Unit Two A.P World

"[Between the eleventh and fifteenth centuries] . . . Muslim maritime traders from Egypt sought goods coming from China and Southeast Asia [and] purchased these items on India's southwestern coast. . . . Sea voyages between Egypt and India were still dangerous and still involved long voyages, as well as long stays in harbors where they waited, sometimes for several months, for the winds to shift direction. . . . To protect themselves, Muslim merchants organized karim, convoyed merchant fleets. The rulers of Egypt began providing an armed escort for the fleets and succeeded in making the trade between the Red Sea and India a government-protected, regularly accomplished endeavor. The karim merchants were organized in large family firms with substantial assets and clients in markets all over the trading networks. In the Indian Ocean trade, Muslim traders not only dealt with other Muslims, but also Hindus, Zoroastrians, Christians, and Jews. Traders of various religious backgrounds boarded the same ships or stayed in the same caravanserai. In Egypt, many Jewish traders actually operated their businesses within the framework of Muslim business networks." Xinru Liu and Lynda Norene Shaffer, historians, Connections across Eurasia, published in 2007 The "long stays in harbors" mentioned in the description of the sea journeys in the first paragraph were most likely necessary because Indian Ocean maritime trade in the period circa 1200-1450

had to take into account environmental factors such as the timing and direction of the monsoons

"After leaving India, we arrived in Sumatra. It is a fertile area, in which coco-palm, clove, Indian aloe, mango, and sweet orange trees grow. Local commerce is facilitated by tin and Chinese gold. The sultan was informed of our visit and sent the judge and experts on Islamic law to meet me. The sultan is an illustrious and generous ruler and a patron of religious scholars. He is constantly waging war against the non-Muslims of Sumatra, but is a humble man who walks on foot to Friday prayers. The non-Muslims of the area must pay a poll-tax to obtain peace. One Friday after leaving the mosque, the sultan mounted an elephant and we and his entourage rode with him on horses until we reached the palace. Male musicians came into the audience hall and sang before him, after which they led horses into the hall. The horses were embroidered in silk and wore golden anklets and danced before the sultan. I was astonished, even though I had seen the same performance at the court of the Delhi sultan in India*. My stay at the sultan's court lasted fifteen days, after which I asked his permission to continue my journey to China because it is not possible to sail to China at all times of the year. We then traveled to a kingdom on the Malay Peninsula aboard a Chinese ship. This kingdom is inhabited by non-Muslims and contains great quantities of aromatic spices and aloes. The merchants sell Indian aloe for a roll of cotton cloth, which is dearer to them than silk. The ruler is a non-Muslim. We then left the Malay Peninsula and sailed to another non-Muslim kingdom in Southeast Asia. After seventeen days at sea, with a favorable wind and sailing with maximum speed and ease, we reached the land of China." *The Delhi Sultanate was a Muslim state in northern India that was ruled by a Turkic elite. Ibn Battuta, Muslim traveler from North Africa, account of his journey to China, circa 1345 The purpose of Ibn Battuta's account was most likely to

inform his audience about the cultural, political, and economic characteristics of the places he visited

"I, the reverend Buddhist teacher Dharmasekhara, dedicated this statue of the bodhisattva Amoghapasa* on the orders of His Majesty King Adityawarman, for the benefit and salvation and happiness of all creatures. Hail to the King—experienced in the arts of war, well versed in the science, he is an ocean of all virtues practiced by the followers of the Buddha! He is free from all physical desire. Hail to the King—he who supports the entire world. He has collected jewels by the millions, taken them from the hands of his enemies among the other rulers of this world. He who is like God among kings, crowned, protected by heavenly beings, King of kings! He orders what should be known to all!" Sanskrit inscription on a statue of a bodhisattva produced in the Malayapura kingdom, Sumatra, Indonesia, circa 1350 C.E. *a major figure worshipped in Mahayana Buddhism Based on the content of the inscription, Adityawarman's Malayapura kingdom most likely participated in the communication and exchange networks of the

maritime eastern Indian Ocean trade

The painting shows Khubilai Khan and his hunting companions on horseback. To the left, a horse archer prepares his weapon. The inclusion of the caravan in the painting's background could best be used as evidence that Yuan rulers

portrayed themselves as promoters of commerce

"Throughout its history, Central Asia has provided the ancient civilized empires on its borders with new Shahs, Sultans, or Sons of Heaven. These periodic invasions by the nomads of the steppe, whose khans ascended the thrones of Changan, Luoyang, Kaifeng, or Beijing*, of Isfahan or Tabriz**, Delhi or Constantinople, became one of the geographic laws of history. But there was another, opposing law which brought about the slow absorption of the invaders by the ancient civilized lands. The civilizations of China and Persia, though conquered, would in the long run vanquish their conquerors, intoxicating them with the pleasures of settled life, lulling them to sleep, and assimilating them culturally. Often, only fifty years after a conquest, the culturally Sinicized or Persianized former barbarian would be the first to stand guard over his adopted civilization and protect it against fresh nomadic onslaughts." *capital cities of various Chinese dynasties **capital cities of various Persian dynasties René Grousset, French historian of Central Asia, The Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia, 1939 The Mongol conquests resulted in all of the following developments EXCEPT

the initial diffusion of Buddhism and Christianity to East Asia

"The eleventh king of the sultanate of Kano* was Yaji Ali [reigned 1349-1385]. In Yaji's time merchants came from the north bringing Islam. They commanded the king Yaji to observe the times of prayer. He complied, and made one man an imam (prayer leader) and another a muezzin (the person reciting the call to prayer from a mosque). The king commanded every town in his kingdom to observe the times of prayer. So they all did so. A mosque was built beneath the sacred tree facing east, and prayers were made at the five appointed times in it. The nineteenth king of the Hausa kingdom was Yakubu [reigned 1452-1463]. He was a good king. In his time traders came to Kano from Mali bringing with them books on Islamic divinity and the study of the Arabic language. Formerly our religious scholars had, in addition to the Qur'an, only a few books of Islamic law. At this time too, salt became common in Kano. In the following year merchants from the region of Gwanja in the south began coming, and from the north Berbers** came in large numbers, and a colony of Arabs arrived." *a West African state established by the Hausa people of present-day northern Nigeria **ethnic group from the western part of North Africa Excerpts from The Kano Chronicle, an oral tradition that records the exploits of the kings of Kano, written down in the late nineteenth century The integration of West African states into wider regional and transregional economic networks in the period circa 1200-1450 was carried out mostly via the

trans-Saharan trade routes

"The first man who came to Pate* was Sulayman, son of Mudhafar. He was a king in Arabia, but he had been driven out. He came to Pate in 1203 and married the daughter of the king of Pate. Because of this marriage, the Swahili adopted a custom that still lasts to this day: seven days after a wedding, the husband goes to see his wife's father, who then gives him something. Indeed, seven days after the wedding, Sulayman went to see his father-in-law, who handed over the kingdom to him. In 1291, Sulayman's great-grandson Muhammad reigned, and he kept on conquering the towns of the Swahili coast in many wars. His son, Sultan Umar, became very powerful and gained possession of all of the Swahili towns. In 1331, Sulayman's great-great grandson Muhammad ruled the whole kingdom of his father by peaceable means. He was extremely fond of money and trade. He ordered his merchants to undertake voyages to India to trade there, and because of this he became very wealthy." *an island located in the Indian Ocean off the coast of Kenya A Swahili History of Pate, chronicle based on an ancient oral tradition, written down in Swahili in 1903. Swahili is a Bantu language that contains a significant number of Arabic words and phrases. The third paragraph most directly illustrates the ways in which rulers in the Indian Ocean in the period before 1450

used expanding trade networks to facilitate state development

Source: Data adapted from L. R. Poos, "The Rural Population of Essex in the Later Middle Ages," The Economic History Review 38:4 (1985): 522-3. The data is based on manorial population surveys ordered by the earls of Essex and on the court records of the earls' manor courts. Based on the information in the table, the Black Death outbreak of the bubonic plague struck Essex County in which of the following periods?

Between 1320 and 1350

"Throughout its history, Central Asia has provided the ancient civilized empires on its borders with new Shahs, Sultans, or Sons of Heaven. These periodic invasions by the nomads of the steppe, whose khans ascended the thrones of Changan, Luoyang, Kaifeng, or Beijing*, of Isfahan or Tabriz**, Delhi or Constantinople, became one of the geographic laws of history. But there was another, opposing law which brought about the slow absorption of the invaders by the ancient civilized lands. The civilizations of China and Persia, though conquered, would in the long run vanquish their conquerors, intoxicating them with the pleasures of settled life, lulling them to sleep, and assimilating them culturally. Often, only fifty years after a conquest, the culturally Sinicized or Persianized former barbarian would be the first to stand guard over his adopted civilization and protect it against fresh nomadic onslaughts." *capital cities of various Chinese dynasties **capital cities of various Persian dynasties René Grousset, French historian of Central Asia, The Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia, 1939 Which of the following developments in the period circa 1250-1450 represents a situation that is the opposite of nomadic conquerors assimilating into the cultures of the conquered societies?

Conquered peoples being drawn into their conquerors' economic and cultural orbits, as illustrated by Turkic peoples converting to Islam and integrating into Muslim societies

"Brother, you had written to me that you sent roughly 6,300 pounds of block iron to me from India in the ship of the Muslim captain Abu'l-Kata'ib. But when the ship arrived here, it only carried 5,100 pounds and the Muslim shipowner said that that was everything he had received from your Indian agent before setting sail. To compensate for the difference, I have charged you the Muslim captain's transportation fee for the above-mentioned iron that was sent to me here in Aden* and for pepper that was sent with it. I am also charging you the transportation fee for items that I am sending to you in India, including twenty-five pounds of copper bars, ten Berbera * mats in a package, cloth, a piece of lead weighing two hundred and forty-five pounds, two large boxes of sugar, and a package of the best Egyptian paper." *Aden and Berbera were prominent Indian Ocean port cities. Letter from Madmun ibn al-Hassan, a Jewish merchant in Aden, to his brother in India, circa 1133 C.E. The letter was written in Judeo-Arabic, a form of the Arabic language written in the Hebrew script. The letter best illustrates which of the following continuities in the period circa 600-1450 C.E.?

Diasporic communities were often established in key locations along important trade routes.

Between 200 B.C.E. and 1450 C.E., the Silk Roads linked which of the following?

East Asia and the Mediterranean Sea

"On several occasions, Ghazan Khan* went to the observatory at Maragha** and watched the Muslim, Christian, and Chinese astronomers make their observations. He looked at all the operations and instruments, studied them, and asked about their procedures, which he understood in spite of their difficulty. He also ordered the construction of a dome in order to investigate the Sun's motion and he spoke out with his astronomers about it. All of them said that although they had never seen such an instrument, it was reasonable and sensible. He gave orders for the construction of an observatory next to his tomb in Tabriz in Persia. He explained how to construct the observatory with such clarity that local wise men marveled at his intelligence, because such work had not been done in any era. Those wise men said that constructing the observatory would be extremely difficult. He guided them, whereupon they commenced building it and they finished it following his instructions. Those wise men and all the engineers agreed that nobody had done such a thing before nor had imagined doing it." *ruler of the Mongol Ilkhanate, whose territories included most of the Muslim Middle East; reigned 1295-1304 **an astronomical observatory in present-day Azerbaijan, established by a grant from the first Ilkhanid ruler in the mid-thirteenth century Rashid al-Din Hamdani, Persian Muslim historian and government minister in Ghazan Khan's court, excerpt from a universal history commissioned by Ghazan Khan, completed circa 1316 Which of the following best describes the historical circumstances of Rashid al-Din's career?

His career illustrates the possibilities for diffusion and intermingling of cultures brought about by the Mongol conquests.

Source: Data adapted from L. R. Poos, "The Rural Population of Essex in the Later Middle Ages," The Economic History Review 38:4 (1985): 522-3. The data is based on manorial population surveys ordered by the earls of Essex and on the court records of the earls' manor courts. A comparison between the data for the three manors shown in the table best illustrates which of the following about the bubonic plague?

In some but not all areas, the population was beginning to recover by 1400.

The painting shows Khubilai Khan and his hunting companions on horseback. To the left, a horse archer prepares his weapon. The establishment of the Mongol Empire directly facilitated which of the following?

Increased cultural and technological exchange between the Islamic world and China.

The spread of cotton as described by Eaton in the passage most directly contributed to which ofthe following economic developments in the period 600-1450 C.E.? *

Increased demand for and production of textiles in India, Persia, and the Middle East

"After leaving India, we arrived in Sumatra. It is a fertile area, in which coco-palm, clove, Indian aloe, mango, and sweet orange trees grow. Local commerce is facilitated by tin and Chinese gold. The sultan was informed of our visit and sent the judge and experts on Islamic law to meet me. The sultan is an illustrious and generous ruler and a patron of religious scholars. He is constantly waging war against the non-Muslims of Sumatra, but is a humble man who walks on foot to Friday prayers. The non-Muslims of the area must pay a poll-tax to obtain peace. One Friday after leaving the mosque, the sultan mounted an elephant and we and his entourage rode with him on horses until we reached the palace. Male musicians came into the audience hall and sang before him, after which they led horses into the hall. The horses were embroidered in silk and wore golden anklets and danced before the sultan. I was astonished, even though I had seen the same performance at the court of the Delhi sultan in India*. My stay at the sultan's court lasted fifteen days, after which I asked his permission to continue my journey to China because it is not possible to sail to China at all times of the year. We then traveled to a kingdom on the Malay Peninsula aboard a Chinese ship. This kingdom is inhabited by non-Muslims and contains great quantities of aromatic spices and aloes. The merchants sell Indian aloe for a roll of cotton cloth, which is dearer to them than silk. The ruler is a non-Muslim. We then left the Malay Peninsula and sailed to another non-Muslim kingdom in Southeast Asia. After seventeen days at sea, with a favorable wind and sailing with maximum speed and ease, we reached the land of China." *The Delhi Sultanate was a Muslim state in northern India that was ruled by a Turkic elite. Ibn Battuta, Muslim traveler from North Africa, account of his journey to China, circa 1345 Ibn Battuta's claim in the second paragraph that the ceremony that he observed at the court of the sultan of Sumatra was similar to a ceremony that he had seen at the court of the Delhi sultan in India is most likely understood in the context of which of the following developments in the Indian Ocean region in the period 1200-1450 ?

Increasing cross-cultural interactions facilitated the spread of cultural traditions.

Which of the statements below is most solidly supported by the information contained in the web on this page?

India served as the geographical hub of this system of exchange

"A strongly held misconception about the Sahara, both in popular culture and in academia, is that this desert constitutes both a physical barrier and a fundamental cultural divide between northern Africa—a constituent part of the Mediterranean and Middle Eastern historical realms—and 'sub-Saharan' Africa, a world apart. . . . [I argue] that the Sahara has far more often served as a link than as a barrier. . . . Prior to the end of the 16th century c.e., [the Sahara] was essential to world trade as it afforded nearly continuous communication between China, the Indian subcontinent, the Middle East, Russia, the Mediterranean and West Africa. Trade, travel and communications between these world regions was assured by a system of caravans. . . . The 12th through the 16th centuries mark the 'golden age' of this trade. Demand for West African gold was at its height as the economies of the Mediterranean Sea, the Middle East, Central Asia, the Indian Ocean and Ming China expanded. . . . [In addition], the rise of the Malian and then the Songhay empires [made] the trade routes and trading cities of the African continent relatively secure, and therefore prosperous." Eric Ross, Canadian historian, article included in a book, published in 2011 Which of the following best explains why trade along the trans-Saharan trade networks increased in the period 1200-1450 ?

Innovations in previously existing transportation technologies, such as the caravan, allowed merchants to carry larger loads and protect themselves.

Source: Data adapted from L. R. Poos, "The Rural Population of Essex in the Later Middle Ages," The Economic History Review 38:4 (1985): 522-3. The data is based on manorial population surveys ordered by the earls of Essex and on the court records of the earls' manor courts. Which of the following best describes the change in the total population of males age 12 and older in the three manors shown in the table from 1320 to 1400 ?

It declined to less than a half of its 1320 level (over 50% decline).

"A strongly held misconception about the Sahara, both in popular culture and in academia, is that this desert constitutes both a physical barrier and a fundamental cultural divide between northern Africa—a constituent part of the Mediterranean and Middle Eastern historical realms—and 'sub-Saharan' Africa, a world apart. . . . [I argue] that the Sahara has far more often served as a link than as a barrier. . . . Prior to the end of the 16th century c.e., [the Sahara] was essential to world trade as it afforded nearly continuous communication between China, the Indian subcontinent, the Middle East, Russia, the Mediterranean and West Africa. Trade, travel and communications between these world regions was assured by a system of caravans. . . . The 12th through the 16th centuries mark the 'golden age' of this trade. Demand for West African gold was at its height as the economies of the Mediterranean Sea, the Middle East, Central Asia, the Indian Ocean and Ming China expanded. . . . [In addition], the rise of the Malian and then the Songhay empires [made] the trade routes and trading cities of the African continent relatively secure, and therefore prosperous." Eric Ross, Canadian historian, article included in a book, published in 2011 Which of the following best explains an effect of the expansion of the Mali Empire on the trans-Saharan trade networks?

It facilitated commercial growth by expanding the number of people participating in the trade networks.

Which of the following technological innovations played the largest role in enabling the system of exchange described by the web on this page? *

Lateen sails

"[Between the eleventh and fifteenth centuries] . . . Muslim maritime traders from Egypt sought goods coming from China and Southeast Asia [and] purchased these items on India's southwestern coast. . . . Sea voyages between Egypt and India were still dangerous and still involved long voyages, as well as long stays in harbors where they waited, sometimes for several months, for the winds to shift direction. . . . To protect themselves, Muslim merchants organized karim, convoyed merchant fleets. The rulers of Egypt began providing an armed escort for the fleets and succeeded in making the trade between the Red Sea and India a government-protected, regularly accomplished endeavor. The karim merchants were organized in large family firms with substantial assets and clients in markets all over the trading networks. In the Indian Ocean trade, Muslim traders not only dealt with other Muslims, but also Hindus, Zoroastrians, Christians, and Jews. Traders of various religious backgrounds boarded the same ships or stayed in the same caravanserai. In Egypt, many Jewish traders actually operated their businesses within the framework of Muslim business networks." Xinru Liu and Lynda Norene Shaffer, historians, Connections across Eurasia, published in 2007 The pattern of trade described in the passage was most characteristic of which of the following types of goods in the period 1200-1450 ?

Luxury goods such as spices or porcelain

The map above indicates thatA map titled "Fourteenth-Century North and West Africa" is shown. It marks the trade routes connecting Awlil, Mali, Taghaza, Marrakesh, Fez, Gao, Timbuktu, Taodemi, Kumbi Saleh, Jenne, Niani, Kano, Agades, Tunis, Ghadames, Tripoli, Bilma, and Ghat to Egypt. It marks the area of Mali, with its territories Gao, Timbuktu, Jenne, Kumbi Saleh, Niani, Audagnost, and Awlil. The Gambia River and the Senegal River are marked flowing through Mali and finally falling into the Niger River at its east. It marks Bilma, Taodemi, and few centres that lie along the Atlantic Ocean as the regions where salt mines are located. The centers where gold mines are located are marked along the regions surrounding Mali and close to the Gambia and the Volta River. The map above indicates that

Mali was a major source and hub of the gold trade

The map below indicates

Mali was a major source and hub of the gold trade

"The first man who came to Pate* was Sulayman, son of Mudhafar. He was a king in Arabia, but he had been driven out. He came to Pate in 1203 and married the daughter of the king of Pate. Because of this marriage, the Swahili adopted a custom that still lasts to this day: seven days after a wedding, the husband goes to see his wife's father, who then gives him something. Indeed, seven days after the wedding, Sulayman went to see his father-in-law, who handed over the kingdom to him. In 1291, Sulayman's great-grandson Muhammad reigned, and he kept on conquering the towns of the Swahili coast in many wars. His son, Sultan Umar, became very powerful and gained possession of all of the Swahili towns. In 1331, Sulayman's great-great grandson Muhammad ruled the whole kingdom of his father by peaceable means. He was extremely fond of money and trade. He ordered his merchants to undertake voyages to India to trade there, and because of this he became very wealthy." *an island located in the Indian Ocean off the coast of Kenya A Swahili History of Pate, chronicle based on an ancient oral tradition, written down in Swahili in 1903. Swahili is a Bantu language that contains a significant number of Arabic words and phrases. Voyages such as those referred to in the third paragraph were most directly facilitated by which of the following?

Merchants' understanding of the patterns of the monsoon winds

"It is widely accepted that the rise of the Mongol Empire greatly expanded trade and the circulation of goods. . . . Since the fall of the Uighur Empire [in the ninth century], Mongolia was a region removed from the main trade routes. Thus the Mongols irrupted into the wider world as a relatively unknown society. As the Mongol Empire dominated Eurasia, envoys, merchants and travelers came to the court of the Mongols . . . and participated in . . . the exchange of goods, ideas, technology and people precipitated by the Mongol conquests." Timothy May, United States historian, academic article, 2016 The breakup of the Mongol Empire into separate khanates during the mid-thirteenth century was most connected to which of the following developments?

Mongol traditions emphasized tribal and personal loyalties and made it difficult to establish long-lasting centralized dynastic rule, which led to civil war.

Which of the following factors contributed the most to Omani traders' ability to undertake the voyages depicted on the maps?

Navigational and maritime innovations, such as the astrolabe and lateen sail

The graph above shows the effect of which of the following?

Plague on the populations of Asia and Europe

"On several occasions, Ghazan Khan* went to the observatory at Maragha** and watched the Muslim, Christian, and Chinese astronomers make their observations. He looked at all the operations and instruments, studied them, and asked about their procedures, which he understood in spite of their difficulty. He also ordered the construction of a dome in order to investigate the Sun's motion and he spoke out with his astronomers about it. All of them said that although they had never seen such an instrument, it was reasonable and sensible. He gave orders for the construction of an observatory next to his tomb in Tabriz in Persia. He explained how to construct the observatory with such clarity that local wise men marveled at his intelligence, because such work had not been done in any era. Those wise men said that constructing the observatory would be extremely difficult. He guided them, whereupon they commenced building it and they finished it following his instructions. Those wise men and all the engineers agreed that nobody had done such a thing before nor had imagined doing it." *ruler of the Mongol Ilkhanate, whose territories included most of the Muslim Middle East; reigned 1295-1304 **an astronomical observatory in present-day Azerbaijan, established by a grant from the first Ilkhanid ruler in the mid-thirteenth century Rashid al-Din Hamdani, Persian Muslim historian and government minister in Ghazan Khan's court, excerpt from a universal history commissioned by Ghazan Khan, completed circa 1316 Which of the following best describes the historical situation in Eurasia at the time the passage was written?

Political upheaval and reorganization increased cultural and scientific exchanges across regions.

The photograph above of a mosque (first erected in the fourteenth century) in the modern-day West African country of Mali best exemplifies which of the following historical processes?

Spread of religion along trade routes

"After leaving India, we arrived in Sumatra. It is a fertile area, in which coco-palm, clove, Indian aloe, mango, and sweet orange trees grow. Local commerce is facilitated by tin and Chinese gold. The sultan was informed of our visit and sent the judge and experts on Islamic law to meet me. The sultan is an illustrious and generous ruler and a patron of religious scholars. He is constantly waging war against the non-Muslims of Sumatra, but is a humble man who walks on foot to Friday prayers. The non-Muslims of the area must pay a poll-tax to obtain peace. One Friday after leaving the mosque, the sultan mounted an elephant and we and his entourage rode with him on horses until we reached the palace. Male musicians came into the audience hall and sang before him, after which they led horses into the hall. The horses were embroidered in silk and wore golden anklets and danced before the sultan. I was astonished, even though I had seen the same performance at the court of the Delhi sultan in India*. My stay at the sultan's court lasted fifteen days, after which I asked his permission to continue my journey to China because it is not possible to sail to China at all times of the year. We then traveled to a kingdom on the Malay Peninsula aboard a Chinese ship. This kingdom is inhabited by non-Muslims and contains great quantities of aromatic spices and aloes. The merchants sell Indian aloe for a roll of cotton cloth, which is dearer to them than silk. The ruler is a non-Muslim. We then left the Malay Peninsula and sailed to another non-Muslim kingdom in Southeast Asia. After seventeen days at sea, with a favorable wind and sailing with maximum speed and ease, we reached the land of China." *The Delhi Sultanate was a Muslim state in northern India that was ruled by a Turkic elite. Ibn Battuta, Muslim traveler from North Africa, account of his journey to China, circa 1345 Based on Ibn Battuta's description of the sultan of Sumatra in the first paragraph, his point of view could most likely be characterized as that of a

Sunni Muslim jurist who believes that a Muslim ruler should patronize the religious elite and seek to expand Islam

Commerce was a key mode of exchange between which of the following pairs of political entities?

The Crusader states and the Fatimid caliphate

"The eleventh king of the sultanate of Kano* was Yaji Ali [reigned 1349-1385]. In Yaji's time merchants came from the north bringing Islam. They commanded the king Yaji to observe the times of prayer. He complied, and made one man an imam (prayer leader) and another a muezzin (the person reciting the call to prayer from a mosque). The king commanded every town in his kingdom to observe the times of prayer. So they all did so. A mosque was built beneath the sacred tree facing east, and prayers were made at the five appointed times in it. The nineteenth king of the Hausa kingdom was Yakubu [reigned 1452-1463]. He was a good king. In his time traders came to Kano from Mali bringing with them books on Islamic divinity and the study of the Arabic language. Formerly our religious scholars had, in addition to the Qur'an, only a few books of Islamic law. At this time too, salt became common in Kano. In the following year merchants from the region of Gwanja in the south began coming, and from the north Berbers** came in large numbers, and a colony of Arabs arrived." *a West African state established by the Hausa people of present-day northern Nigeria **ethnic group from the western part of North Africa Excerpts from The Kano Chronicle, an oral tradition that records the exploits of the kings of Kano, written down in the late nineteenth century The spread of Islam into sub-Saharan West Africa in the period circa 1200-1450 was mostly a result of the conversion of the rulers of which of the following states?

The Mali Empire

The map above shows which of the following empires at its greatest extent?

The Mongol Empire

"It is widely accepted that the rise of the Mongol Empire greatly expanded trade and the circulation of goods. . . . Since the fall of the Uighur Empire [in the ninth century], Mongolia was a region removed from the main trade routes. Thus the Mongols irrupted into the wider world as a relatively unknown society. As the Mongol Empire dominated Eurasia, envoys, merchants and travelers came to the court of the Mongols . . . and participated in . . . the exchange of goods, ideas, technology and people precipitated by the Mongol conquests." Timothy May, United States historian, academic article, 2016 Which of the following best describes an effect of the establishment of the Mongol Empire upon Silk Road long distance trade?

The Silk Road trade increased because the Mongol conquests helped connect more regions of Eurasia economically and commercially.

"The eleventh king of the sultanate of Kano* was Yaji Ali [reigned 1349-1385]. In Yaji's time merchants came from the north bringing Islam. They commanded the king Yaji to observe the times of prayer. He complied, and made one man an imam (prayer leader) and another a muezzin (the person reciting the call to prayer from a mosque). The king commanded every town in his kingdom to observe the times of prayer. So they all did so. A mosque was built beneath the sacred tree facing east, and prayers were made at the five appointed times in it. The nineteenth king of the Hausa kingdom was Yakubu [reigned 1452-1463]. He was a good king. In his time traders came to Kano from Mali bringing with them books on Islamic divinity and the study of the Arabic language. Formerly our religious scholars had, in addition to the Qur'an, only a few books of Islamic law. At this time too, salt became common in Kano. In the following year merchants from the region of Gwanja in the south began coming, and from the north Berbers** came in large numbers, and a colony of Arabs arrived." *a West African state established by the Hausa people of present-day northern Nigeria **ethnic group from the western part of North Africa Excerpts from The Kano Chronicle, an oral tradition that records the exploits of the kings of Kano, written down in the late nineteenth century In the period circa 1200-1450, which of the following most directly enabled merchants to bring salt and other bulk products to markets in sub-Saharan Africa?

The adoption of innovative practices in overland trading, such as the use of camel caravans and saddles

Which of the following best describes Middle Eastern trade in the period 1000 to 1450 ?

The area was engaged in regular trade with China, India, and sub-Saharan Africa.

The economic relationships associated with this system of exchange described by the web on this page was most disrupted by which of the following?

The arrival of European merchants and explorers

Which of the following factors helps explain the rise of urban centers and the increase in trade in Afro-Eurasia during the second half of the thirteenth century?

The availability of safe and reliable transport along land-based trade routes

"It is widely accepted that the rise of the Mongol Empire greatly expanded trade and the circulation of goods. . . . Since the fall of the Uighur Empire [in the ninth century], Mongolia was a region removed from the main trade routes. Thus the Mongols irrupted into the wider world as a relatively unknown society. As the Mongol Empire dominated Eurasia, envoys, merchants and travelers came to the court of the Mongols . . . and participated in . . . the exchange of goods, ideas, technology and people precipitated by the Mongol conquests." Timothy May, United States historian, academic article, 2016 The expansion of the Mongol Empire most directly led to which of the following political developments in Afro-Eurasia?

The collapse of previously existing states, such as the Song dynasty of China

"If it were asked, why do we accept the theory of contagion, when already the divine law has refuted the notion of contagion, we will answer: The existence of contagion has been proved by experience, deduction, the senses, observation, and by unanimous reports. And it is not a secret to whoever has looked into this matter or has come to be aware of it that those who come into contact with plague patients mostly die, while those who do not come into contact survive. And amidst the horrible afflictions that the plague has imposed upon the people, God has afflicted the people with some learned religious scholars who issue fatwas* against fleeing the plague, so that the quills with which the scholars wrote these fatwas were like swords upon which the Muslims died. In conclusion, to ignore the proofs of plague contagion is an indecency and an affront to God and holds cheap the lives of Muslims." *rulings on Islamic law Lisan al-Din Ibn al-Khatib, A Very Useful Inquiry into the Horrible Sickness, Granada, Spain, 1349-1352 The outbreaks of plague described in the passage led most directly to which of the following?

The decline of many major cities across Eurasia

The figures in the foreground represent the clergy, nobility, and townspeople. Developments such as the one depicted in the painting most directly contributed to which of the following?

The decline of many urban areas

"[Between the eleventh and fifteenth centuries] . . . Muslim maritime traders from Egypt sought goods coming from China and Southeast Asia [and] purchased these items on India's southwestern coast. . . . Sea voyages between Egypt and India were still dangerous and still involved long voyages, as well as long stays in harbors where they waited, sometimes for several months, for the winds to shift direction. . . . To protect themselves, Muslim merchants organized karim, convoyed merchant fleets. The rulers of Egypt began providing an armed escort for the fleets and succeeded in making the trade between the Red Sea and India a government-protected, regularly accomplished endeavor. The karim merchants were organized in large family firms with substantial assets and clients in markets all over the trading networks. In the Indian Ocean trade, Muslim traders not only dealt with other Muslims, but also Hindus, Zoroastrians, Christians, and Jews. Traders of various religious backgrounds boarded the same ships or stayed in the same caravanserai. In Egypt, many Jewish traders actually operated their businesses within the framework of Muslim business networks." Xinru Liu and Lynda Norene Shaffer, historians, Connections across Eurasia, published in 2007 Based on the pattern of trade described in the third paragraph, the Egyptian karim merchants were most likely directly involved in which of the following broader developments in the Indian Ocean in the period circa 1200-1450 ?

The establishment of diasporic merchant communities

Now if divorce is your wish, I cannot blame you. For the waiting has been long. And I do not know whether the Creator will grant relief immediately so that I can come home, or whether matters will take time, for I cannot come home with nothing. Now the matter is in your hand. If you wish to end our marriage, accept this bill of repudiation, and you are free. May God inspire you with the right decision. The passage above is best seen in light of which of the following historical developments? *

The formation of far-flung diaspora communities as a result of interregional commerce

This system of exchange described by the web on this page would have encouraged which of the following social and cultural developments most directly?

The formation of merchant diaspora communities

"A strongly held misconception about the Sahara, both in popular culture and in academia, is that this desert constitutes both a physical barrier and a fundamental cultural divide between northern Africa—a constituent part of the Mediterranean and Middle Eastern historical realms—and 'sub-Saharan' Africa, a world apart. . . . [I argue] that the Sahara has far more often served as a link than as a barrier. . . . Prior to the end of the 16th century c.e., [the Sahara] was essential to world trade as it afforded nearly continuous communication between China, the Indian subcontinent, the Middle East, Russia, the Mediterranean and West Africa. Trade, travel and communications between these world regions was assured by a system of caravans. . . . The 12th through the 16th centuries mark the 'golden age' of this trade. Demand for West African gold was at its height as the economies of the Mediterranean Sea, the Middle East, Central Asia, the Indian Ocean and Ming China expanded. . . . [In addition], the rise of the Malian and then the Songhay empires [made] the trade routes and trading cities of the African continent relatively secure, and therefore prosperous." Eric Ross, Canadian historian, article included in a book, published in 2011 Which of the following best explains a development in the trans-Saharan trade networks in the period 1200-1450 ?

The geographic range of the networks increased because of improved commercial practices.

"I, Edward, by the grace of God king of England, sent this decree to the sheriff of Kent (a region in southeastern England). A great portion of the people of our realm have recently died. Those who survive see that masters need servants, which are scarce, and the servants will not serve unless they receive excessive wages. After consulting with the nobles and clergy, we have decided that every man and woman of our realm of England shall be required to serve his or her lord at the wages that were provided in the year 1346. Merchants, those who belong to craft guilds, and those who own their land are exempt from this rule. The lords are entitled to keep their serfs. If any such serf, man or woman, who is required to serve their lord will not do so, they shall be immediately committed to jail." King Edward III of England, the Statute of Laborers, parliamentary decree, 1351 Based on the passage, the Statute of Laborers was most likely a direct response to which of the following?

The impact of the bubonic plague epidemic on England's economy

"Brother, you had written to me that you sent roughly 6,300 pounds of block iron to me from India in the ship of the Muslim captain Abu'l-Kata'ib. But when the ship arrived here, it only carried 5,100 pounds and the Muslim shipowner said that that was everything he had received from your Indian agent before setting sail. To compensate for the difference, I have charged you the Muslim captain's transportation fee for the above-mentioned iron that was sent to me here in Aden* and for pepper that was sent with it. I am also charging you the transportation fee for items that I am sending to you in India, including twenty-five pounds of copper bars, ten Berbera * mats in a package, cloth, a piece of lead weighing two hundred and forty-five pounds, two large boxes of sugar, and a package of the best Egyptian paper." *Aden and Berbera were prominent Indian Ocean port cities. Letter from Madmun ibn al-Hassan, a Jewish merchant in Aden, to his brother in India, circa 1133 C.E. The letter was written in Judeo-Arabic, a form of the Arabic language written in the Hebrew script. Trade in the items referred to in the second paragraph is best understood in the context of which of the following?

The increasing demand for high-value goods and manufactures in Afro-Eurasia

"The first man who came to Pate* was Sulayman, son of Mudhafar. He was a king in Arabia, but he had been driven out. He came to Pate in 1203 and married the daughter of the king of Pate. Because of this marriage, the Swahili adopted a custom that still lasts to this day: seven days after a wedding, the husband goes to see his wife's father, who then gives him something. Indeed, seven days after the wedding, Sulayman went to see his father-in-law, who handed over the kingdom to him. In 1291, Sulayman's great-grandson Muhammad reigned, and he kept on conquering the towns of the Swahili coast in many wars. His son, Sultan Umar, became very powerful and gained possession of all of the Swahili towns. In 1331, Sulayman's great-great grandson Muhammad ruled the whole kingdom of his father by peaceable means. He was extremely fond of money and trade. He ordered his merchants to undertake voyages to India to trade there, and because of this he became very wealthy." *an island located in the Indian Ocean off the coast of Kenya A Swahili History of Pate, chronicle based on an ancient oral tradition, written down in Swahili in 1903. Swahili is a Bantu language that contains a significant number of Arabic words and phrases. The first paragraph most directly illustrates how increasing regional interactions led to which of the following developments in the Indian Ocean in the period 1200-1450?

The introduction of new cultural traditions

"Throughout its history, Central Asia has provided the ancient civilized empires on its borders with new Shahs, Sultans, or Sons of Heaven. These periodic invasions by the nomads of the steppe, whose khans ascended the thrones of Changan, Luoyang, Kaifeng, or Beijing*, of Isfahan or Tabriz**, Delhi or Constantinople, became one of the geographic laws of history. But there was another, opposing law which brought about the slow absorption of the invaders by the ancient civilized lands. The civilizations of China and Persia, though conquered, would in the long run vanquish their conquerors, intoxicating them with the pleasures of settled life, lulling them to sleep, and assimilating them culturally. Often, only fifty years after a conquest, the culturally Sinicized or Persianized former barbarian would be the first to stand guard over his adopted civilization and protect it against fresh nomadic onslaughts." *capital cities of various Chinese dynasties **capital cities of various Persian dynasties René Grousset, French historian of Central Asia, The Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia, 1939 The general pattern of nomadic conquest followed by the assimilation of the conquerors into the cultures of the conquered societies was most clearly expressed in which of the following developments in the period circa 1250-1450 ?

The rulers of the Yuan dynasty adopting Chinese court culture and methods of rule

The figures in the foreground represent the clergy, nobility, and townspeople. The scene depicted in the painting is best understood in the context of which of the following wider Afro-Eurasian developments?

The spread of epidemic diseases

"If it were asked, why do we accept the theory of contagion, when already the divine law has refuted the notion of contagion, we will answer: The existence of contagion has been proved by experience, deduction, the senses, observation, and by unanimous reports. And it is not a secret to whoever has looked into this matter or has come to be aware of it that those who come into contact with plague patients mostly die, while those who do not come into contact survive. And amidst the horrible afflictions that the plague has imposed upon the people, God has afflicted the people with some learned religious scholars who issue fatwas* against fleeing the plague, so that the quills with which the scholars wrote these fatwas were like swords upon which the Muslims died. In conclusion, to ignore the proofs of plague contagion is an indecency and an affront to God and holds cheap the lives of Muslims." *rulings on Islamic law Lisan al-Din Ibn al-Khatib, A Very Useful Inquiry into the Horrible Sickness, Granada, Spain, 1349-1352 The passage by al-Khatib is best understood in the context of which of the following?

The spread of the Black Death in the aftermath of the Mongol conquests

Which of the following is the most probable cause of the marital strain evident in the passage above? *

The strain placed on merchant families by long periods of separation

*a hectare is equivalent to roughly 2.5 acres Source: Data adapted from Our World in Data, found online at https://ourworldindata.org/yields-and-land-use-in-agriculture Which of the following best describes a way in which the table illustrates how the spread of rice cultivation contributed to changing the total amount of land devoted to the production of agricultural crops in China, India, and the Middle East between 1200 and 1300 ?

The total amount of land devoted to the production of agricultural crops declined in all three regions.

*a hectare is equivalent to roughly 2.5 acres Source: Data adapted from Our World in Data, found online at https://ourworldindata.org/yields-and-land-use-in-agriculture Which of the following best describes how the table illustrates the effect of the spread of the bubonic plague on the total amount of land devoted to the production of agricultural crops in Europe and the Middle East between 1300 and 1400 ?

The total amount of land devoted to the production of agricultural crops declined substantially in Europe and slightly in the Middle East.

*a hectare is equivalent to roughly 2.5 acres Source: Data adapted from Our World in Data, found online at https://ourworldindata.org/yields-and-land-use-in-agriculture Which of the following best describes a way in which the table illustrates how an emphasis on wheat cultivation in Europe affected the total amount of land devoted to the production of agricultural crops there compared with the rice-producing regions of China and India between 1200 and 1300 ?

The total amount of land devoted to the production of agricultural crops increased considerably in Europe and declined in China and India.

The particular routes and timings of the voyages depicted on the maps best reflect which of the following characteristics of Omani merchants?

Their advanced knowledge of Indian Ocean currents and monsoon wind patterns

Based on the maps and your knowledge of world history, which of the following could be best inferred about the South and East Asian trading cities on the map?

They had Muslim diasporic merchant communities.

"On several occasions, Ghazan Khan* went to the observatory at Maragha** and watched the Muslim, Christian, and Chinese astronomers make their observations. He looked at all the operations and instruments, studied them, and asked about their procedures, which he understood in spite of their difficulty. He also ordered the construction of a dome in order to investigate the Sun's motion and he spoke out with his astronomers about it. All of them said that although they had never seen such an instrument, it was reasonable and sensible. He gave orders for the construction of an observatory next to his tomb in Tabriz in Persia. He explained how to construct the observatory with such clarity that local wise men marveled at his intelligence, because such work had not been done in any era. Those wise men said that constructing the observatory would be extremely difficult. He guided them, whereupon they commenced building it and they finished it following his instructions. Those wise men and all the engineers agreed that nobody had done such a thing before nor had imagined doing it." *ruler of the Mongol Ilkhanate, whose territories included most of the Muslim Middle East; reigned 1295-1304 **an astronomical observatory in present-day Azerbaijan, established by a grant from the first Ilkhanid ruler in the mid-thirteenth century Rashid al-Din Hamdani, Persian Muslim historian and government minister in Ghazan Khan's court, excerpt from a universal history commissioned by Ghazan Khan, completed circa 1316 Which of the following best describes the author's purpose in the passage?

To portray his patron as a generous supporter of the sciences and a man of unusual intelligence

The map above shows what significant economic developments?

Trading networks that promoted the growth of new cities from 600 C.E. through 1450 C.E.

The illustration would be most useful to a historian studying which of the following?

Transportation and maritime technologies