Unit 5 Assessment

Types of Validity

1. Content 2. Criterion-Related: concurrent & predictive 3. Construct 4. Discriminant 5. Theory-Based

Normal Distribution

symmetrical distribution of scores with an equal number of scores above and below the midpoint - mean, median, and mode all fall at the same point - students whose IQ scores are consistent with an intellectual disability diagnosis have scores that fall at 70 or below - a score of 115 is 1 SDs above the mean; the equivalent percentile score for a standard score of 115 is approximately 34%

Optimal Difficulty: Adjusted for Guessing

- find mid-point between chance performance & 100% - difficulty = # of students who were correct/total # of students who took the test - for essays, don't adjust for guessing; divide average score by total possible score

Under IDEA, Student's Disability/Disorder Must:

- persist over a long period of time - exist to a marked degree - adversely affect academic performance failing to meet these requirements will result in ineligibility for special education services

Reliability Coefficients

- reliability coefficients range from 0 to 1 - reliability of .8 or higher is considered acceptable - reliability below .8 is considered questionable

Categorizing Assessment

1. Standardized 2. Subjective 3. Objective 4. Performance

Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD)

A pattern of negativistic, hostile, and defiant behavior, during which a child often loses her or his temper, often argues with adults, and often actively defies or refuses to comply with adults' requests or rules 1. angry/irritable mood 2. argumentative/defiant 3. vindictiveness 4. frequent argument with siblings is not considered a characteristic of ODD possible for a student to only manifest this disorder in a family context but not in a school context - this raises philosophical questions: where do we locate pathology? - systems need operate in more than one setting

Functional Communication Training (FCT)

An antecedent intervention in which an appropriate communicative behavior is taught as a replacement behavior for problem behavior usually evoked by an establishing operation (EO); involves differential reinforcement of alternative behavior (DRA) Goals - reduce behaviors of concern - increase communication skills - assess behaviors of concern - determine alternative communication response - teach alternative communication response - reinforce alternative communication response - ignore difficult behavior FCT: Limit & Future Directions - need more effective research (caregivers and clinicians) - reducing vs. eliminating behaviors - rich vs. lean reinforcement schedules - isolated vs. synthesized contingencies - natural settings with less predictable reinforcement - generality & maintenance - practical impact, social validity, & acceptability

Gf-Gc Theory

Cattel conceptualized G-Factor as: 1. Fluid Intelligence (Gf) reasoning (often) with unfamiliar information or novel procedures; the abilities that allow us to reason, think, and learn new things 2. Crystallized Intelligence (Gc) (comprehension knowledge/pool of knowledge): ability to communicate acquired knowledge; influenced by formal/informal education Horn expanded theory with additional factors

Depression Treatment

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy Psychoeducation Feelings identification Recognizing and replacing automatic thoughts Planning preferred activities Problem-solving Alternative Treatment - medication management Activating Event --> Beliefs --> Consequences

Anxiety Treatment

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy: 1. Psychoeducation 2. Teaching relaxation & coping skills 3. Cognitive restructuring 4. Systematic desensitization - exposures Alternative Treatment - medication management

Criterion-Referenced vs. Norm-Referenced

Criterion-Referenced - determines mastery @ specific level - specific to a domain or content area - similar level of difficulty - # or % correct as compared to criteria Norm-Referenced - compares a score to the performance of similar test takers - broad domain or content area - wide variability of difficulty level - standard score, percentile, or grade-equivalent score as compared to the norm group

IQ Score Interpretation

Norm-Referenced Scores are compared to scores of same age-peers - score at the 40th percentile means the student performed as well as or better than 40 out of 100 peer in the normative sample - percentile does NOT refer to percent correct - standard scores have a mean of 100 & SD of 15 - any score that falls within one standard deviation above or below the mean (between 85 and 115) is considered average - an IQ score of 130 or above is considered a superior level 1. Raw Score is an unaltered measurement 2. Standard Deviation measures how much a score strays from the average 3. Deviation IQ is the absolute measure of how far an individual differs from the mean on an individually administered IQ test

RIOT Acronym

Record Reviews (screening & intervention progress data; report cards) Interviews (with parents and teachers) Observations (in the classroom; in the cafeteria) Testing (academic achievement tests; cognitive assessments) all of these procedures are important components of a comprehensive evaluation to detect intellectual disability

Effective Math Instruction

Schema-Based Instruction 1. Intensive 2. Many Practice Opportunities 3. Systematic Prompting & Feedback - Day 1: Cue + Immediate Model - Subsequent Trials: Cue + 5s time delay 4. Small Sets of Objectives 5. Task Analytic Instruction 6. Concrete Visual Supports 7. Real-life Application

Defining Characteristics of Autism

Stereotype, Competitive or Restricted Behaviors 1. physically repetitive behaviors (head banging, rocking) 2. restricted interest that is a typical for their age (obsessed with trains/coat hangers); can be hard to steer away from this 3. using bodies as a tool (physically moving someone else's hand to get them to pay attention) Characteristics: - Some children cannot speak at all and some may have a large variety of language, using atypical language for their age group - Can be social, such as peculiarities in how they use language - Some students echo language that is out of context (repeating a commercial they hear 6 hours earlier) - Some have issues with non-verbal social communication skills, such as delays in developing them - Problems in communication and social interaction pose added challenges to learning to development of peer relationships - Few individuals with severe autism are able to function independently in society

Multiple Choice Items

Two Parts: the stem - asks a question or presents an incomplete statement alternatives - where there is one correct answer and the rest are distractors Two Types 1. correct-answer formats when there is clearly only one correct answer 2. best-answer formats when there may be more than one correct answer, and the aim is to identify the best one

Other Types of Scores

Z-score -standard score ranging from -4 to +4 based on standard deviation (SD) units Example: z-score of 1 is one SD above the mean X - M / SD = Z T-Score - standard score with a mean of 50 and a SD of 10 Example: a t-score of 45 is .5 SDs below the mean 50 + 10 (Z)

Psychological Construct

a conceptual label for intangible skill, ability, attribute, or cluster behaviors - motivation - intelligence - giftedness helps us summarize, communicate about, interpret, and respond to the complex range of human behaviors

Emotional Disturbance

a condition exhibiting one or more of the following characteristics over a long period of time and to a marked degree that adversely affects educational performance 1. an inability to learn that cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory, or health factors 2. an inability to build or maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships with peers and teachers 3. inappropriate types of behavior or feelings under normal circumstances 4. general pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression 5. a tendency to develop physical symptoms or fears associated with personal or school problems

Identifying Intellectual Disability

a diagnosis of intellectual disability depends in part on whether the child score 2 or more standard deviations below the mean on an IQ test most IQ tests have a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 15; scores should be around 70 or blow to be consistent with diagnostic criteria for intellectual disability making an intellectual disability diagnosis requires more than 1 IQ score; in addition to an IQ score that falls 2 standard deviations below the mean, to diagnose an intellectual disability, we would need to know that the adaptive functioning (e.g., practical, everyday skills) score falls 2 standard deviations below the mean adaptive functioning data is critical for helping us determine the intensity and types of support this individual might need to be safe and successful with everyday routines differ from learning disabilities; intellectual disabilities are associated with more global academic support needs efforts to remediate academic skills by intervening on working memory or executing functioning have much lower effect sizes than interventions that directly target academic skills (explicit instruction, repeated reading)

Contingency Management

a form of behavior therapy in which certain behaviors are reliably followed by well-defined consequences when shaping behavior teachers should: - positive consequences (praise) for appropriate behavior - avoid positively reinforcing misbehaviors by paying attention or calling them out techniques - teachers can implement positive reinforcement using a token economy - response cost: students can lose tokens for inappropriate behavior

Concrete Pictorial Abstract

a highly effective approach to teaching that develops a deep and sustainable understanding of math in pupils Referred to as the concrete, representational, abstract framework 1. Concrete: includes manipulates, measuring tools, or other objects students can handle 2. Pictorial: includes drawings, diagrams, charts, or graphs that students can relate back to the concrete objectS 3. Abstract: symbolic representation such as numbers, letters, and standard algorithms

Conduct Disorder

a pattern of behavior in which the rights of others or basic social rules are violated; behaviors must be due to an underlying psychological disorder 1. aggression 2. destruction of property 3. deceitful or theft 4. serious violation of rules examples - bullying, fighting, being physically cruel - destruction of property (setting fires) - stealing - breaking into homes/cars - physical assault - Individuals must show 3 or more symptoms over a 12-month period two types childhood-onset type - more common in boys to display aggression through fighting, stealing, vandalizing, and having discipline problems in school - stable & resistant to change, predicts more severe antisocial, aggressive behaviors through adulthood adolescent-onset subtype - do not show any characteristics before age 10 - more commonly found in females who typically engage in lying, running away, being truant, abusing substances, and being socially promiscuous - less likely to have persistent conduct disorders/develop more serious antisocial disorder in adulthood than those with childhood onset type treatments 1. multis-systemic therapy: resource intensive, provides around the clock access to therapeutic supports 2. parent training: rules positive reinforcement routines

Flynn Effect

a phenomenon in which IQ scores have increased over successive generations though out the world; the following are possible explanations for the increase in IQ: 1. better nutrition 2. increased schooling 3. greater educational level of parents 4. fewer childhood diseases 5. improved parent-child interactions 6. greater familiarity with taking notes 7. minor changes in content instructions and administrations of IQ tests from one version to another

Deviation IQ Scores

a standard score with a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 15

Z-Score

a transformation of individual raw scores into a standard form, where the transformation is based on knowledge about the standardization sample's mean and standard deviation mean of 0 & standard deviation of 1 formula X (raw score) - M (standardization sample) divided by a standard deviation of 1

Classroom Tests

a type of formal assessment that measures student mastery in school subjects - can be both formative/summative

Cognitive Discrepancy Approach

a way to capture and compare a student's score on different types of test - compares assessments of a child's intellectual ability (IQ) with how much progress he's making in school (his academic achievement) Limitations - NOT valid/reliable for diagnosing learning disabilities - DO NOT enable meaningful predictions about an individuals response to intervention

The Standard Error Measurement (SEM)

an index of how much, on average, we expect a person's observed score to vary from the score the person is capable of receiving based on actual ability - the statistical calculation for determining the standard error of measurement - based on the reliability of the coefficient of the test and the SD test scores of a norm - with an individual test score, SEM can determine the confidence interval (the range in which individual's true score/ability lies)

Purpose of Assessment in Education

assessment is any process of gathering information about students' mastery and achievement levels 1. inform educational policies at the district, state, or national level 2. provide information for making decisions about the efficacy of curricula and programs at the district or school level 3. provide data for making decisions about individuals such as: - student selection (such as for college admissions) - placement decisions (such as classes grouped by ability) - diagnosis of disabilities - career planning - teacher decision-making when planning instruction - monitoring student progress - evaluating student outcomes on learning goals

IDEA vs. Section 504

both protect the right to "free and appropriate education," the term appropriate implies different accommodations under each law - implement least restrictive environment (LRE) Section 504 - appropriate means an education that is comparable to that of students who are not disabled IDEA - appropriate refers to a curricular program designed to provide educational benefit to student

Item Difficulty Index

calculated by taking the number of persons tested who answered questions correctly divided by the total number of persons tested ranges from 0 to 100; the higher the value, the easier the question if 84% of people get the question right than the item difficulty is .84

Number Sense

capacity to understand numbers and operations and use them to solve problems and make judgements

Central Tendency Error

error in which raters choose a middle point on the scale to describe performance, even though a more extreme point might better describe the student - teacher has a tendency to grade things down the middle - occurs when only the middle part of the scale is used, scoring everyone as average

Distractor Analysis

examining the total pattern of responses to each item of a test (for multiple choice items) - there is only one correct answer; the rest are referred to as distractors - distractors directly affect the difficulty level and discrimination level of the item - look at the proportion of students that chose each distractor: may be implausible or too easy

Measurement Invariance (MI)

exists if an instrument measures the same construct in the same way across a range of groups (i.e., if scores have equivalent meaning for all groups) - without ensuring this has been established, we may make inappropriate interpretations for members of some groups when interpreting their tests - a rating scale in which crying behaviors are factored into scores similarly for children of all ages; this would be problematic & inflate the scores of the youngest children - if it turns out a particular item response or score operates differently across different racial or ethnic groups, we may misinterpret scores, and as a result, make poor decisions when planning treatment

Practicality

feasibility of administration and scoring procedures - group-administered tests may be more practical than individually-administered tests

Conceptual Fluency

integrated, functional comprehension of multiple math ideas

Halo Effect

occurs when one attribute of a person/situation is used to develop an overall impression of the individual or situation - commonly occur in analytical rubrics

T-Scores

standard scores with a mean of 50 and a standard deviation of 10

Standardized Tests

tests given under uniform conditions and scored according to uniform procedures 1. IQ tests & achievement tests 2. formal assessments 3. provide summative information

Carroll's Three-Stratum Theory

the three layers (strata) are defined as representing narrow, broad, and general cognitive ability the factors describe stable and observable differences among individuals in the performance of tasks.

Formal Assessment

typically occur in more structured environments, such as the classroom/testing centers; purpose is to obtain summative data of students' performance that can be compared to other students - often collect objective data, which refers to a score having one interpretations such as right or wrong - can be subjective, such as essays or performance-based assessments

Standardization

uniformity in administration and scoring procedures - scripted instructions - time limits - test materials - test environment - scoring system

Leniency or Severity Errors

when a supervisor tends to be overly easy (leniency) or too harsh (severity) on everyone only using rating at the high end and low ends of the scale

Which Two Theories Does Cattell-Horn-Carroll Theory Integrate?

1. Cattel-Horn Gf-Gc Theory is a theory on the structure of human cognitive abilities & is important in the study of human intelligence 2. Carrol's Three-Stratum Theory is a theory of cognitive ability where the three layers (strata) are defined as representing, narrow, broad, and general cognitive ability

ODD Interventions

1. Contingency Management 2. Parent Training 3. Antecedent Interventions Example: Effective Instructional Delivery - Proximity - Look @ me - Good job looking - Give a clear directive in a neutral tone - Provide praise for following directions quickly (allows teachers to increase momentum & odds of compliance)

Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligence

posits that we have 8 intelligences that are independent of one another, but work together to solve problems 1. linguistic: using words to describe or communicate ideas 2. logical-mathematical: reasoning, perceiving patterns in numbers, using numbers effectively 3. spatial: accurately perceiving and transforming the visual-spatial world 4. bodily-kinesthetic: having expertise in one's body 5. musical: recognizing components of music, expressing musical forms, using music to express ideas 6. interpersonal: accurately perceiving and appropriately responding to the emotions of other people 7. intrapersonal: being introspective, discriminating one's emotions and perceptions, knowing one's strengths and limitations 8. naturalistic: recognizing and classifying living things, having a sensitivity to features of the natural world proceed with caution because the validity of the theory itself lacks empirical support

Item Difficulty - p

proportion of test takers who respond correctly to an item ranges from 0 to 1 item difficulty between .3 & .7 is adequate

Standard Deviation

the degree of variability in a group of scores that describes how data are dispersed in a population and give context to large data sets in modern IQ testing, one standard deviation is 15 points; thus, a score of 85 would be described as "one standard deviation below the mean" - a small SD indicates that most scores are close to the mean of the group - a large SD suggests that the scores are more spread out

Content Validity

the extent to which a test represents the target domain a math calculation test that only assesses addition, although the curriculum covered four operations, has low content validity

Construct Validity

the extent to which an assessment measure the target construct a math test with significant reading demands may have low construct validity

Variability

how widely scores are distributed difference between highest and lowest scores scores: 70, 70, 80, 90 the range is the simplest measure of variability calculated as the difference between the highest and lowest scores - the range of the set of number above is 30 small SD - scores tightly clustered around the mean large SD - scores are spread out

Administered Cognitive Assessments

include a battery of subtests, most of which require no reading & are intended to tap a range of crystallized (pre-existing knowledge acquired through educational experiences) and fluid (abstract reasoning and novel problem-solving) abilities

Multimodal interventions

interventions that combine more than one approach; typically consist of medication, behavior modification, and sometimes academic interventions as well example - students may receive both medication and CBT or both medication and contingency mangement

Procedural Fluency

knowing procedures and when/how to use them and demonstrating skill in accurate, flexible, efficient use of procedures

Skewness

the extent to which cases are clustered more at one or the other end of the distribution of a quantitative variable rather than in a symmetric pattern around its center negative skew - tail is to the left (few low scores) - scores are clustered to the right (many high scores) - may indicate test is too easy positive skew - tail is to the right (few high scores) - scores clustered to the left (many low scores)

Reputable Contemporary Cognitive Assessments

often developed with more diverse normative samples and more sophisticated analyses to test for and identify potential biases and measurement non-invariance, although these procedures do not guarantee that all bias and non-invariance is eliminated - cognitive discrepancy approaches are not valid/reliable for diagnosing learning disabilities - cognitive assessment data do not enable meaningful predictions about an individual's response to intervention - cognitive assessment is not useful for informing academic intervention (Burns, 2016)

Item Discrimination - D

statistic that tells how well an item distinguishes students who know item content from those who do not - ranges from -1 to +1 - values of .3 & above are considered acceptable two types 1. positive - those who did well on test answered item correctly - those with low scores answered item incorrectly 2. negative - item discriminates in the unexpected direction: those who did well on test responded incorrectly to this item - check for errors

Informal Assessment

take place in many situations, such as the classroom, playground, or home - typically have formative purposes, involve an observation/interview - do NOT involve score/comparisons of students - typically collect subjective data, which means the data are open to interpretation

Objective Assessments

tasks in which students produce a response that can be scored as correct or incorrect with little interpretation advantages: - breadth of coverage - tend to measure lower levels of objectives, take less class time, and can be scored relatively quickly with high reliability and validity disadvantages: - often poorly constructed, which can reduce the validity of the interpretation

IQ Tests

tests designed to measure intellectual aptitude, or ability to learn in school 1. historically, test development & uses lacked sensitivity 2. current commonly used measure use nationally representative samples 3. threats to fairness & validity must always be considered 4. NOT particularly useful for informing academic intervention or learning disability diagnoses does a good job of measuring the reasoning and problem solving skills it sets out to but that isn't the same thing as measuring a person's potential

Scoring Errors on Grading Performance Assessments

1. Halo Effect occurs when one attribute of a person/situation is used to develop an overall impression of the individual or situation 2. Central Tendency Error is a number that describes something about the "average" score of a distribution 3. Leniency/Severity is when a teacher tends to be overly easy or too harsh on everyone

Rationale

1. IDEA requires schools to facilitate Student Wide District participation and progress in the general education curriculum 2. Data indicate students' performance is suboptimal 3. Virtually all young children can learn math and students with developmental disabilities can improve in a range of math skills when given appropriate instruction 4. Math skills enhance everyday functioning and support future education and job success 5. Limited opportunities to learn for some children

Types of Assessment

1. Informal 2. Formal 3. Objective 4. Performance-Based 5. Standardized 6. Classroom Tests

Categories of Disorders

1. Internalizing - emotional states - cognitive distress - depression & anxiety 2. Externalizing - outwardly directed behavior - ADHD, ODD, conduct disorder 3. Developmental - basic skill deficits - communication disorders - autism

How Can Anxiety Affect School Peformance?

1. Intrusive thoughts can be distracting 2. Fear of incompetence can interfere with participation and efficient, accurate work completion 3. Anxiety avoidance behaviors (e.g., school refusal) 4. Social difficulties Physiological symptoms - muscle tension - racing heart rate - stomach ache

NCTM Five Content Standards

1. Number & Operations 2. Algebra 3. Geometry 4. Measurement 5. Data Analysis & Probability

Interventions for Autism Spectrum Disorder

1. Systematic desensitization & contingency management techniques are effective strategies for reducing students' fears and anxieties 2. Children with autism spectrum disorder need a variety of interventions and benefit most from early and intensive therapies (respond positively to intensive contingency management and cognitive-behavioral management) 3. Cognitive-behavioral and contingency management techniques also work well for reducing disruptive behaviors (students w/ ADHD respond most positively to a combination of interventions)

Types of Relability

1. Test-Retest gives the same assessment twice 2. Alternative Form creates two forms of the same test 3. Internal Consistency compares scores on half of the test with scores on another half to determine how well the items measure the same construct or compare subtest scores to total scores

NCTM Five Process Standards

1. Problem Solving 2. Reasoning & Proof 3. Communication 4. Connections 5. Representations

RSVP Characteristics

1. Reliability: yields consistent results 2. Standardization: adherence to administration procedures; equal opportunity 3. Validity: measures intended construct 4. Practicality: time and other sources

Limits of IQ Testing

1. Represent a finite sample of a person's cognitive skills: capture certain, but not all, abilities that are part of intelligence 2. Different IQ tests don't measure the same skills since they are developed based on different theories of intelligence 3. IQ is a snapshot of a person's ability at a given point in time: children's IQ scores indicate only their performance at the time of the test administration 4. A person's performance on IQ tests can change over time as a result of formal/informal education 5. Individuals can improve their performance as a result of instruction and environmental input, however, their performance relative to the norm group generally does not change drastically overtime (generally stable from elementary school-adulthood) 6. not particularly useful for informing academic intervention or learning disability diagnoses. History of IQ Testing - culturally inappropriate practices, use of testing for exclusionary purposes, and a range of other misinterpretations and misapplications

Theories of Intelligence

1. Spearman's Two-Factor Theory of Intelligence: (1) general crystalized intelligence (2) general fluid intelligence 2. Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligence: (1) linguistic (2) logical-mathematic (3) spatial (4) bodily-kinesthetic (5) musical (6) interpersonal (7) intrapersonal (8) naturalistic 3. Sternberg's Theory of Intelligence: (1) analytical abilities (2) creative abilities (3) practical abilities

Types of Scores

1. Standard Scores - used for some standardized tests (e.g., IQ) - mean for IQ tests is 100 and the SD is 15 2. Percentile Scores - Sue scored as well as or better than 70% of test-takers in the normative sample - not equal distributed across normal curve

Sternberg's Theory of Intelligence

1. analytical intelligence (academic & intellectual problem solving) 2. creative intelligence (generating novel problem-solving strategies) 3. practical intelligence (applying knowledge to real situations) - individuals' definitions of success are informed by personal goals & sociocultural context - individuals adapt to their environments through studying & practicing a sport/working out for a sport - individuals shape and select environments through asking questions & choosing classes

IQ Tests in Schools

1. can be a component of a multi-faceted comprehensive assessment 2. useful when there are questions of intellectual disability or giftedness 3. the balance of research does not support a link between IQ & learning disability identification or treatment

Broad Cattell-Horn-Carroll Abilities Measured by WJ-IV

1. comprehension-knowledge (Gc) 2. fluid reasoning (Gf) 3. short-term working memory (Gwm) 4. cognitive processing speed (Gs) 5. auditory processing (Ga) 6. long-term retrieval (Glr) 7. visual processing (Gv)

Schema-Based Intruction

1. identify the underlying problem structure before solving the problem 2. represent problem with a visual representation (schematic diagram) 3. execute a plan for using a heuristic taught with DI 4. check solution

Overview of Disabilities and Disorders

1. other disabilities combined (7.2%) - deaf-blindness - developmental delay - hearing impairment - multiple disabilities - traumatic brain injury - visual impairment - sometimes ADHD 2. emotional disturbance (5.5%) - anxiety - depression - severe aggression - conduct disorder 3. intellectual disabilities (6.9%)

ADHD Involves Developmentally Atypical Impairing Levels Of:

Inattention & Disorganization 1. difficulty staying on task 2. losing things 3. seeming not to listen 4. hyperactivity-impulsivity 5. difficulty staying still/seated 6. excessive talking and interrupting Approximately 40% to 60% of all children with ADHD have at least one coexisting disorder - conduct disorder - mood disorder - anxiety - specific learning disabilities treatment/interventions - CBT, systematic desensitization & contingency management techniques work well in reducing disruptive behavior - respond most positively to a combination of interventions

Early Numeracy

Predict success with future learning outcomes 1. Number Identification 2. Rote Counting 3. Counting with 1-to-1 Correspondence 4. Number Conservation 5. Composing and Decomposing Numbers 6. Magnitude of Numbers 7. Effects of Adding & Subtracting 8. Early Measurement 9. Patterning

Compromises of Validity

Test Fairness - the broader term, addressing the ethical issue of how to use tests appropriately -includes aspects of test bias, equal treatment in the testing process, equal treatment of outcomes, and equal opportunities to learn the material presented on standardized achievement tests Test Bias - some type of systematic error in a test score that may or may not be a function of cultural variation The Cultural Test Bias Hypothesis - states that standardized tests and testing procedures were designed in a such a way as to have a built-in bias against groups categorize by some aspect such as gender, ethnicity, race, or SES

Central Tendency

a score that is typical or representative of the entire group - The National Percentile Scale ranges from 1 through 99 - The National Stanine Scale ranges from 1 through 9 The mean, median, and mode all provide information about the typical score within a group but do not provide information about variability 1. Mean → divide the sum of all scores by the number of scores to find the mean or simple average; summing the 11 scores (sum = 876) divided by 11 gives a mean of 79.64 2. Median → find the middle score in a series of scores listed from smallest to largest; provides a summary of central tendency 3. Mode → find the most frequently occurring score in the group

Systematic Desensitization

a technique based on the assumption that anxieties and fears are a conditioned (or learned) response to certain stimuli--combines relaxation training with gradual exposure to the anxiety provoking stimulus

Cognitive-Behavioral Treatment (CBT)

a technique that teaches students to regulate their own behavior using a series of instructions that they memorize, internalize, and apply to different school tasks goal - self-management through the development of new thinking patterns and good decision making techniques - self-monitoring - self-assessment - self-reinforcement

Spearman's Two-Factor Theory

a theory proposing that intelligence has two components: 1. general intelligence (g) which is our overall ability to perform on a variety of cognitive tasks 2. specific intelligence (s) such as vocabulary or math

Renzulli's Three-Ring Conception of Giftedness

proposes that giftedness is a set of traits that collectively defines the behaviors of individuals who are gifted; giftedness is the interaction among 3 traits: 1. Above-Average Ability (1) is defined as a general ability, the capacity to process information, synthesize information, or think abstractly; (2) specific ability, the capacity to acquire knowledge or skill in a specialized domain 2. High-Level of Task Commitment is a form of motivation characterized by an individual's energy or passion for a particular task, problem, or domain; higher levels result in behaviors such as perseverance, endurance, hard work, practice, and self-confidence in one's ability to engage in a productive endeavor 3. High-Level of Creativity is the ability to generate many interesting and feasible ideas with respect to a particular problem or domain

Students at Risk

refers to a group of students considered to be at risk for not meeting standard achievement levels at school four factors used to identify these groups of students 1. a mother with less than a high school education 2. a family using food stamps or other forms of public assistance 3. a single-parent household 4. a home where the parents' primary language is not English 3 groups scoring low on high-stake achievement tests: 1. students living in poverty 2. students with limited english proficiency (LEP) 3. students with disabilities four broad accommodations for these students: 1. presentation format: the student may be presented with different directions/given assistive devises for help in understanding questions 2. response format: altering the format of responding to questions and providing answers 3. time or scheduling: the student might be given more time--more sessions--to take the test but not unlimited time 4. setting: students may be given tests in a special setting

Giftedness

refers to superior IQ combined with demonstrated or potential ability in such areas as academic aptitude, creativity, and leadership multidimensional school eligibility often based on IQ/academic achievement scores

Comorbidity

refers to the coexistence of two or more disorders - 75% of individuals with autism also have an intellectual disability

Performance-Based Assessments

require students to demonstrate their knowledge, which can be accomplished through creating a product or a process - writing a children's story to show knowledge of a historical period - through demonstrating a process, such as setting up materials in a chemistry lab open to interpretation where teacher attempts to quantify characteristics of performance--organization, clarity, and grammar in an essay--by applying scores to each criterion using a rubric alternative/authentic assessments are tasks that are situated in a realistic context & directly meaningful to students' education

Criterion-Related Validity

the extent to which scores are in agreement with (other scores) or predict (future scores) of an external criterion 1. concurrent validity: evidence, based on the test score and another criterion assessed at approximately the same time, such as a math achievement test score and the student's current grade in math 2. predictive ability: evidence, based on the test score and another criterion assessed in the future, such as an aptitude test/later college GPA if scores on a new autism screening correlate highly with scores on a pre-existing autism screening, concurrent validity is high