Unit 7: Global Conflict, Unit 8: Cold War and Decolonization: Unit 9: Globalization - 1900 to Present

Iranian Revolution

- 1941: Muhammad Reza Pahlavi declared himself shah of Iran. Backed by the United States and Britain, he modernized and westernized the nation. - Pahlavi's reforms were called the White Revolution and were in direct opposition to conservative Muslim beliefs. An opposition party quickly rose against Pahlavi, led by an Islamic fundamentalist-the Ayatollah Khomeini, who believed in Islam as both a religion and a foundation for government. - 1979: Pahlavi fled Iran; Khomeini declared Iran an Islamic republic. - New government overturned all of Pahlavi's reforms: banned Western movies, books, and music and instituted strict adherence to conservative Muslim traditions. - As leader of Iran, Khomeini worked to establish Islamic republics throughout the Middle East. - Iran remains a theocratic Islamic republic with a Sunni minority and a Shi'a majority. Shi'a make up the majority in Iraq, Iran, Azerbaijan, and Bahrain. Globally though, there are more Sunnis than Shi'a.

Deng Xiaoping (SIO)

- 1976: Replaced Mao Zedong as leader of communist China; introduced new economic reforms that encouraged free-market policies but did little to extend individual political rights. - Four Modernizations: In an attempt to promote trade and contact with the West, Deng introduced reforms in the areas of agriculture, industry, science and technology, and defense. - Deng reformed land distribution and allowed private ownership after government needs were met. Private businesses helped China's economy but also led to an increasing gap between rich and poor. - Deng encouraged foreign investments of technology and capital. - Tiananmen Square (1989): Chinese students peacefully protested lack of political freedoms and promoted a more open society. On Deng's orders the government opened fire on defenseless citizens and killed/wounded thousands. This was a demonstration of the importance that government placed on maintaining order; Deng, as a moderate leader, was willing to make economic reforms, but not political ones.

Kwame Nkrumah

- A Ghanaian nationalist leader, educated in the United States, who worked for independence of the British Gold Coast. - A supporter of Pan-Africanism and one of the founders of the Organization of African Unity (OAU). - The OAU's aim was to promote cooperation among African states and eliminate colonial rule on the continent. - Successfully negotiated independence for Ghana in 1957; Ghana was the first African nation to gain independence. - He served as the nation's first prime minister. - The trend of decolonization spread across the continent, but the arbitrarily drawn national borders created by Europeans during the Scramble for Africa ensured that there would be numerous challenges for the newly independent nations and their leaders, who had limited experience governing diverse populations.

Panama Canal

- A canal built through the Isthmus of Panama connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. - When the United States took control of the project, Panama was under Colombian control, and Colombia failed to give permission to build. U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt offered Panamanian rebels the support of the U.S. Navy as an incentive to seek Panamanian independence. - In 1903, Panama declared its independence and soon granted the United States the right to build the Canal and the Canal Zone. - In 1999, control of the Canal Zone reverted to the Panamanian government. - The Canal was completed in late 1913, opened in 1914, and quickly became-and remains-an important commercial waterway. Transoceanic travel became quicker and easiterm-90er.

Zionism

- A nationalist movement that emerged in the late 1800s with the stated goal of establishing a Jewish state in Palestine; led in large part by Theodore Herzl. - Jews began to settle in Palestine, especially after World War I, when the land became a mandate of the British; migration had significantly increased after the British issued the Balfour Declaration, expressing their support for a Jewish homeland in Palestine. - After World War II, Zionist goals were realized. Following years of conflict between the Arabs of Palestine and the more recently arrived Jews, the United Nations took control of the region, and in May 1948 the state of Israel was proclaimed a Jewish state. - The creation of the state of Israel led to the Arab-Israeli conflict, a conflict that continues to this day; since 1948, Zionists have continued to support the country and the efforts of its Jewish population to maintain Israel's security.

Nazi-Soviet Pact (Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact)

- A nonaggression treaty signed between Germany and the Soviet Union in 1939 in which the two nations publicly agreed to avoid armed conflict with one another. - Secretly, another agreement was negotiated in which Germany and the Soviet Union agreed to divide the countries of northern and eastern Europe into spheres of influence; Poland was to be divided between the two. - Germany violated the pact by invading the Soviet Union in June 1941 and quickly took control of the Soviet spheres of influence in the Baltic countries and eastern Europe. - Joseph Stalin and Adolf Hitler were ideological enemies, yet this agreement provided Hitler a guarantee that he could invade Poland first, and gave time to Stalin to continue to build up his armed forces without the threat of a German invasion.

Military-Industrial Complex

- A phrase first used by President Dwight Eisenhower when he warned the United States against military spending during his final State of the Union speech in 1961. - The warning came from Eisenhower's concern that the efforts of lobbyists for the armed forces and military industries would lead to excessive congressional spending. - The phrase is now used to describe the relationships that exist among lawmakers, the armed forces, and the arms industry and includes contributions made to politicians, legislative approval for military appropriations, and lobbying to support those agencies that inform military policy. - The phrase can be applied to any nation, but in the 21st century, the United States continues to lead the world in military spending. - In the late 19th century, the world's first military-industrial complexes emerged with the rise of militarism in Europe as Great Britain, France, and Germany increased their militaries to maintain their overseas empires, leading to intense rivalries as well as tension.

Chinese Revolution, 1911

- A revolution in 1911 led to the abdication of the last emperor of China and the end of the Qing Empire. - The overthrow of the existing government came about as a result of the rise of revolutionary and nationalistic feelings across China. - Sun Yat-sen, a Western-educated reformer, led a revolutionary movement based on the Three Principles of the People and in 1912 declared a Chinese Republic. - Sun Yat-sen, the leader of the Kuomintang Party, became president of the new republic, but the new government lacked stability, and soon the nation was involved in a civil war. - The civil war that emerged between the Kuomintang (Nationalists) and the Communist Parties in 1927 ended in October 1949 when the People's Liberation Army and Mao Zedong (Mao Tse-tung) declared the creation of the People's Republic of China. - The civil war was suspended during World War II as the parties joined together to fight the Japanese invasion of China.

Vladimir Lenin

- A student of Marxism, Lenin saw in revolutionary Russia the seeds of a communist revolution. - Following the abdication of Czar Nicholas II and the creation of a provisional government, he took control of the Bolshevik Party, whose members supported the ideals of communism. - In October 1917, the Bolsheviks seized control of the provisional government. The Bolsheviks, soon renamed Communists, immediately set out to transform the nation politically and economically. - Lenin pulled Russia out of World War I and began a series of land reforms. - Civil war broke out, and, as a result, Lenin instituted his policy of war communism. - War communism was nationalization on a massive scale. All major businesses were put under the control of the government, the government made all planning and production decisions, food was rationed, and private ownership of businesses was prohibited.

U.S. Occupation of Japan

- After Japan's unconditional surrender in World War II, it was occupied by U.S. forces under General Douglas MacArthur. - MacArthur ensured that Japan's transformation would benefit the United States and its allies. - A new constitution, adopted in 1947, instituted democratic reforms. The emperor retained his title but had no military or political power. The country developed a parliamentary democracy; a diet made the political decisions. - Japan's military was severely limited, although in 1954 the nation was permitted to create separate land, sea, and air forces for self-defense. - The occupation ended in 1952; the United States still maintains bases in Japan. - Following the U.S. occupation, Japan's resources were committed to a course of aggressive industrialization. As a result, today Japan is one of the world's economic superpowers.

Indian Independence

- After World War II, overseas empires became increasingly difficult to maintain. Great Britain held on, but the election of the Labour Party ushered in a movement toward home rule. - Leaders of the Indian National Congress and the Muslim League worked with Mohandas Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru to start a movement called communalism-an effort to get Indians to act and feel as one nation. - Gandhi advocated passive resistance and nonviolence-methods of peaceful protest that were designed to draw public support from around the world and identify the British as forceful tyrants. - Boycotts of British goods and against British policies were conducted (example: the Salt March). - India was granted independence in 1947 (an example of negotiated independence). - In 1947, India was partitioned: India gained its independence, and the country of Pakistan was created as an Islamic republic. Muhammad Ali Jinnah was the founder of Pakistan. Partition led to conflict that still exists today.

Algerian Independence

- After the end of World War II, some colonies negotiated their independence, while others achieved independence through armed struggle. - Algeria, located in Northern Africa, was a French colony, having previously been under the control of the Berbers and the Ottomans. - France allowed Europeans to migrate to Algeria, and over time a minority of wealthy Europeans controlled the native population. - After World War II, France's struggle to maintain control of its colonies coincided with the rise of the Arab-Islamic nationalist movement. Ultimately, Arab nationalists united to form the National Liberation Front. - Violence spread as the Front sought independence, and in 1962 Algeria negotiated its independence from France. - While the newly independent nation worked to modernize industry and education, many Algerians chose to emigrate to France.

Decolonization

- After the end of World War II, some colonies negotiated their independence, while others achieved independence through armed struggle. - In the post-World War II world, mother countries could no longer maintain control of their colonies as they attempted to repair their own war-torn lands. - There was mounting pressure from nationalist movements within the colonies for home rule. - Imperial powers ended colonial possessions, thus ending imperial rule across the globe. - Newly independent states struggled to maintain autonomy and develop self-determination in the shadow of the Cold War. - More than 90 nations gained independence from the end of the war to 1980. - While some colonies, such as India, negotiated independence, others, such as Algeria and Angola, achieved independence through armed struggle.

Marshall Plan

- Also known as the European Recovery Program, a massive economic aid package, part of the containment policy designed to strengthen democracy and lessen the appeal of communism (developed after World War II). - Over $13 billion was sent to war-torn Western European countries to help them recover from the war. - A U.S. offer of aid to Eastern Europe was refused by Stalin. Established by the Soviet Union, the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON), an alternative to the Marshall Plan, offered increased trade in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union in an effort to supplement funds not being received by denying the Marshall Plan. - President Truman and Secretary of State George C. Marshall shared a belief that it was necessary to help Europe restore economic growth, as well as Japan and Korea.

Augusto Pinochet (SIO)

- Although conflict dominated much of the 20th century, many individuals and groups, including states, opposed this trend. Some groups and individuals, however, intensified the conflicts. - Pinochet was dictator of Chile from 1973 to 1990, as well as commander in chief of the army from 1973 until 1998. - Came into power following a coup d'état backed by the United States and aimed at ending the socialist government of Salvador Allende. - Led a military government that dealt harshly with opposition. - Promoted free-market policies, including opening Chile to global trade, foreign investment, and privatizing state-controlled industries. - Both Latin American military governments and the United States watched the success of the Cuban Revolution with alarm, fearful that the Soviet Union would support the growing socialist movement in the region. This fear motivated the United States to support dictators who were not aligned with the Soviets.

Mohandas Gandhi

- An Indian nationalist leader seeking self-rule for India. - He quickly became a popular leader among the ordinary citizens of India, and the support of an extensive segment of the population made the Non-Cooperation and the Civil Disobedience movements largely successful. - Groups and individuals challenged the many wars of the century and promoted the practice of nonviolence as a way to bring about political change. - Indians were urged to boycott British-made goods and protest British policies but were encouraged to avoid violent action and instead practiced ahimsa (nonviolence). - Although the British responded to the actions of the Indians with violence (Amritsar Massacre, the Salt March), most Indians remained non-violent in their efforts. - In 1935, the British enacted the Government of India Act, which provided for Indian self-rule. - Gandhi continued to push for complete independence, which occurred in 1947, a year before his death. - His non-violent methods, especially civil disobedience and passive resistance, were borrowed by future leaders, including Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.

Bloody Sunday

- In 1905, a peaceful demonstration at the Russian czar's winter palace in St. Petersburg turned violent when the czar's guards opened fire on the unarmed crowd. - The protesters, led by a priest, wanted to present a petition to Czar Nicholas II asking for a representative assembly; instead, many of the protestors were killed. - Unrest broke out across the country, and soon soviets (local councils) were organized, seeking to organize strikes and gain political rights. - The czar responded by creating the Duma, Russia's first parliament. - The czar was able to restore some level of stability to the nation, but many lost faith in the Romanovs, and the stage was set for the end of imperial rule.

Mandate System

- An article in the covenant of the League of Nations stated that colonies and territories needed assistance as they prepared for self- government and that more advanced nations would act as guides for the less experienced ones. - Influenced by the idea of self-determination, a principle originating in U.S. president Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points at the end of World War I. - Self-determination: the idea that a nation should have the right to determine its own future. - Mandates were established in the former German colonies and in territories once belonging to the Ottoman Empire. - France and Great Britain took control of most of the Middle East, including Iraq and Palestine; France gained control of Syria and Lebanon. Arab nationalists had hoped that the British and French would make good on promises of independence for the former Ottoman territories. - The Balfour Declaration of November 1917 stated Britain's public support of a Jewish homeland in Palestine and led to a dramatic increase in the Jewish population there.

Results of World War I

- Cities throughout Europe were destroyed, and millions were dead, injured, or homeless. - Although some European nations, notably France and Great Britain, emerged as victors and retained imperial control over their vast empires, in reality the process of decolonization was under way. After the war, there was a significant increase in nationalist feelings throughout the colonial world. - The Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian empires were broken up. - The Allies met in Paris in 1919. Their peace plan included the Treaty of Versailles, negotiated between the Allies and Germany. - The League of Nations was created in the hopes of avoiding future wars, although weaknesses in its design would render it essentially powerless. - President Woodrow Wilson promoted the concept of self-determination, believing that if nations had the right to choose their own governments, peace would ensue. The result of this concept was the development of the mandate system. - World War I ended with many nations dissatisfied, and this sense of unhappiness would ultimately play a role in the rise of World War II.

Geneva Conference

- Cold War peace conference held in 1954. - Vietnam would be temporarily divided at the 17th parallel, North Vietnam to be controlled by communist leader Ho Chi Minh and South Vietnam to remain in the control of non-communists. Led to U.S. support of the French war effort and South Vietnam. - President Eisenhower feared the domino theory would befall Southeast Asia (if one Southeast Asian country fell to communism, they all would). - Geneva Agreement required elections, which would have resulted in the election of Ho Chi Minh. The United States advocated canceling elections and instituting a democratic government in South Vietnam-a violation of the Geneva Agreement. - Ho Chi Minh was a nationalist leader who fought for independence in Vietnam from colonial control and established the communist-governed Democratic Republic of Vietnam in 1945.

Multinational Corporations (SIO)

- Companies that own or control production of goods or services in at least one other country other than their home country. - After the Cold War, many governments encouraged free-market economic policies and economic liberalization, which led to increased international economic cooperation and the emergence of multinational companies. - Economic liberalization in developing nations led to the "opening up" of economies to foreign capital and investment. - Today, corporations such as Nestlé, Nissan, and Mahindra (an Indian car manufacturer) are present in markets worldwide. - The anti-globalization movement (also commonly referred to as the global justice movement) opposes multinational corporations, believing that they operate in an unregulated environment that takes kes advantage of workers and harms the environment, all in the name of profit.

Mikhail Gorbachev (GOV)

- Controlled the Soviet Union from 1985 to 1991. - Introduced reforms glasnost (openness) and perestroika (economic restructuring); led people to speak out against the Soviet state. - Backed free-market reforms, which were in direct violation of the communist economic philosophy. - Mid-1991: Communist hardliners attempted an unsuccessful coup d'état, which was followed by Gorbachev's resignation. - Agreed not to enforce the Brezhnev Doctrine, a pledge to maintain communism in satellite nations, instead allowing Eastern bloc nations to determine their own political futures. - In 1990, he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for his efforts to end Cold War tensions, including his support of disarmament and the removal of Soviet troops from Afghanistan.

League of Nations

- Created after World War I, it was the first permanent international organization dedicated to maintaining peace. - First suggested by U.S. president Woodrow Wilson in an address to Congress, in which he outlined a 14-point peace plan at the end of World War I. - The formation of the League was one of the provisions of the Treaty of Versailles, and member nations included France, Great Britain, Italy, and Japan, but not the United States. - Sought to pressure member nations to settle disputes with diplomacy. - Put to the test following the end of World War I. - Experienced a few successes, such as negotiating an agreement between Finland and Sweden in a dispute over the Aaland Islands, but unable to prevent war again. - The League, formed to maintain peace and facilitate international cooperation, was dissolved and replaced by the United Nations in 1946.

Fall of the Qing

- Despite the Qing's enacting of a series of reforms in the second half of the 19th century in an attempt to maintain political control, the signing of a number of unequal treaties and numerous internal rebellions left the ruling family weak, and in 1911 revolution broke out in China. - Nationalism had been on the rise, and following the death of the Empress Dowager Cixi, the nation was poised for revolution. - In 1912, the last Qing ruler abdicated, and Chinese nationalists called for a new government. - Sun Yat-sen, a revolutionary leader who envisioned a China free of foreigners and based on republican rule, was poised to take control. - At the start of the 1900s, large land-based empires, such as the Qing, began to decline and collapse, as a combination of internal and external factors created new nations.

Cultural Revolution (CDI)

- Known as the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution, it was launched in China in 1966 by Mao Zedong to seek out and silence opposition to Mao's leadership and his vision of communism. - A common target of persecution was China's elite-the intellectuals, educators, and professionals-because of their perceived bourgeoisie leanings and foreign sympathies. - Millions of people were publicly humiliated, jailed, or killed. - Contributed to increased instability in the nation and discouraged China from advancing socially or economically. - After Mao's death in 1976, the revolution was ended, and China's next leader, Deng Xiaoping, adopted more moderate policies in an attempt to bring stability back to the country.

Effects of Disease (ENV)

- Diseases in this time period have had significant effects on populations around the world. - Epidemic diseases are infectious diseases that spread quickly to a large number of people in a short amount of time, such as HIV/AIDS and Ebola. Some are associated with poverty, such as malaria and cholera. - HIV/AIDS is an infectious disease that destroys the immune system, making it impossible for the body to fight infections. No vaccine exists to prevent it, but medical advances have been made that can prolong life. First identified in the early 1980s in the U.S., the disease now disproportionately affects sub-Saharan Africa. - Ebola is a highly contagious viral disease that originated in Africa and causes body organs and blood vessels to leak, frequently causing death. A 2014 outbreak in West Africa was eventually contained as the result of international cooperation and a public health effort to educate the population on how the disease is spread. - Malaria is a disease transmitted by parasites in mosquitoes and kills tens of thousands annually on the continent of Africa. - The bacterial disease cholera is spread via contaminated water, most often in developing countries. Outbreaks are often seen during disasters: with the destruction of infrastructure, there is often a lack of a clean water supply.

Soviet Five-Year Plans

- Economic policy initiated by Joseph Stalin that set high quotas in an attempt to improve Soviet agricultural and industrial output. - The first of the five-year plans focused on heavy industry and rapid industrialization in areas such as coal and iron production. - Although production quotas were not met, Stalin claimed the first of the five-year plans a success. The Soviet Union's neglect of consumer goods led to a scarcity of these products. - Results were mixed, but over the course of Stalin's leadership, the Soviet Union was transformed into a leading industrialized nation. - This method of centralized planning was adopted by other communist nations, notably the People's Republic of China, as evidenced by the Great Leap Forward.

Truman Doctrine

- Established March 12, 1947, by President Harry S. Truman, it was an economic and military program intended to help nations resist Soviet aggression and prevent the spread of communism. - Developed in direct response to crises in Greece and Turkey. - Provided over $400,000,000 in aid to nations committed to the development of democratic governments. - Based on the theory of containment (limiting communism to areas already under Soviet control). This strategy was utilized beyond Europe to prevent the spread of communism in East and Southeast Asia as well.

Fall of the Soviet Union (GOV)

- Failed invasion of Afghanistan contributed to the decline as resources were strained to support an unpopular and ultimately unsuccessful attempt to expand Soviet influence. - Gorbachev's reforms: glasnost (openness) and perestroika (economic restructuring) led people to speak out against the Soviet state. - 1989: The fall of the Berlin Wall was a sign that East Germany no longer was backed by the Soviet Union. - Solidarity movement in Poland, led by Lech Walesa, was outlawed by Soviets but ultimately successful. - 1991: Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania regained independence, and other Soviet republics followed. - The collapse of the communist superpower saw the dissolution of the Warsaw Pact and the signing of a Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (SART) with the United States.

Iron Curtain

- First articulated in a 1946 speech by British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, the term refers to the symbolic division of Europe after the end of World War II. - Eastern bloc nations were under the influence of the Soviet Union and communism. These nations, including Poland and East Germany, originated new alliance systems (for both economic and military purposes), notably the Warsaw Pact. - The nations to the west of the Iron Curtain developed and maintained market economies. The majority of these nations were allied with the United States. - The Iron Curtain symbolized the emerging Cold War and the "peaceful competition," as articulated by Nikita Khrushchev in 1961, between capitalism and communism. - In 1961, the construction of the Berlin Wall, built to reinforce the border between East and West Berlin, became a visible symbol of the Iron Curtain and thus the Cold War. - The fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 symbolized the falling of the Iron Curtain as well and the end of the Cold War.

Rape of Nanking

- Following Japan's invasion of mainland China in 1937, China experienced mass death and suffering; Japan began aerial bombing of major Chinese cities (especially Shanghai, where people died by the thousands). - Japanese troops, fueled by feelings of racial superiority, extreme nationalism, and the fervor of war, unleashed an attack on Nanking. Over two months, Japanese soldiers murdered thousands of unarmed soldiers and civilians, raped an estimated 7,000 women, and burned a third of the homes. - An estimated 400,000 people were killed either by Japanese bayonets or by being machine-gunned into open pits. - The event remains a controversial issue and a source of contention as Japanese and Chinese officials still do not wholly agree on the details of the massacre.

America's New Deal

- Following World War I and the Great Depression, governments began to take a more active role in economic life. - In response to the Great Depression, President Franklin Roosevelt proposed legislation aimed at economic recovery. - Laws essentially fell under one of three categories: relief, recovery, or reform. - Laws were enacted to protect the banking industry, provide jobs, guarantee a minimum wage, and establish a social security system. - These reforms represented a significant shift in U.S. domestic policy, highlighting the federal government's responsibility to provide for the social and economic well- being of its citizens. - Many new agencies were created to oversee the implementation of reform, including the Works Progress Administration (WPA) and the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC). - While there was a trend at the start of the century for governments to have a much more laissez-faire attitude, the Depression saw a shift as governments assumed a more active role in economic decisions.

Idi Amin (SIO)

- Militaries and militarized states often responded to the proliferation of conflicts in ways that further intensified conflict. - In 1971, General Idi Amin overthrew the elected government and declared himself president of Uganda. - From 1971 to 1979, Amin's regime killed an estimated 300,000 civilians. - In 1972, his removal of all Indian and Pakistani citizens, combined with increasing military expenditures, led to the country's economic decline. - His regime was overthrown in 1979 by Ugandan exiles, who worked with Tanzanians to take control of the capital of Kampala, forcing Amin to flee. - Amin was never brought to justice for his crimes, and he lived in Saudi Arabia for the rest of his life.

Rise of Fascism

- Following World War I and the Great Depression, governments began to take a more active role in economic life. - Fascism emerged in both Italy and Germany in the interwar period; both nations were faced with economic depression and in desperate need of strong leaders. Powerful dictators emerged, greatly influenced by fascist ideology. - Fascism was characterized by extreme nationalism and state control over all aspects of life. - In Italy, Benito Mussolini emphasized the state over the individual and transformed the nation into a totalitarian state. - In Germany, fascism was promoted by the National Socialist German Workers' Party, with added elements of militarism and anti-Semitism. - By the early 1930s, the Nazi Party had control of the German parliament, and by 1934 Adolf Hitler emerged as Germany's new leader. - The Nazis severely limited people's civil liberties, outlawed all other political parties, and took control of the police force. - Fascism developed in large measure as a result of World War I and as the European continent was dominated by Great Britain and France.

European Economic Community

- Formed in 1957, this example of a regional trade agreement was created by six founding member nations: France, Belgium, West Germany, Luxembourg, Italy, and the Netherlands; it is characterized by a common market and free trade. - Signed the Treaty of Rome, which established the European Economic Community (renamed the European Community); goal was to dissolve tariffs and increase free trade. - Treaties among member nations also created the Council of Ministers and European Parliament to achieve the long-term goal of political integration. - Maastricht Treaty of 1993 established a European Union- originally 15 member nations who ceded some political power and adopted a common currency (the euro); the EU granted citizenship to every person who was a citizen of a member state.

Cambodian Genocide

- Genocide-the mass killing of a group of people based on a specific shared characteristic, e.g., race, tribe, nationality, religious belief. - The rise of extremist groups to power led to the attempted destruction of specific populations, notably the Nazi killing of the Jews in the Holocaust during World War II, and to other atrocities, acts of genocide, or ethnic violence. - Cambodia from 1975 to 1979 was ruled by the Khmer Rouge, a brutal regime led by Marxist dictator Pol Pot. Pol Pot aimed to create a Cambodian "master race." - Through centralized planning and manipulation, Pol Pot and the Khmer Rouge orchestrated the deaths of two million people in Cambodia. People were executed as enemies of the regime, or died from starvation, disease, or overwork.

Resistance to Globalization (CDI)

- Globalization includes the global spread of ideas and e-commerce and the common consumption of culture. - There have been a variety of responses to the cultural and economic effects of globalization. - The anti-globalization movement (also commonly referred to as the global justice movement) is critical of economic globalization and opposes multinational corporations, which they feel operate in an unregulated environment that takes advantage of workers and harms the environment, all in the name of profit. - Anti-globalization protests occur often at the annual meetings of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) (an organization of nearly 200 countries that work cooperatively to foster economic cooperation, facilitate international trade, and promote sustainable economic growth) and the World Bank (an international financial institution that offers loans and grants to nations around the world).

Martin Luther King Jr.

- Groups and indivduals challenged the many wars of the century, and some, such as Mohandas Gandhi, Martin Luther King Jr., and Nelson Mandela, promoted the practice of nonviolence as a way to bring about political change. - The civil rights movement in the United States was happening simultaneously with the Cold War. It was a movement of protest that highlighted the segregation African Americans faced in every aspect of their lives. - The Supreme Court ruling in Brown v. Board of Education in 1954 deemed segregation to be illegal. - Rosa Parks was an early face of the civil rights movement in the United States, along with Martin Luther King Jr., who led the boycott and embraced Gandhi's methods of nonviolence.

Nelson Mandela

- Groups and individuals challenged the many wars of the century, and some, such as Mohandas Gandhi, Martin Luther King Jr., and Nelson Mandela promoted the practice of nonviolence as a way to bring about political change. - A nationalist leader of the ANC (African National Congress), Mandela was arrested for military protests against apartheid and sentenced to jail for life. - Became a symbol of the anti-apartheid movement and white oppression. - Released from jail by President F. W. DeKlerk in 1990. - In 1994, he became the first black president of South Africa following the nation's first free elections.

Non-aligned Movement

- Groups and individuals, including the Non-Aligned Movement, opposed and promoted alternatives to the existing political, economic, and social orders. - Represented a "third path" and promoted an alternative to allying with either the United States or the Soviet Union. - Nations did not take a side during the Cold War. - Nations that remained neutral included India, Yugoslavia, and many African nations. - Goal was to avoid involvement in the Cold War and maintain and increase economic progress (by accepting economic aid from both sides). - Conceptually, the idea of non-alignment is credited to India's first prime minister, Jawaharlal Nehru; Indonesia's first president, Sukarno; Gamal Abdel Nasser, Egypt's second president; Kwame Nkrumah, the first president of Ghana; and Joseph Tito, the president of Yugoslavia, who were founding members of a group of states organized in 1961.

Russo-Japanese War

- Imperial rivalries led to armed conflict between Russia and Japan for control of parts of Korea and Manchuria. Japan, whose imperial ambitions had begun following rapid industrialization, by the 1870s was competing with other nations for economic control and territory throughout East Asia. - Japan's victory over China surprised many and worried the Russians, who had imperial hopes of controlling Korea and Manchuria. - In 1904, Japan attacked Port Arthur, a Russian port in southern Manchuria, and then Korea. - Russia and Japan battled on both land and sea; the Japanese were victorious. - Under the Treaty of Portsmouth, Russia gave their largest island in the Pacific and their lease to Port Arthur to Japan and gave up claim to Manchuria. Korea was named a Japanese sphere of influence. - Russia's defeat in East Asia marked the first time an Eastern power had won a decisive victory over a Western one and paved the way for Japan to be the premier empire builder in Asia.

Great Depression

- In 1929, economic depression spread across the world as the U.S. stock market crashed and European countries struggled to rebuild their damaged postwar economies. - Following World War I and the Great Depression, governments began to take a more active role in economic life. - Both during and after World War I, the United States lent millions of dollars to other nations and thus became the banking capital of the world. - After World War I, nations struggled to repay their debts; domestic policies, especially in the United States, created tariffs that limited the economic growth of debtor nations. - Surpluses in agriculture and industry led to overproduction and falling prices. - In October 1929, speculation that stocks were being overvalued led to a crash of the market; a global depression ensued as banks in the United States and Europe closed and millions of individuals were forced into bankruptcy. - The drastic slowdown in economic activity led to tremendous instability, and in nations that were already struggling with establishing new political identities, extreme forms of government emerged.

Vietnam War

- In 1956, the United States intervened in the conflict on the side of non-communist South Vietnam after the French were defeated. - Military involvement increased under Presidents Eisenhower, Kennedy, and Johnson; in 1968 more than 500,000 troops were engaged in Vietnam. - U.S. public opinion pressured President Nixon to vow to end U.S. military involvement in Vietnam, and he subsequently adopted a policy of Vietnamization (strategy of turning the war over to the South Vietnamese). - 1973: U.S. phase of the Vietnam War ended with the Paris Peace Accords; two years later, the agreements were thrown out, and North Vietnam and the NLF (National Liberation Front) waged war against South Vietnam until they achieved their goal of unification in 1976. - Since unification, Vietnam has experienced rapid economic growth and in the 21st century is integrating itself into the global economy.

Russian Revolution (March 1917)

- In February 1917, Czar Nicholas II abdicated the Russian throne and ended nearly 300 years of Romanov rule. - His abdication was the result of decades of political, social, and economic unrest exacerbated by Russia's involvement in World War I. - The provisional government struggled to maintain power as the Petrograd soviet (revolutionary council) gained increasing influence across the nation. - The reforms enacted extended civil liberties, such as freedom of speech, to Russian citizens and promoted religious and ethnic tolerance but failed to address the overwhelming concerns of Russians: bread, peace, and land.

Japanes Attack on Pearl Harbor

- In an attempt to destroy American naval forces in the Pacific, Japan attacked the U.S. naval base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, on December 7, 1941. - President Franklin D. Roosevelt called it "a date which will live in infamy." - Japanese pilots took off from six aircraft carriers and attacked in two waves; they disabled 18 ships and destroyed 200 others, the only exception being aircraft carriers not at the base at the time. - On December 11, 1941, Hitler and Mussolini declared war on the United States; the United States responded by joining the Allies. - The attacks on Pearl Harbor soon led to a U.S. declaration of war and a surge in American nationalism.

Great Leap Forward (ECN)

- In communist China, the government controlled the national economy through the Great Leap Forward, often implementing repressive policies with negative repercussions for the population. - Mao Zedong saw the Great Leap Forward as an opportunity to get China involved in the industrial production of other nations. - Land ownership was collectivized, and the government was to manage businesses and industry. - Private ownership was abolished, and farming was rural and communal. - It was ultimately deemed a failure and called "the great leap backward." - The most detrimental impact was on agricultural production, and peasants bore the brunt of it as they suffered one of the deadliest famines in history. - To make matters worse, Mao blamed the sparrows and had them killed, which led to an overabundance of insects, which the sparrows would have controlled, and the insects did additional damage to the crops. - As a result, approximately 20 million Chinese died of malnutrition and starvation.

Globalization (ECN)

- In economic terms, it is the interdependence and connectedness of world economies. - The "flattening of the world," a phrase attributed to author Thomas Friedman, is the idea that the world is economically connected. - After the Cold War, many governments encouraged free-market economic policies, and over time regional trade agreements (reciprocal agreements between two or more nations, such as NAFTA) led to increased international economic cooperation. - It is also the spread of products, technology, culture, and information across borders. - New technologies in the areas of communication, transportation, energy, medicine, and agriculture have changed the world in the last 100 years. - Has had a significant impact on culture and consumerism as ideas and products are more easily shared and spread.

Adolf Hitler at War

- In the late 1930s, Europe felt compelled to respond to the aggressive actions of Hitler, who had rearmed Germany and taken control of the Rhineland and Austria, systematically ignoring the terms of the Treaty of Versailles. - At the 1938 Munich Conference, Hitler promised not to invade Czechoslovakia in return for the Sudetenland, an area on the German border where many German-speaking people lived (an example of appeasement). - Europe's policy of appeasing Hitler did not work; in March 1939, Hitler took over Czechoslovakia; in September he invaded Poland, and with Britain and France coming to the aid of Poland, World War II was under way. - In April 1945, as the Allies marched into Germany, Hitler took his own life, and, soon after, Germany surrendered. - During World War II, Hitler sought to make his goal of "living space" for Germans a reality by cleansing the land he controlled of any inferior peoples. This policy was aimed at the Jews, but millions of others were also killed; the Holocaust saw the loss of over 11 million people, over half of them Jews.

Collapse of the Ottoman Empire

- Internal and external factors contributed to the collapse. - Political corruption and an unwillingness to change limited the empire's ability to compete with the West. - By the 1800s, the Ottoman Empire was steadily losing territory; the "Sick Man of Europe" battled the forces of nationalism as first Greece and then Serbia declared their independence from the empire. - Ottoman rulers attempted reform (e.g., the Tanzimat Reforms) with a focus on modernizing the military, but change threatened tradition and was met with resistance from groups such as the Janissaries and religious conservatives. - The end of World War I would see the complete dissolution and breakup of the empire. - The Ottoman Empire was not the only land-based empire to experience collapse as a result of the consolidation of power by European nations; Russia and the Qing collapsed as well.

White Revolution

- Movements to redistribute land and resources developed within states in Africa, Asia, and Latin America, sometimes advocating communism or socialism. - The White Revolution in Iran was led by U.S.-backed Shah Mohammed Reza Pahlavi. - Under Pahlavi's rule, Iran's oil industry helped financially support industrialization in the country, while the U.S. supplied military equipment to Iran to fight the spread of communism in the region. - Land Reform Law of 1962 forced landowners to give up land for redistribution. - The land reforms were the beginning of the Shah's White Revolution, a program of social, political, and economic reform that redistributed land to approximately 2.5 million families, reduced the power of tribal groups, and advanced social and legal reforms that furthered the emancipation and enfranchisement of women. - Income for Iranians skyrocketed, and oil revenue fueled an enormous increase in state funding for industrial development projects. The new policies of the shah did not go unopposed, however; many Shi'ite leaders criticized the White Revolution, as liberalization laws concerning women were against Islamic values and ate away at the traditional bases of clerical power.

Invasion of Afghanistan

- Muslim-controlled Afghanistan maintained a position of non- alignment in the Cold War until 1978, when a pro-Soviet coup dragged the country into a civil war. - People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA) gained control and radically reformed laws regarding family, land, and education; the new laws were in direct opposition to Muslim beliefs and led to military resistance. - Soviet Union sided with the PDPA and installed Babrak Karmal as president. He used the Soviet military to gain control of the country, an unpopular move. - A nine-year battle ensued in which the United States, Iran, China, Saudi Arabia, and Pakistan backed the Afghan mujahideen (Islamic warriors). - The United Nations organized a cease-fire, and the Soviets withdrew in 1989, though fighting continued until 1992. - In large measure because of political instability in the region, the Taliban were able to rise to power and eventually took control of Afghanistan (from 1996 until 2001).

Gamal Nasser

- Nationalist leader in Africa. Sought independence from imperial rule. - The second president of Egypt (1956 until 1970). - A nationalist leader in the revolution against the monarchy and Egyptian ties to Great Britain. - Co-founder of the Non-Aligned Movement, he sought aid from both the United States and the Soviet Union during the Cold War era. - During his reign, the economy grew significantly as his government sought to guide economic life, aimed at improving the lives of average Egyptian citizens and boosting the national economy. - Made reforms in agriculture and nationalized the Suez Canal. - While non-aligned during the Cold War, the United States supported Nasser's move to nationalize the Suez Canal, challenging the old imperial order by choosing Egypt over Great Britain and France.

Pan-Arabism

- Nationalist leaders and parties sought independence from imperial rule. - Former Arab colonies easily gained independence from their mother countries post-World War II. - As a transnational movement, a key ideological goal was the creation/political unification of the Arab world (a geographic region with language, culture, and history in common). These new Arab nations included Syria, Iraq, Lebanon, and Jordan. - Superpowers quickly attempted to fill the void created by the vacuum of power- attractive because the region was rich in oil and had strategic military bases for Cold War operations. - Closely connected to Arab nationalism, a belief that Arabs should unite to form a single nation.

Holocaust

- Nazi regime killed over six million Jews and an additional five million Slavs, Gypsies, homosexuals, communists, and other "undesirables"-a human disaster on a previously unknown scale. - The rise of extremist groups in power, along with historic acceptance of anti-Semitism in Europe, led to the Holocaust. - German invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941 opened the door for release of SS Einsatzgruppen ("action squads"), which killed entire populations of Jews in newly acquired territories; within six months the squads had killed 1.4 million Jews. - The Final Solution, a plan to kill all Jews in Europe, was discussed by leading Nazi officials at the Wannsee Conference on January 20, 1942: all remaining Jews were to be evacuated to death camps in eastern Poland. - Camps at Auschwitz, Belzec, and Treblinka used methods such as gassing, electrocution, flamethrowers, phenol injections, machine guns, and hand grenades. - The Nuremberg Trials were held after World War II to try Nazi war criminals for crimes against humanity. The Trials were the first of their kind in that they put individuals on trial for crimes against "the peace of the world."

Blitzkrieg ("Lightning War")

- New military tactics led to increased levels of wartime casualties. - Germany invaded Poland unannounced on September 1, 1939. Their strategy included a preemptive air attack to weaken resistance, followed by land forces-Panzer ("armored") columns, which were fast and mobile. - German forces subdued enemies in the west within one month (at that time, Soviets suppressed any problems in the east in accordance with the Nazi-Soviet Pact). - The sudden success of Germany's blitzkrieg approach was a shock to the rest of the world (especially France and Great Britain). - This military technique was first utilized in World War II and is a strategy that has not been used since.

Mukden Incident (Manchurian Incident)

- Occurred in Manchuria in September 1931, when Japanese troops blew up part of the South Manchurian Railway. - Japan accused China of sabotage and used the incident as a pretext to annex Manchuria in the hopes of gaining control of China's extensive natural resources. - By 1932, Japanese troops gained control of Manchuria and established a puppet state in the region. - The League of Nations condemned Japan's actions; Japan responded by withdrawing from the League. - Following its withdrawal from the League, Japan began to aggressively pursue a militaristic and expansionist policy and in 1937 launched a full-scale invasion of China, forcing the Chinese to suspend civil war.

Pan-Africanism

- Pan-African movements were transnational; they first emerged in the United States and the Caribbean and then spread to French West Africa as a movement known as Negritude ("Blackness"). - Negritude was coupled with a movement to remove foreign European influence, and as the movement gained momentum in the 1920s and 1930s, it aroused much anti-colonial sentiment.

Indian National Congress

- Partnered with the Muslim League to lead a mass movement to gain self-rule from Great Britain for the Indian subcontinent. - In 1919, a large group of Indians assembled in violation of a new law prohibiting such meetings. British troops opened fire on the crowd and killed hundreds. After this incident, Indians began demanding their independence. - A massive nationalist movement spread across the country, headed by Mohandas Gandhi, an influential nationalist leader in the INC. - After India gained independence in 1947, some wanted the INC dissolved, but instead it became a leading political party and maintained control of India through the late 1970s. - Following independence, the two parties split when the Muslim League supported the creation of a new Muslim nation, Pakistan.

Nationalist Movements

- People and states around the world challenged the existing political and social order in various ways. - In Turkey, Mustafa Kemal led a Turkish nationalist movement that resulted in in the overthrow of the Ottoman sultan, the expulsion of foreigners, and the declaration of Turkey as a republic, allowing him to focus on the westernization and modernization of Turkey. - In Iran, Reza Khan overthrew the shah and set up his own dynasty aimed at modernization and westernization. - In India, the Indian National Congress led by Mohandas Gandhi demanded self-rule. - In China, the Chinese Republic (1912) was unstable, and rival groups competed for control of the country. - Across the globe, Jewish people looked to Palestine as the home of a Jewish state. - Influenced by Western ideas, struggling for self-determination and/or responding to European imperialism led to a rise in nationalism across the globe after World War I.

Causation in the Age of the Cold War and Decolonization: 1900-Present

- Peoples and states around the world challenged the existing political and social order in varying ways, leading to unprecedented worldwide conflicts. - Hopes for greater self-government were largely unfulfilled following World War I; however, in the years following World War II, increasing anti-imperialist sentiment contributed to the dissolution of empires and the restructuring of states. - The Cold War conflict extended beyond its basic ideological origins to have profound effects on economic, political, social, and cultural aspects of global events. - The role of the state in the domestic economy varied, and new institutions of global association emerged and continued to develop throughout the century. - States responded in various ways to the economic challenges of the 20th century.

Détente

- Policy adopted by the Soviet Union and the United States during the Cold War in an effort to reduce tensions between the two superpowers over the arms race and control of developing countries. - Encouraged cooperation in the following areas: environmental research, space explorations, health research, and cultural diffusion. - Assisted in the signing of SALT I and SALT II (Strategic Arms Limitations Talks) in 1972 and 1979, respectively. - Deteriorated as U.S. relations with China improved and after the Soviets invaded Afghanistan.

Continuity and Change in a Globalized World: 1900-Present

- Rapid advances in science and technology altered the understanding of the universe and the natural world and led to advances in communication, transportation, industry, agriculture, and medicine. - New modes of communication-including radio communication, cellular communication, and the Internet-as well as transportation, including air travel and shipping containers, reduced the problem of geographic distance. - Energy technologies, including the use of petroleum and nuclear power, increased the production of material goods. - More effective forms of birth control gave women greater control over fertility, transformed reproductive practices, and contributed to declining rates of fertility in much of the world. - The Green Revolution and commercial agriculture increased productivity and sustained the Earth's growing population as it spread chemically and genetically modified forms of agriculture. - Medical innovations, including vaccines and antibiotics, increased the ability of humans to survive and live longer lives. - States responded in a variety of ways to the economic challenges of the 20th century. - Rights-based discourses challenged the old assumptions about race, class, gender, and religion. - In much of the world, access to education as well as participation in new political professional roles became more inclusive in terms of race, class, gender, and religion. - Political and social changes in the arts, and in the second half of the century, popular and consumer culture, became more global. - Arts, entertainment, and popular culture increasingly reflected the influence of a globalized society. - Consumer culture became globalized and transcended national borders.

Causation in Global Conflict: 1900-Present

- Rapid advances in science and technology altered the understanding of the universe and the natural world and led to advances in communication, transportation, industry, agriculture, and medicine. - Peoples and states around the world challenged the existing political and social order in varying ways, leading to unprecedented worldwide conflicts. - The West dominated the global political order at the beginning of the 20th century, but both land-based and maritime empires gave way to new states by the century's end. - The older, land-based Ottoman, Russian, and Qing Empires collapsed as a result of a combination of internal and external factors. These changes in Russia eventually led to a communist revolution. - States around the world challenged the existing political and social order, including in Mexico, where the Mexican Revolution arose as a result of a political crisis.

Benito Mussolini

- Responsible for the establishment of the world's first fascist state. - Emerged as a dictator in post-World War I Italy, a nation struggling to recover from economic depression. - His promise of economic recovery and the addition of land to the Italian empire gained him popular support. - In 1936, he signed the Rome-Berlin Axis with Germany and in 1940 joined World War II on the side of Germany. - Mussolini used a variety of strategies to establish control, including suspending people's civil liberties and using fear and terror to enforce his will. - Italy experienced many losses, and Mussolini was stripped of his power; Germany remained supportive of Mussolini, who was in exile in northern Italy. - In April 1945, he was captured by the Italian resistance and executed.

October Revolution (Bolshevik Revolution)

- The second part of the Russian Revolution, led by Vladimir Lenin and his Bolshevik Party. - Lenin, a student of Marxism, put forth the idea that the proletariat (working class) would rise up against the bourgeoisie (owners). - In October 1917, the Bolsheviks gained control of the Petrograd Soviet and overthrew the provisional government in a bloodless coup. - With the Bolsheviks in control, efforts were made to transform the political and economic landscape of the nation; Russia pulled out of World War I, and legislation was passed that redistributed land to the peasants. - Russia, renamed the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), was the world's first communist nation.

Adolf Hitler: Rise to Power

- Rose to power in Germany in the 1920s and 1930s. - Leader of the Nazis, the National Socialist German Workers' Party, Hitler attempted to gain control of Germany in 1923 but failed and was arrested. - His book, Mein Kampf, which outlined his political views, including anti-Semitic beliefs, became popular among Germany's Nazis. Nazism had broad appeal, especially with its message of restoring the nation to the greatness it had before World War I. - More and more Nazis won seats in parliament, and in 1933, Hitler was appointed chancellor of the nation. - He built a totalitarian state, allowing only one party, using fear and terror to silence opposition, and nationalizing businesses. - Germany experienced military and economic growth under his leadership; he created jobs and increased the standard of living. - The Nuremberg Laws instituted anti-Semitic policies, excluding Jews from German life, and were among the first systematic steps that led to the Holocaust.

Al-Qaeda

- Some movements used violence against civilians in an effort to achieve political aims. - Al-Qaeda is one example. - U.S. President Bill Clinton was inaugurated in 1993 and turned his attention to Afghanistan. In the wake of the Soviet departure from the region, Clinton was concerned about the subsequent Taliban control of the area and the suffering this led to for women, who endured oppression under the severe Islamic fundamentalism the Taliban enforced. - Osama bin Laden was one individual who had previously been an ally of the U.S. against the Soviets, but who now hated America and the West, which he saw as having no place in the Middle East. - Bin Laden and his followers in al-Qaeda attacked the World Trade Center in 1993 and American embassies in Kenya and Tanzania in 1998 using truck bombs. The Clinton administration responded by bombing Afghanistan. - On September 11, 2001, al-Qaeda hijacked four American airplanes. Two attacked the World Trade Center, ultimately toppling both towers; one attacked the Pentagon; and one was crashed by the passengers on board. - In response, U.S. President George W. Bush declared a War on Terror. U.S. forces invaded Afghanistan in search of bin Laden. He was killed on May 1, 2011.

Satellite Nations

- Soviet-occupied nations at the end of World War II: Poland, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria, and Romania. Soviets set up a communist government in Poland. - Other nations: Stalin prevented free elections and suppressed non-communist political parties, in essence creating a one-party government. - Basic rationale for occupation of Eastern Europe came from Allied belief that any territory that was liberated could be subsequently occupied and controlled by the liberator (as Japan was by the United States). - The United States accepted the creation of a communist bloc, with the rationale that communism would not be eliminated, only stopped from spreading. - Satellite nations were to join the Warsaw Pact and serve as a buffer zone between the Soviet Union and the democratic West. - Some argue that Afghanistan can be considered a satellite nation of the Soviet Union, as the Afghan government was aligned with the communist bloc and supported by the Soviet military between 1978 and 1989.

Joseph Stalin

- Stalin, known as the "man of steel," became the totalitarian dictator of the Soviet Union. - Created a five-year plan aimed at transforming the Soviet Union from an agrarian economy to a modern, industrialized nation. - Through the policy of collectivization, the government took control of land and created collective farms, with the goal of improving agricultural production, resulting in a manmade famine and the deaths of millions of peasants. - Faced with the limited success of his new economic policies and growing unrest, Stalin initiated what came to be known as the Great Purge, a period in which his opponents were jailed and/or executed. - Although terror, fear, and censorship were hallmarks of his rule, he led the Soviet Union in World War II, and his efforts played a significant role in the defeat of Germany. - He continued to lead the Soviet Union in the early stages of the Cold War, a time when the Soviet Union emerged as one of the world's two superpowers.

Mexican Revolution

- States around the world challenged the existing political and social order, including Mexico, where the Mexican Revolution arose as a result of a political crisis. - Discontent after decades of limited social reform led Mexicans to demand change. - After Mexico gained independence from Spain in the early 1800s, it quickly fell under the control of a series of dictators. - General Porfirio Díaz ruled Mexico in the early 1900s; although he improved the economy, socially Mexico was suffering. - Mexican nationalists, including Emiliano Zapata and Pancho Villa, gained support from the peasants and together with the middle class overthrew Díaz in 1911. - The new country adopted a constitution that established land reform through the government policy of land redistribution and granted rights to workers and women. - Universal suffrage and improvements in education and health care reflected the new ways in which people demanded more of their governments.

Nuclear Arms Race

- Technological and economic gains experienced during World War II by the victorious nations shifted the global balance of power. - The struggle between the United States and the Soviet Union to claim political hegemony across the globe led to an expensive arms race and the proliferation of nuclear weapons. - Although the United States had been first to test and use the atomic bomb, by 1949 the Soviet Union had tested their own. - Throughout the 1950s and 1960s, both nations continued to build nuclear arsenals. Each side had the technology to directly attack the other. - A new concept emerged-deterrence: as long as each side had enough weapons, neither would attack. - In the mid-1960s, the United States explored the possibility of arms control and/or reduction. In 1972, SALT I (Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty), signed by the two nations, established limits and restraints on weapons programs. - This arms race redefined war and diplomacy. An awareness on both sides that any direct fighting between the two could lead to nuclear war led to a new Cold War reality: mutually assured destruction (MAD). An anti-nuclear movement developed in hopes of bringing about peaceful change.

Creation of Israel

- The Zionist movement, which originated in Eastern Europe during the late 19th century and was formally organized in 1897, called for the restoration of the Jewish national homeland in Palestine. - The redrawing of political boundaries in some cases led to conflict as well as to population displacement and/or resettlements. - Created by the United Nations in 1947 as a result of UN Resolution 181. - Divided Palestine (a British mandate) into an Arab state and a Jewish state. - Jews accepted the plan; the United States and the Soviet Union recognized Israel as a nation, but Arabs refused to recognize it. - In 1948, Britain withdrew; fighting began and continues today. - Major wars include the Six-Day War and the Yom Kippur War. - The creation of Israel led a large number of people to migrate and settle in the newly formed nation, often displacing those already settled there. This led to conflict.

Paris Peace Conference

- The Allied nations met in Paris in 1919 to settle peace terms with the Central Powers. Five treaties in all were negotiated; the most significant was the Treaty of Versailles, between the Allies and Germany. - Wilson proposed his Fourteen Points, including an end to secret alliances, the promotion of free trade, decolonization, self-determination, and the establishment of a League of Nations. - Other Allied leaders, most notably David Lloyd George of Britain and Georges Clemenceau of France, sought to punish the losers, in particular Germany. - The negotiations resulted in agreement on several significant terms: The League of Nations was created; the Austro Hungarian Empire was broken up; new nations were created from the breakup of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, including Yugoslavia and Poland; and the Ottoman Empire was broken up, its lands put under the mandate of the French and the British. - The peace established was unstable. Within a generation, a world war was once again on the horizon, and many pointed to the weakness of the Paris Peace Accords.

Korean War

- The Cold War led to this proxy war in Korea. - After World War II, Korea was occupied by both the Soviet Union and the United States-the Soviet Union north of the 38th parallel and the United States south of it. The occupation was to be for a limited time. Each adopted the political ideologies of its occupying nation. - In 1950, the communist leader of North Korea, Kim Il Sung, invaded South Korea. - The U.S. policy of containment ensured U.S. intervention on behalf of South Korea. - The United Nations condemned the invasion, and under the leadership of the United States a multilateral force fought to push North Korea out of South Korea. - A 1953 cease-fire agreement divided Korea along the 38th parallel; the nation remains divided by a demilitarized zone. - The first major armed Cold War conflict led the United States to a more aggressive containment policy, extending military and economic support to nations throughout Asia. - In October of 2006, North Korea announced that it had conducted a successful test of a nuclear weapon, making it one of only nine countries in the world to have nuclear weapons.

Cuban Revolution

- The Cold War led to this proxy war in Latin America. - In 1959, Marxist leader Fidel Castro ousted Cuban dictator Fulgencio Batista and took control of Cuba. - Castro gained much of his support from the urban poor and from landless peasants. - Castro nationalized industries throughout the country (many businesses had been American owned) and initiated a series of aggressive land reforms. In response, the United States imposed an economic embargo on Cuba. - Castro quickly formed an alliance with the Soviet Union. - Cuba, significantly affected by the Soviet Union's collapse in the early 1990s, remains a communist nation, but has introduced a number of economic reforms that have slowly brought about change to the traditionally state-run economy.

Sandinista-Contras Conflict in Nicaragua

- The Cold War produced new military alliances and led to proxy wars between and within postcolonial states in Latin America. - Nicaragua had been ruled by the Somoza family and backed by the U.S. - The Marxist Sandinista National Liberation Front organized a resistance to the Somoza dictatorship, which it overthrew in 1979. - U.S. President Reagan backed the Contras, anti-Sandinista insurgents and, without congressional approval, funded this right-wing group of guerillas in the hopes of destablizing the Sandinsistas. - Tensions in the country remained high unitil the end of the Cold War. - Nicaragua held free elections in 1989, after which the Sandinistas lost power and assisted in a peaceful transfer of power to the winning party, signifying an end to Cold War tensions and a step toward true democracy.

Angolan Civil War

- The Cold War produced new military alliances, including NATO and the Warsaw Pact, and led to nuclear proliferation and proxy wars between and within postcolonial states in Africa. - Post-World War II plans for transitioning to independence for African nations tended to be slow, the result of a belief in the inability of Africans to self-govern, combined with the presence of white settlers in African colonies. - As a result, decolonization took place at different paces and with different levels of peaceful, smooth transitions and conflict. - Angola did not receive independence until 1975 and was riddled with conflict instead of being a celebration of independence. - The outbreak of a civil war in Angola combined with economic instability and political and ethnic differences impeded the growth of nationalism in the postcolonial era in Angola as well as in Zimbabwe, which gained its independence in 1980. - One way nations attempted to foster a sense of nationalism was to adopt a new name. Zimbabwe was formerly known as Southern Rhodesia.

Warsaw Pact

- The Cold War produced new military alliances, including NATO and the Warsaw Pact. - A defensive military alliance of communist nations designed to counter the collective defense formed by the democratic nations of NATO. - Original members: Soviet Union, Poland, East Germany, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Romania, and Bulgaria. - The alliance came to an end in 1991 following a number of anti-Soviet and anti- communist movements in Eastern Europe.

NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization)

- The Cold War produced new military alliances, including NATO and the Warsaw Pact. - Established in 1949 as a military alliance of democratic nations against Soviet aggression. - Original members: Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Great Britain, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, and the United States. - Goal: to form a military alliance to maintain peace through collective defense in postwar Europe. - Admission of West Germany in 1955 led to the Soviet formation of the Warsaw Pact. - Although the Cold War is over, NATO still exists today. - NATO remains an international alliance still dedicated to the ideals outlined in the NATO preamble written in 1949: "to safeguard the freedom, common heritage and civilization of their peoples, founded on the principles of democracy, individual liberty and the rule of law."

Cold War

- The Cold War was an ideological war that began post- World War II between the United States and the Soviet Union, two opposed superpowers. - The Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan were U.S. foreign policies aimed at the containment of communism. The U.S. pledge to resist the spread of communism increased tensions between the two superpowers. - Division of postwar Germany into four occupation zones set the stage for democracy versus communism. Tensions rose when the United States continued to supply a cut-off West Berlin inside the Soviet sector. - NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) and Warsaw Pact were new military alliances created during peacetime, and increased tensions. - Satellite nations created a bloc of communist nations in Eastern Europe. - Both superpowers' commitment to nuclear arsenals led to an arms race. - The two powers competed to be the first in space. - The Cold War led to proxy wars ("hot spots") across the globe, notably in Latin America, Africa, and Asia.

Immediate Cause of World War I

- The causes of World War I include the imperialist expansion and the competition for resources. In addition, territorial and regional conflicts combined with a flawed alliance system and intense nationalism to escalate the tensions into global conflict. - The crisis sometimes referred to as the "spark" that started the war came on June 28, 1914. While on a visit to Sarajevo (in Bosnia) Archduke Francis Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, was assassinated by a Serbian nationalist. Almost immediately, Germany pledged its support to Austria-Hungary, which declared war on Serbia a month later. Russia mobilized forces against Austria-Hungary in support of Serbia. A few days later, Germany declared war on Russia and then on France. Following the German invasion of Belgium, Britain declared war on Germany, and World War I was well under way.

Origins of World War II

- The causes of World War II included the unsustainable peace settlement after World War I, the global economic crisis caused by the Great Depression, continued imperialistic aspirations, and especially the rise to power of fascist and totalitarian regimes that resulted in the aggressive militarism of Nazi Germany under Hitler. - Axis Powers: Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, and Japan. Allied powers: France and its empire, Great Britain and its empire, Commonwealth allies (Canada, Australia, New Zealand), Soviet Union, China, and the United States. - Japan invaded Manchuria, in violation of the League of Nations. - Italy attacked Ethiopia, in violation of the League of Nations; little effective resistance was given to Italy. - Germany violated the Treaty of Versailles by remilitarizing the Rhineland and invading the Sudetenland. - Appeasement-Western democracies gave in to the demands of aggressor nations (such as Japan, Italy, and Germany) in an attempt to keep the peace. Example: Munich Conference.

Global Culture (CDI)

- The global spread of ideas and values. - Refers to the common consumption of culture as the result of new communication and transportation technologies. - While Western culture, in particular, American culture, has seemingly dominated global popular culture, with American dress, food, music, and movies recognizable worldwide, popular culture increasingly reflects the influence of a globalized society. - In the 21st century, there has been a rise in a truly global culture as other nations have begun to have an influence on pop culture, as evidenced by the popularity of Bollywood movies and World Cup soccer.

Armenian Genocide

- The massive and deliberate killing of Armenian civilians by the Ottoman Turks. - As the Ottomans attempted to reform society in the hope of preventing the empire's collapse, nationalism increased across the diverse, land-based empire. - With an increase in nationalism, the government, which historically had been tolerant of the many religious and ethnic groups living in the empire, began to distrust its citizens. - In the 1890s, the Turks targeted Christian Armenians, believing that they were supportive of Russia and no longer loyal to the empire. - Genocide ensued, and millions of Armenians were killed over a 25-year period.

Metropoles

- The migration of former colonial subjects to imperial metropoles (the former colonizing countries), usually in the major cities, maintained cultural and economic ties between the colonies and the metropoles even after the dissolution of empires. - South Asians migrated to Britain. - Algerians flocked to France. - Filipinos migrated to the United States.

Background Causes of the Great War (World War I)

- The older land-based Ottoman, Russian, and Qing empires collapsed as a result of a combination of internal and external factors. These changes in Russia eventually gave way to a communist revolution. - By 1900, nationalism was a powerful global force, at times urging people to unite for a common purpose and at other times acting to break groups up. Ethnic minorities living in the multinational empires of the Ottomans and Austria-Hungary were seeking independence. - The major industrialized nations of Europe were competing for control of foreign markets and access to materials and resources. Also, an arms race had emerged as these nations sought to create the world's strongest militaries. - In the late 1800s and early 1900s, in an attempt to maintain the balance of power, many nations in Europe entered into alliances for protection. The two most significant were the Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy and the Triple Entente among Britain, Russia, and France. - Nationalism, militarism, and imperialism, combined with the new reality of entangling alliances, ensured that even the smallest crisis could lead to a war that would envelop the entire European continent.

Treaty of Versailles and Consequences

- The peace settlement negotiated by the Allies with Germany at the end of World War I focused on ensuring that Germany would never again be a threat to the security of Europe. - Terms included a war-guilt clause, in which Germany accepted complete responsibility for the war; a significant loss of German territory, including Alsace-Lorraine, which was given to France; the establishment of the Rhineland, the border between France and Germany, as a demilitarized zone; the loss of overseas colonies; reparations; and disarmament. Germany was forbidden to have any battleships, heavy artillery, or submarines. - Western and Japanese imperial states predominately maintained control over colonial holdings; in some cases they gained additional territories through conquest or treaty settlements and in other cases faced anti-imperial resistance. - The treaty did not create a lasting peace, but instead set the stage for later conflicts and wars, including World War II.

Age of Anxiety

- The period after World War I when doubt was cast upon previously existing ways of life. - Feelings of uncertainty were reflected in science, art, architecture, and psychology. - Novelists, such as Ernest Hemingway, wrote about the destruction of war. - Pablo Picasso and other artists, experimenting with new art forms, moved away from realism and toward freer forms of expression. - In the field of psychology, Sigmund Freud and others questioned traditional thinking on morality and values and developed new approaches to explaining human behavior. - In 1937, during the Spanish Civil War, Picasso created a mural titled Guernica in response to the bombing of a Basque village in Spain by German and Italian warplanes. Art such as this is evidence of the ways in which individuals challenged war.

Total War

- When all of a nation's resources are dedicated to the war effort and both the civilian and the military populations mobilize to defeat an enemy. - World War I was the first total war. Governments used a variety of strategies, including political propaganda, art, media, and intensified forms of nationalism to mobilize populations (both in home countries and the colonies) for the purpose of waging war. - A significant consequence is the purposeful targeting of civilian populations and the cities they live in. - The ability of civilians to help soldiers defeat the enemy was emphasized, and efforts were mobilized on the home front. - Rationing, propaganda, and the increased number of women in the labor force visibly indicated the many ways in which ordinary citizens sought to contribute to victory. - Although nations had large standing armies, conscription became essential, and by the end of World War I, more than 70 million men had been drafted.

India/Pakistan Partition

- While both the Indian National Congress and the Muslim League were encouraged by British promises of self-government if they supported the British war effort in World War I, many Muslims began to see the growing independence movement as Hindu dominated. - Muhammed Ali Jinnah, the leader of the Muslim League, did not trust that the Indian National Congress would deal fairly with Muslims once India gained independence. - After World War II, Britain granted India independence, but Jinnah and Jawaharlal Nehru (Gandhi's successor) were not in agreement as to India's future. - Violence broke out between Hindus and Muslims, and, despite efforts by Gandhi, tolerance and cooperation were trumped by an agreement to partition India into two states: India, which would be secular and dominated by Hindus, and Pakistan, which would be dominated by Muslims. - Hindus living in Pakistan were forced to migrate to avoid attacks by Muslims, and Muslims in India were forced to migrate to avoid attacks by Hindus. Just months after the partition, over ten million had been forced to leave their homes and resettle.

Technology of World War I

- World War I was the world's first truly modern war: new weapons revolutionized warfare. - With the use of machine guns and heavy artillery, combatants no longer charged onto the battlefield; instead, new fighting techniques were developed. Trench warfare emerged. The resulting stalemate (neither side making any significant advances) led to the development of more new weapons and strategies. - Poison gas grenades, first used by the Germans, were a great fear of soldiers in the trenches and necessitated the invention of the gas mask. - Although armored cars were used early in the war, by 1916 the British used tanks to advance against German trenches. - Aerial combat was first introduced during the war, but for the most part, planes were used for reconnaissance. - Submarine warfare was the domain of the Germans, who used U-boats to destroy British naval ships. - The new technology was deadly, leading to increased levels of wartime casualties, including large numbers of civilian casualties. Estimates of military deaths (not civilian) go as high as 10 million.

Dropping of Atomic Bomb

- World War II in Europe ended in May 1945, but waged on in the Pacific. - U.S. General MacArthur gained ground with his island-hopping campaign; the fall of Saipan, Iwo Jima, and Okinawa gave U.S. bombers access to Japanese main islands. - President Harry Truman issued a vague warning and then dropped the world's first atomic bomb on Hiroshima on August 6, 1945. When Japan did not surrender, he dropped a second on Nagasaki on August 9, 1945. - Meanwhile, the Soviet Union declared war on Japan on August 8, 1945. The result of these combined efforts was the surrender of Japan, announced by Emperor Hirohito on August 15, 1945, and the subsequent U.S. occupation of Japan until 1952. - New military technology and tactics, including the atomic bomb, and the waging of "total war," led to increasing levels of wartime casualties. - The atomic bomb was the most deadly military technology developed during World War II, causing an incredible number of wartime casualties, and has never again been used in warfare.