Jackson had vetoed a bill calling for an early renewal of the Second Bank's charter, but renewal was still possible when the charter expired in 1836; to prevent that from happening, he set out to reduce the bank's economic power. Acting against the advice of congressional committees and over the opposition of several cabinet members, and after replacing two resistant secretaries of the treasury with a more amenable appointee (Roger Taney), Jackson announced that, effective October 1, 1833, federal funds would no longer be deposited in the Bank of the United States. Instead, he began placing them in various state banks; by the end of 1833, twenty-three 'pet banks' (as they were popularly known) had been selected. The president of the Bank, Nicholas Biddle, anticipating Jackson's actions, began a countermove in August 1833; he started presenting state bank notes for redemption, calling in loans, and generally contracting credit. A financial crisis, he thought, would dramatize the need for a central bank, ensuring support for charter renewal in 1836. In fact, Biddle's campaign appears to have had less effect than either his supporters or his detractors believed at the time, but the Bank War became a matter of intense debate in Congress, in the press, and among the public. Deputations of businessmen descended on Washington, complaining about business conditions and seeking an end to the Bank War, while administration spokesmen argued that Biddle's capacity to disrupt the economy only highlighted the dangers of a central bank. The federal deposits were not returned to the Second Bank, and its charter expired in 1836. President Jackson had won the Bank War.

The Spoils System

The Spoils System was the name given to the practice of hiring and firing federal workers when presidential administrations changed in the 19th century. The practice began during the administration of President Andrew Jackson, who took office in 1829. Jackson supporters portrayed it as a necessary and overdue effort at reforming the federal government. Jackson's political opponents had a very different interpretation, as they considered his method to be a corrupt use of political patronage. And the term Spoils System was intended to be a derogatory nickname. The phrase came from a speech by Senator William L. Marcy of New York. While defending the actions of the Jackson administration in a speech in the U.S. Senate, Marcy said, "To the victors belong the spoils."The Spoils System Was Intended As a Reform: When Andrew Jackson took office in March 1829, after the bruising election of 1828, he was determined to change the way the federal government operated. To Jackson and his supporters, such changes were good policy. There were stories circulated claiming elderly men who were no longer able to perform their jobs were still filling positions to which they had been appointed by George Washington nearly 40 years earlier. The Spoils System Was Denounced as Corruption Jackson's policy of replacing federal employees was bitterly denounced by his political opponents. His political ally (and future president) Martin Van Buren was at times credited with having created the policy, as his New York political machine, known as the Albany Regency, had operated in similar fashion. Published reports in the 19th century claimed that Jackson's policy accounted for nearly 700 government officers losing their jobs in 1829, the first year of his presidency. In July 1829 there was a newspaper report claiming the mass firings of federal employees actually affected the economy of the city of Washington, with merchants unable to sell goods. All that may have been exaggerated, but there is no doubt that Jackson's policy was controversial. In January 1832 Jackson's perennial enemy, Henry Clay, assailed Senator Marcy of New York in a Senate debate, accusing the loyal Jacksonian of bringing corrupt practices from the New York political machine to Washington.

Changes in presidential elections by 1840s (Campaigns, voters, etc)

The United States presidential election of 1840 saw President Martin Van Buren fight for re-election against an economic depression and a Whig Party unified for the first time behind war hero William Henry Harrison. Rallying under the slogan "Tippecanoe and Tyler, too," the Whigs easily defeated Van Buren.Martin Van Buren was re-nominated unenthusiastically by the Democrats in 1840; no candidate was nominated for the vice presidency. To many of those countrymen who had suffered through years of depression, he was "Martin Van Ruin." Henry Clay felt his time had finally arrived and anticipated receiving the Whig nomination. Other forces in the party, however, knew that Clay's prominence over the years had earned him many enemies and they backed William Henry Harrison once again. Harrison was an old war hero and had made few pronouncements on public issues—a situation similar to Andrew Jackson in 1824. For regional balance, John Tyler of Virginia was selected as the vice-presidential candidate; Tyler was a former Democrat and would later return to many of his earlier beliefs. The campaign slogan was, "Tippecanoe and Tyler, too!"Hard Cider Campaign The campaign of 1840 was heavy on image-making, less so on substance—a harbinger of things to come. One Democratic wag observed that Harrison would probably be just as happy with a jug of hard cider to sip in front of his log cabin as serving as president. The Whigs turned this contemptuous statement to their advantage and launched the "log cabin and hard cider" campaign, playing up Harrison's appeal to the masses and serving large quantities of hard cider at rallies. On the other side Van Buren was attacked for alleged elitism; he was a well-dressed dandy and consumer of fine wines and exotic foods.Neither portrayal was accurate. Harrison had many aristocratic qualities and came from a wealthy family, while Van Buren was a self-made man who was a firm believer in democratic values.The election results appeared to be a landslide in the Electoral College, but the popular vote was close.

Wilmot Proviso

The Wilmot Proviso was designed to eliminate slavery within the land acquired as a result of the Mexican War (1846-48). Soon after the war began, President James K. Polk sought the appropriation of $2 million as part of a bill to negotiate the terms of a treaty. Fearing the addition of a pro-slave territory, Pennsylvania Congressman David Wilmot proposed his amendment to the bill. Although the measure was blocked in the southern-dominated Senate, it inflamed the growing controversy over slavery, and its underlying principle helped bring about the formation of the Republican Party in 1854.

Terms of the Treaty of Guadalupe- Hidalgo

Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, signed on February 2, 1848, ended the Mexican-American War in favor of the United States. The war had begun almost two years earlier, in May 1846, over a territorial dispute involving Texas. The treaty added an additional 525,000 square miles to United States territory, including the including the land that makes up all or parts of present-day Arizona, California, Colorado, Nevada, New Mexico, Utah and Wyoming. Mexico also gave up all claims to Texas and recognized the Rio Grande as America's southern boundary. Following the defeat of the Mexican army and the fall of Mexico City, in September 1847, the Mexican government surrendered and peace negotiations began. The war officially ended with the February 2, 1848, signing in Mexico of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. The treaty added an additional 525,000 square miles to United States territory, including the land that makes up all or parts of present-day Arizona, California, Colorado, Nevada, New Mexico, Utah and Wyoming. Mexico also gave up all claims to Texas and recognized the Rio Grande as America's southern boundary. In return, the United States paid Mexico $15 million and agreed to settle all claims of U.S. citizens against Mexico.

Divorce Bill

Van Buren decided to take the government's funds out of banks entirely. A bill passed by Van Buren in 1837, that divorced the government from banking altogether, and established an independent treasury, so the government could lock its money in vaults in several of the larger cities, proposal to establish an independent treasury. The advantages of a separation of bank and state were several. By removing its funds from state banks, the federal government would avoid association with institutions instrumental in bringing on the panic. The government would collect, store, and disburse public revenue through Treasury agents and postal employees and not be open to the charge that these funds were the basis for unchecked speculation. While economically feasible, this plan contained numerous political pitfalls. Even though requiring a minimum of enabling legislation, an independent treasury, or subtreasury, as it would soon be known, carried an implicit criticism of state banks. According to one proponent, these institutions would henceforth be "left to their fate." Furthermore, as Silas Wright warned, the divorce of bank and state would make the president vulnerable to charges that he wanted to "extend executive patronage and power." Although disappointed by the waverings of state leaders, Van Buren realized that he needed their support to succeed in the special session of Congress that convened on 4 September 1837.

Proposed Whig solutions to economy in 1837

Van Buren's political opponents the Whigs, took little comfort in this analysis and were quick to blame the Democrats', and especially Jackson's, financial and monetary policies. He called for a special session of Congress, which finally convened in September 1837, to deal with the crisis. The President announced a controversial proposal to establish an independent treasury system, in which the federal government would deposit its funds in a series of sub treasuries. Van Buren and his advisers hoped that an independent treasury would stabilize the American financial system by refusing poorly managed state banks access to government funds. Two groups of dissident Democrats—one supporting the state banks and the other suspicious of all banks—attacked the President's solution. The Whigs, on the other hand, traced the economic downturn to President Jackson's economic and fiscal policies, and especially his decision not to recharter the National Bank. They argued that the nation's economy required a powerful institution like a national bank to manage the economy and cultivate economic stability. Congressional resistance to the independent treasury proposal proved difficult to overcome. Even some of the President's closest allies from New York questioned his thinking. Not until the summer of 1840 did Congress pass an independent treasury bill. By then, despite a recovery in 1839, the nation's economy had been mired in a depression for nearly four years; the problems would continue into the early 1840s. More important for Van Buren's immediate future, the depression would be a major issue in the 1840 presidential election.ch they might use recklessly. The independent treasury proposal actually reversed President Jackson's decision to deposit federal funds in state banks.

Texan American - characteristics

What was going on with Mexico when Stephen Austin arrived in Texas? 2. Mexico declared independence from Spain and won so Texas became part of Mexico 3 MEXICO had conditions under which he could set up his colony. What conditions did Mexican officials have for Stephen Austin in order for him to set up his colony (1822)? 1. Had to choose only MORAL & HARDWORKING SETTLERS 2. settlers had to BECOME MEXICAN CITIZENS 3. settlers had to JOIN THE CATHOLIC CHURCH What is the "Old Three Hundred" (1827-6 years after Moses Austin)? Stephen Austin attracted 297 families to Texas and are known as the "old 300" What STARTED THE RISING TENSIONS between the American settlers in Texas and the Mexicans in Texas (Tejanos)? the success of Stephen Austin's colony started a rush of settlers to Texas Compare the number of Americans in Texas to the Tejanos (Texans of Mexican descent) by 1830 (3 years after the Old Three Hundred). 25,000 Americans in Texas 4,000 Tejanos in Texas What were the complaints of Americans in Texas? 1. used to governing themselves & didn't want to take orders from Mexican officials 2. all official documents were written in Spanish and the Americans refused to learn the language 3. many Americans were slave holders who were upset when Mexico outlawed slavery in (1829) What were the complaints of Tejanos? 1. unhappy that Americans were there without Mexico's consent 2. American immigrants showed little respect for Mexican culture 3. Americans had no intention of becoming citizens The response of the Mexican government to the rising tensions between Americans & Tejanos? 1. closed Texas to further US immigration 2. sent troops to enforce immigration laws-The response of Americans to the Mexican government's new immigration laws:the Texans began to rebel 2 groups: led by William Travis who called for revolution/ led by Stephen Austin who made requests to Santa Ana

William Henry Harrison

William Henry Harrison (1773-1841), America's ninth president, served just one month in office before dying of pneumonia. His tenure, from March 4, 1841, to April 4, 1841, is the shortest of any U.S. president. Harrison, who was born into a prominent Virginia family, joined the Army as a young man and fought American Indians on the U.S. frontier. He then became the first congressional delegate from the Northwest Territory, a region encompassing much of the present-day Midwest. In the early 1800s, Harrison served as governor of the Indiana Territory and worked to open American Indian lands to white settlers. He became a war hero after fighting Indian forces at the Battle of Tippecanoe in 1811. Harrison went on to serve as a U.S. congressman and senator from Ohio. He was elected to the White House in 1840, but passed away a month after his inauguration, the first U.S. president to die in office. In 1814, Harrison resigned from the Army as a major general, and moved with his family to a farm in North Bend, Ohio. Two years later, Harrison was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives from Ohio. In 1819, he became a state senator. Starting in 1825, he spent three years as a U.S. senator. He resigned his senate seat in 1828 to become U.S. minister to Colombia, a post he held for a year. In 1836, Harrison was a Whig Party candidate for the U.S. presidency (the recently established Whigs ran three presidential candidates in different parts of the nation that year). Harrison lost the election to Democrat Martin Van Buren (1782-1862). Four years later, the Whigs nominated Harrison again, with Virginia politician John Tyler (1790-1862) as his running mate. During the campaign, a pro-Democrat newspaper mocked Harrison, then in his late 60s, for being too old to run for president, and said: "Give him a barrel of hard [alcoholic] cider, and... a pension of two thousand [dollars] a year... and... he will sit the remainder of his days in his log cabin." The Whigs used this statement to mount a "log cabin campaign," positioning Harrison, or "Old Tip," as a symbol of the common man and promoting his image as an Indian fighter on the frontier. (His supporters used log cabin and cider barrel imagery on campaign memorabilia, including log-cabin-shaped bottles of whiskey from the E.C. Booz distillery, which led to "booze" becoming a common American term for alcohol.) Van Buren, who was unpopular with Americans for his mismanagement of the financial crisis known as the Panic of 1837, was painted by his opponents as an out-of-touch, wealthy elite. In fact, he came from humble roots while Harrison was well-educated and hailed from an established family. However, the tactics worked: Harrison won the presidency with an electoral vote of 234-60 and approximately 53 percent of the popular vote.

Characteristics of California and the Californios

a term used to identify a Californian of Hispanic; most were descendants of the Spanish and Mexican conquerors who had once ruled California. Much of Californio society lived at or near the many missions; but they were overthrown when the civil war broke out and by 1870 the Californios' brief ascendency had utterly vanished.