Unit 7/7.07

School Days:

"The School Days of an Indian Girl" begins with Zitkala-Sa, along with other Native American children, taking a train trip from South Dakota to Indiana, where they are to attend school. Though all of the children are excited, the stares of white people on the train make the children feel out of place. This feeling continues throughout the long trip and even after their arrival at school.

"A small bell was tapped, and each of the pupils drew a chair from under the table. Supposing this act meant they were to be seated, I pulled out mine and at once slipped into it from one side. But when I turned my head, I saw that I was the only one seated, and all the rest at our table remained standing. Just as I began to rise, looking shyly around to see how chairs were to be used, a second bell was sounded. All were seated at last, and I had to crawl back into my chair again."

Because no one at her new school has told her what to do or how to behave, Zitkala-Sa does not know the routine or what the bells signal. Her mistakes make her feel different and inexperienced, like the outsider she is. These first experiences, unfortunately, foreshadow what is to come.

"During this time I seemed to hang in the heart of chaos, beyond the touch or voice of human aid.My brother, being almost ten years my senior, did not quite understand my feelings. My mother had never gone inside of a schoolhouse, and so she was not capable of comforting her daughter who could read and write.Even nature seemed to have no place for me. I was neither a wee girl nor a tall one; neither a wild Indian nor a tame one."

Brother and Mother:Zitkala-Sa is alienated from the very people with whom readers would expect her to feel most comfortable and accepted. The age gap between her and her brother and the experience gap between her and her mother makes it difficult for them to understand her. Neither here nor There:Here, Zitkala-Sa lays out her situation and feelings plainly. She is lost because she has been too influenced by the white world to feel that she belongs on the reservation; but she is Native American, so she does not feel at home in the white world, either.

Consider these lines on their own and in the context of the speech. Are Chief Joseph's words born out of fear of further fighting, or are they a result of an honest appraisal of the situation faced by his people?

Chief Joseph's words are not tinged with fear of further fighting; rather, they are the result of an honest appraisal of the situation his people face. He has assessed what has happened and recognized that any hope of victory is gone. Surrendering allows him to protect his people and increase their chance of survival at a time when continuing to fight would have meant only defeat and total destruction.

"I cried aloud, shaking my head all the while until I felt the cold blades of the scissors against my neck, and heard them gnaw off one of my thick braids. Then I lost my spirit. Since the day I was taken from my mother I had suffered extreme indignities. People had stared at me. I had been tossed about in the air like a wooden puppet. And now my long hair was shingled like a coward's! In my anguish I moaned for my mother, but no one came to comfort me."

Cut Hair:The violence of Zitkala-Sa's language here is startling. Dominated by her teachers, she is unable to keep her hair from being cut. The crushing impact of the incident is made clear when she writes, ''Then I lost my spirit.'' Symbolic Meanings:The cutting of Zitkala-Sa's hair has two symbolic meanings. First, it makes her feel like a coward because Sioux tradition included cutting the hair of unskilled warriors. Second, it represents the teachers' lack of understanding and respect for Native Americans and their culture

Historical Background:

From 1871 until 1904, Chief Joseph led the Nez Perce, a migratory tribe whose ancestral homelands covered parts of Idaho, Washington, and Oregon and who were centered in northeastern Oregon's Wallowa Valley. In the 1860s, some Nez Perce leaders agreed by treaty to live on an Idaho reservation. Chief Joseph's father, however, rejected the treaty, staying in the Wallowa Valley. After his father's death, Chief Joseph continued the struggle to keep the tribe's lands. In the 1870s, hostilities erupted between the Nez Perce and federal troops. Led by General Oliver Howard, U.S. soldiers pursued the retreating Nez Perce over a 1,700 mile route through Oregon, Washington, Idaho, Wyoming, and Montana. Chief Joseph's command of the retreat was brilliant: The Nez Perce fought rearguard battles that earned the respect of their adversaries and kept the people safe. However, a bloody five-day battle in freezing conditions in 1877 weakened the Nez Perce. Rather than sacrifice the rest of his people, Chief Joseph surrendered. The "I Will Fight No More Forever" speech, which is attributed to Chief Joseph, is undeniably moving. However, it is also at the center of some controversy. Many scholars assert that Chief Joseph never actually said the words attributed to him in this speech.

Two Worlds:

In "The School Days of an Indian Girl," Zitkala-Sa establishes the two distinct worlds that she inhabits: The world of Native Americans—specifically, the reservation where Zitkala-Sa lived with her family prior to the start of her education; she was a member of the Sioux tribe, and her reservation was located in South Dakota The world of white people— the Quaker missionary school that Zitkala-Sa attended in Indiana and Earlham College, also in Indiana Moving between these two worlds means more than a simple change in geography for Zitkala-Sa. Switching worlds means changing experiences, beliefs, values, and cultures as well.

Educating Native Americans:

In the nineteenth century, some Native American children attended boarding schools run by white educators and missionaries. The purpose of these schools was to instill in young Native Americans the values of their white, Christian teachers. At the time, many people in white mainstream society approved of this effort to "civilize" Native Americans. Schools such as the one attended by Zitkala-Sa were not designed to Respect Native American culture Encourage Native American students to maintain or celebrate their distinct cultural heritage Rather, they were designed with the opposite in mind: to have young Native Americans' knowledge and celebration of their cultural heritage erased. Perhaps for this reason, Zitkala-Sa's bluntly realistic depictions of her experiences at school are unflattering in their honest appraisal of the treatment she received.

Caught Between Two Worlds:

Later in her account of childhood, Zitkala-Sa describes the summers spent with her family back on the reservation in South Dakota. Though many of her descriptions of life at school focus on her unhappiness there, life on the reservation is not perfect for Zitkala-Sa, either. Indeed, she feels somewhat uncomfortable among her own people.

Conflict with Authority:

Not knowing the routine at her new school is a minor problem compared to the more difficult issue that Zitkala-Sa faces later during her first day of school: the prospect of having her hair cut. Despite a classmate's insistence that it is futile to resist, Zitkala-Sa decides to hide from her teachers. "No, I will not submit!" she shouts. "I will struggle first!" Hiding under a bed, Zitkala-Sa manages to avoid detection for some time; but she is eventually discovered, dragged from her hiding place, and tied to a chair.

So did he?

Probably not. Joseph did not speak English, and the account of his formal surrender was recorded by a white soldier named Charles Erskine Wood, a folklorist and amateur poet who sympathized with the plight of Native Americans. Today, many historians agree that Wood either invented the speech or "translated" Joseph's words very loosely, though it is impossible to definitively state that this was the case.

Life and Career of Stephen Crane:

Stephen Crane was born in New Jersey in 1871. He was his parents' 14th child and showed an inclination toward literature at a young age: He began writing stories before age 10. He earned money as a writer for the New York Tribune by the age of 16. He attended Lafayette College and Syracuse University. He moved to New York City before graduating to pursue his career as an author. In New York, Crane lived in a notoriously poor area called the Bowery. The Bowery was home to huge numbers of unemployed and homeless people. Though Crane was able to support himself through his writing, he was fascinated by the struggles of the Bowery people. He incorporated much of what he saw into his first novel, Maggie: A Girl of the Streets. The book, first published in 1893, earned Crane praise for its frank depiction of poverty. Maggie: A Girl of the Streets established Stephen Crane as a leader in the literary naturalism movement. He published a volume of poetry entitled The Black Rider in 1895, as well as the novel for which he is still most famous, The Red Badge of Courage. This novel about a Civil War soldier depicts realistically the fear and confusion that are as much a part of war as bravery and grace under pressure. The success of his realistic novels allowed Crane to command respect as a journalist, and he sought a position as war correspondent. The New York Journal hired Crane to cover the Greco-Turkish War of 1897, noting his ability to write about war in his novels. Crane then traveled to Cuba to cover the Cuban War of Independence. On this trip, the boat on which Crane was traveling sank, and he was forced to endure 30 hours adrift in a lifeboat. This experience became the basis for one of Crane's best-known short stories, "The Open Boat," published in an 1898 collection of his shorter works. By that time, Crane had settled in England, where he continued to write. He published a novel entitled Active Service in 1899. Later that year, Crane returned to Cuba to cover the Spanish-American War. However, Crane fell ill soon after arriving in Cuba. He was ordered by doctors to return to England, but he died in Germany of tuberculosis made worse by a strain of malaria that he had contracted in Cuba. Stephen Crane was 28 when he died.

Tone and Language:

The "I Will Fight No More Forever" speech is brief. Yet in its tone and language, the speech conveys much about the Nez Perce and their situation. Because many other Native American groups faced similar predicaments, the speech came to represent the wider reality of Native American resistance to federal forces, which had become increasingly costly and difficult.

The Speech's Conclusion:

The final lines of Chief Joseph's speech are its most famous. They read as follows: "Hear me, my Chiefs, I am tired; my heart is sick and sad. From where the sun now stands I will fight no more forever."

The Second Half of the Speech:

The second half of "I Will Fight No More Forever" builds on the sympathy for the children described as in danger of freezing to death. The realistic language makes plain the uncertain, sad future faced by the Nez Perce as a result of battle and cold weather. The harsh environment has shaped their situation and taken their survival out of their hands: My people—some of them have run away to the hills and have no blankets and no food. No one knows where they are—perhaps freezing to death. I want to have time to look for my children and see how many of them I can find. Maybe I shall find them among the dead.

"Tell General Howard that I know his heart. What he told me before I have in my heart. I am tired of fighting.Our chiefs are killed. Looking Glass is dead, Tu-hul-hil-sote is dead. The old men are all dead. It is the young men who now say yes or no. He who led the young men [Joseph's brother Alikut] is dead. It is cold and we have no blankets. The little children are freezing to death."

Tone:The tone of the speech is one of subdued resignation and is tinged with bitterness. It is not angry. This tone is appropriate for a speech given is defeated man who wants to avoid further vengeance or punishment. Language:The language of the speech is blunt and direct, explaining the reasons for ending the fight. Yet the progression from the deaths of warriors—an expected outcome of battle—to the possible deaths of little children creates sympathy for the Nez Perce.

Continued Resistance and Small Victories:

Zitkala-Sa learns, when her hair is cut, that she has little power at the school, but she continues to resist and struggle against unfair and humiliating treatment. As she gradually learns English, she also learns ways to assert her individuality and her distaste for the teachers' ignorant and often cruel behaviors. Identify one rebellious action Zitkala-Sa takes to assert herself and fight back against the punishments doled out in her school. On pages 213 and 214, Zitkala-Sa describes how, after being told to mash up turnips as a punishment, she mashed them so hard that she broke the bottom of the jar that held them. The mashed turnips fell to the floor and could not be served.