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Several scholars have argued that conditions in England in the late ninth through early eleventh centuries—namely, burgeoning literacy amid running conflicts between England's Anglo-Saxon kingdoms and Danish invaders—were especially conducive to the production of the Old English epic poem Beowulf, and they have dated the poem's composition accordingly. It is not inconceivable that Beowulf emerged from such a context, but privileging contextual fit over the linguistic evidence of an eighth- or even seventh-century composition requires a level of justification that thus far has not been presented.

Which choice best states the main idea of the text? A. Although there are some grounds for believing that Beowulf was composed between the late ninth and early eleventh centuries, advocates for that view tend to rely on evidence that has been called into question by advocates for an earlier date. B. Although several scholars have dated Beowulf to the late ninth through early eleventh centuries, others have argued that doing so privileges a controversial interpretation of the social conditions of the period. C. Although Beowulf fits well with the historical context of England in the late ninth through early eleventh centuries, it fits equally well with the historical context of England in the seventh and eighth centuries. D. Although the claim of a late ninth- through early eleventh-century composition date for Beowulf has some plausibility, advocates for the claim have not compellingly addressed evidence suggesting an earlier date

Scientists studying Mars long thought the history of its crust was relatively simple. One reason for this is that geologic and climate data collected by a spacecraft showed that the crust was largely composed of basalt, likely as a result of intense volcanic activity that brought about a magma ocean, which then cooled to form the planet's surface. A study led by Valerie Payré focused on additional information—further analysis of data collected by the spacecraft and infrared wavelengths detected from Mars's surface—that revealed the presence of surprisingly high concentrations of silica in certain regions on Mars. Since a planetary surface that formed in a mostly basaltic environment would be unlikely to contain large amounts of silica, Payré concluded that ______

Which choice most logically completes the text? A. the information about silica concentrations collected by the spacecraft is likely more reliable than the silica information gleaned from infrared wavelengths detected from Mars's surface. B. high silica concentrations on Mars likely formed from a different process than that which formed the crusts of other planets. C. having a clearer understanding of the composition of Mars's crust and the processes by which it formed will provide more insight into how Earth's crust formed. D. Mars's crust likely formed as a result of other major geological events in addition to the cooling of a magma ocean.

Archaeologists have been debating the origin of a rare form of lead found in Shang dynasty (1766-1046 BCE) bronze artifacts since its presence was discovered in China in the 1990s. Different researchers have proposed theories on which regions of the world would have had the raw materials containing the specific lead in these artifacts, but no conclusive evidence has been presented. What is intriguing is that bronze artifacts from China dated after the Shang dynasty do not contain this form of lead, suggesting that ______

Which choice most logically completes the text? A. Shang dynasty bronze pieces are rare and therefore more valuable than those from other time periods. B. the source of some of the raw materials used to make bronze was exploited only until the end of the Shang dynasty. C. bronze was used for a short time during the Shang dynasty before different metals were used to make artifacts. D. methods used to analyze bronze artifacts are not useful on pieces that are dated after the Shang dynasty.

Herbivorous sauropod dinosaurs could grow more than 100 feet long and weigh up to 80 tons, and some researchers have attributed the evolution of sauropods to such massive sizes to increased plant production resulting from high levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide during the Mesozoic era. However, there is no evidence of significant spikes in carbon dioxide levels coinciding with relevant periods in sauropod evolution, such as when the first large sauropods appeared, when several sauropod lineages underwent further evolution toward gigantism, or when sauropods reached their maximum known sizes, suggesting that ______

Which choice most logically completes the text? A. fluctuations in atmospheric carbon dioxide affected different sauropod lineages differently. B. the evolution of larger body sizes in sauropods did not depend on increased atmospheric carbon dioxide. C. atmospheric carbon dioxide was higher when the largest known sauropods lived than it was when the first sauropods appeared. D. sauropods probably would not have evolved to such immense sizes if atmospheric carbon dioxide had been even slightly higher.

One challenge when researching whether holding elected office changes a person's behavior is the problem of ensuring that the experiment has an appropriate control group. To reveal the effect of holding office, researchers must compare people who hold elected office with people who do not hold office but who are otherwise similar to the office-holders. Since researchers are unable to control which politicians win elections, they therefore ______

Which choice most logically completes the text? A. struggle to find valid data about the behavior of politicians who do not currently hold office. B. can only conduct valid studies with people who have previously held office rather than people who presently hold office. C. should select a control group of people who differ from office holders in several significant ways. D. will find it difficult to identify a group of people who can function as an appropriate control group for their studies.

Although it's clear that Mars once had liquid water on its surface, astronomers have debated whether the evidence of ancient water reflects a prolonged phase of warm, wet conditions—the so-called wet and warm scenario—or a brief period of melting in an otherwise consistently frozen environment. Researchers Benjamin T. Cardenas and Michael P. Lamb recently added to this debate by using data from NASA and the Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter to map the topography of what is now a large basin in Mars's northern hemisphere. Cardenas and Lamb concluded that the wet and warm scenario is likely correct.

Which finding about the basin, if true, would most directly support Cardenas and Lamb's conclusion? A. Its dimensions and shape indicate that it is unlikely to have formed as the result of an asteroid or comet impact. B. It has features suggesting that it once held an ocean that underwent gradual sea-level changes over an extended time. C. Its physical characteristics are most consistent with it having formed as a result of a massive but short-lived influx of liquid water. D. It is surrounded by channels that could have been formed either by running water or by flowing lava.

Plants like potatoes, tomatoes, and soybeans are susceptible to bacterial wilt disease caused by the bacteria Ralstonia solanacearum. A multinational team of scientists led by Zhong Wei studied whether other microbes in the soil might influence the degree to which plants are affected by the disease. The team sampled soil surrounding individual tomato plants over time and compared the results of plants that became diseased with those that remained healthy. They concluded that the presence of certain microbes in the soil might explain the difference between healthy and diseased plants.

Which finding, if true, would most directly support the team's conclusion? A. The soil surrounding healthy plants contained significantly higher concentrations of microbes known to inhibit Ralstonia solanacearum than the soil surrounding diseased plants did. B. The soil surrounding the plants contained high concentrations of Ralstonia solanacearum regardless of whether the plants were affected by wilt disease. C. The soil surrounding healthy plants tended to have significantly higher moisture levels than the soil surrounding diseased plants did. D. By the end of the experiment, over half the plants had been affected by wilt disease regardless of differences in the types and concentrations of microbes in the surrounding soil

Sense and Sensibility is an 1811 novel by Jane Austen. In the novel, Austen describes Marianne Dashwood's ability to persuade others of the rightness of her artistic judgments, as is evident when Marianne visits with John Willoughby, a potential suitor: ______

Which quotation from Sense and Sensibility most effectively illustrates the claim? A. "Above all, when she heard him declare, that of music and dancing he was passionately fond, she gave him such a look of approbation as secured the largest share of his discourse to herself for the rest of his stay." B. "Their taste was strikingly alike. The same books, the same passages were idolized by each—or if any difference appeared, any objection arose, it lasted no longer than till the force of her arguments and the brightness of her eyes could be displayed." C. "It was only necessary to mention any favourite amusement to engage her to talk. She could not be silent when such points were introduced, and she had neither shyness nor reserve in their discussion." D. "They speedily discovered that their enjoyment of dancing and music was mutual, and that it arose from a general conformity of judgment in all that related to either. Encouraged by this to a further examination of his opinions, she proceeded to question him on the subject of books.

In a research paper, a student criticizes some historians of modern African politics, claiming that they have evaluated Patrice Lumumba, the first prime minister of what is now the Democratic Republic of the Congo, primarily as a symbol rather than in terms of his actions.

Which quotation from a work by a historian would best illustrate the student's claim? A. "Lumumba is a difficult figure to evaluate due to the starkly conflicting opinions he inspired during his life and continues to inspire today." B. "The available information makes it clear that Lumumba's political beliefs and values were largely consistent throughout his career." C. "Lumumba's practical accomplishments can be passed over quickly; it is mainly as the personification of Congolese independence that he warrants scholarly attention." D. "Many questions remain about Lumumba's ultimate vision for an independent Congo; without new evidence coming to light, these questions are likely to remain unanswered."