Veterinary Public Health

What is a suspected adverse event?

"Any observation* in animals or humans, whether or not considered to be product-related, which is unfavourable or unintended and which occurs after the use of, or exposure to, a veterinary medicinal product." *This includes suspected lack of efficacy.

Affirmation

"I do solemnly, sincerely and truly declare and affirm that the evidence I shall give shall be the truth the whole truth and nothing but the truth."

Oath

"I swear by (according to religious belief) that the evidence I shall give shall be the truth the whole truth and nothing but the truth"

Precautionary Principle as defined by the UN

"Nations shall use the precautionary approach to protect the environment. Where there are threats of serious or irreversible damage, scientific uncertainty shall not be used to postpone cost-effective measures to prevent environmental degradation" Controversial

Definition of a Food Safety Incident

"any event where, based on the information available, there are concerns about actual or suspected threats to the safety, quality or integrity of food and/or feed that could require intervention to protect consumers' interests" Incidents may be classified as routine (the majority i.e. may involve the evidence of illness), serious (i.e. may be localized but potentially serious) severe (i.e. complicated need much more resources) and major (i.e. require central government coordinated response).

WATOK definitions

'Animal' means any vertebrate , excluding reptiles and amphibians. 'Killing' means any intentionally induced process which causes the death of an animal. 'Slaughtering' means the killing of animals intended for human consumption. 'Stunning' means any intentionally induced process which causes loss of consciousness and sensibility without pain, including any process resulting in instantaneous death.

Endemic occurrence

'Endemic' is used in two senses to describe: > (1) the usual frequency of occurrence of a disease in a population; > (2) the constant presence of a disease in a population. Thus, the term implies a stable state; if a disease is well understood, its endemic level is often predictable. When a disease is continuously present to a high level, affecting all age-groups equally, it is hyperendemic. Applies to infectious and non-infectious diseases, e.g. carcass bruising

Gradient of infection

'Gradient of infection' refers to the variety of responses of an animal to challenge by an infectious agent and therefore represents the combined effect of an agent's pathogenicity and virulence, and host characteristics such as susceptibility and pathological and clinical reactions. Inapparent (silent) infection > Subclinical infection occurs without clinical signs which may or may not be productive Clinical infection > Produces clinical signs. > Mild, abortive reaction (transient) or frank clinical reaction

The Welfare of Horses at Markets and Other Places of Sale Order 1990

'Horse' includes donkeys, ponies, hinnies (male horse/female donkey) and mules (male donkey/female horse) Provision much the same as for farm animals in the Welfare of Animals at Markets Order Foals at foot must be with dams Mares must not be presented close to foaling

Infectiousness

'Infectiousness' refers to: > the duration of the period when an animal is infective; > the relative amount of an infectious agent that an animal can transmit. An animal is not infectious as soon as it is infected—a period of time lapses between infection and the availability (shedding) of the agent; this is the prepatent period. In contrast, the incubation period is the period of time between infection and the development of clinical signs. Thus, inapparent infections have a prepatent period, but do not have an incubation period. The generation time is the period between infection and maximum infectiousness. > These periods, for a given agent and host species, are not the same for all animals but show natural variation.

Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis

'No evidence for increased risk of Crohn's Disease from drinking tap or bottled water, milk, or eating other dairy products' > Positive risk of disease associated with family tendency, smoking, meat eating Mycobacterium avium Complex > Infection commonly described in waterbirds (game) and occasionally in slaughter pigs > Risk is through handling and environment: - Necropsies - Abattoir workers - Consumers of poorly cooked game - Not a notifiable disease

Percussive stunning

'the forcible striking of one esp. solid body against another' (Concise Oxford Dictionary). Causes 'concussion' - 'temporary unconsciousness or incapacity due to injury to the head' (Concise Oxford Dictionary). Unconscious equals insensible (word from legislation).

Definition of wild (Regulation 853/2004)

'wild ungulates and lagomorphs, as well as other land mammals that are hunted for human consumption and are considered to be wild and are considered to be wild under the applicable law in the Member State concerned, including mammals living in enclosed territory under conditions of freedom similar to those of wild game.'

The uses of epidemiology

(1) Determination of the origin of a disease whose cause is known (2) Investigation and control of a disease whose cause initially is unknown (3) Acquisition of information on the ecology and natural history of a disease (4) Planning and monitoring of disease control programmes (5) Assessment of the economic effects of a disease and of its control

Role of food business operators (FBOs) in food safety

(Farmers are also FBOs) are defined in Regulation (EC) 178/2002 (see above) and responsible, per specific commodity, for safe food production under REGULATION ( EC) 853/2004

Ante mortem

(ONE KNOWS) Animals with a disease or condition that may be transmitted through handling or eating meat and in general, animals showing clinical signs of systemic disease or emaciation. (if killed, unfit for human consumption); (ONE SUSPECTS) Animals suspected of having disease or condition that may adversely affect human or animal health - detailed ante mortem examination required in order to make diagnosis; (if necessary the animals to be slaughtered separately or at the end of normal slaughtering taking all necessary precautions). Routine inspection > in motion and /or interacting with each other in groups Clinical inspection > not necessarily clinical examination Examination (in detail) > Veterinary Decision What can be seen? > Abnormalities - Diseases - Notifiable (FMD, Anthrax, Swine fever) - Others (Viral pneumonia, Orf, Scab) Verification of Welfare and Clean Livestock

Functional ingredients - phosphates

(Usually alkaline poly phosphates) - mainly water retention agents (meat is more succulent), less lipid oxidation contribute to reducing microbial growth Eutrophication effects

Define feed

(or 'feeding stuff') means any substance or product, including additives, whether processed, partially processed or unprocessed, intended to be used for oral feeding to animals;

History of animal welfare legislation

*Animal Welfare Act 2006* Agric Misc Prov Act 1968 - offence to cause or knowingly allow livestock to suffer unnecessary pain/distress on agricultural land 1911 Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act - offence to cause any unnecessary suffering to any captive or domestic animal by anything done or omitted to be done 1822 Act to prevent the cruel and improper treatment of cattle

Animal Carcase Management

*Categorise disposal process*: (environmental controls vs health controls) Off site Animal by-product (low +medium risk) > Approved transport: carriage enclosed, leak proof, record, labelled > Approved treatment off site: Incineration, rendering, approved processes+ prevent cross contamination (approved sites and methods (HACCPP) High risk off site -as low & medium risk + supervised/licensed+ impact protection containment (diagnostic samples) + dedicated handling then C&D High risk onsite - "Hazardous waste" -pre-treatment (Hazard reduction) prior to off site disposal: on farm incineration > Some high risk material (Anthrax case) portable incinerators with enclosed secondary burners, prevent local re-contamination Disposal outlets/arable/burial: NIMBY; Public relations

Official Veterinarian's tasks

*Inspection tasks: Ante/post mortem inspection* > To detect abnormalities (visible and not visible) that are relevant to public health, animal health and animal welfare, links with HACCP? *Auditing tasks* (good hygiene practices (GHP) and and HACCP procedures) - to verify that FBOs apply procedures continuously and properly. > Including certifying export etc.

Diphyllobothrium

*Risk from fresh and saltwater fish* Unembryonated eggs pass in faeces Eggs embryonate in water Coracidia hatch from eggs and are ingested by crustaceans Procercoid larvae in body cavity of crustaceans Infected crustacean ingested by small freshwater fish Procercoid larva released from crustacean, develops into plerocercoid larva Predator fish eats infected small fish Human ingests raw or undercooked, infected fish Adults in small intestine Proglottids release immature eggs

Anisakiasis

*Risk from saltwater fish, crustaceans and cephalopods* Marine mammals excrete unembryonated eggs Eggs become embryonated in water and L2 larvae form in the eggs After the L2 larvae hatch from the eggs, they become free-swimming Free-swimming larvae are ingested by crustaceans and they mature into L3 larvae Infected crustaceans are eaten by fish and squid. Upon the host's death, larvae migrate to the muscle tissues and through predaton, the larvae are transferred from fish to fish. Fish and squid maintain L3 larvae that are infective to humans and marine mammals When the fish or squid containing L3 larvae are ingested by marine mammals, the larvae molt twice and develeop into adult worms. > Adult worms produce eggs that are shed by marine mammals. Humans become incidental hosts through eating infected raw or undercooked seafood > Diagnosis of anisakiasis can be made by gastroscopic examination during which the 2cm larvae can be removed.

International trade is based on signed agreements through...

... World Trade Organization (WTO) and how governments can apply food safety and animal and plant health measures (sanitary and phytosanitary or SPS measures). > Sets rules on trade between nations including allowing nations to restrict trade to protect human/animal/plant health. > WTO also sets maximum default tariffs for trade

Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) - 7 principles

1) Identifying any hazards that must be prevented, eliminated, or reduced to acceptable levels 2) Identifying the critical control points (CCPs) at the step or steps at which control is essential to prevent, eliminate or reduce to an acceptable level 3) Establishing critical limits at CCPs which separate acceptability from unacceptability for the PERA of identified hazards 4) Establishing and implementing effective monitoring procedures at CCPs; 5) Establishing corrective actions when monitoring indicates that a CCP is not under control 6) Establishing procedures, which shall be carried out regularly, to verify that the measures 1-6 are working effectively; 7) Establishing documents and records commensurate with the nature and size of the food business to demonstrate the effective application of the measures 1-6

Generic risk management framework (RMF)

1) Preliminary risk management activities 2) Identification and selection of risk management options 3) Implementation of risk management decision 4) Monitoring and review Whilst the responsibility for formal risk management usually lies with the managers of the national food safety authority, in practice managers from industry may serve as risk managers. An approach to each case will depend on many factors such as the nature of the hazard, the actual and/or perceived risks to consumers, the economic situation, etc. Risk management must always assess environmental sustainability in evaluating what is proportionate.

Steps of water treatment

1) Screening and ozonation 2) Precipitation, flocculation and sedimentation > Removal of metals > Formation of insoluble salts > Sulphides, carbonates, aluminium and iron salts > Sedimentation of precipitates 3) Filtration > Removal of solid particles > Porous medium - Sand - Granular activated carbon (GAC) - Filter mesh > Pressure differential - Gravity - Centrifugal - Positive pressure 4) Ion exchange > Exchange of toxic ions or groups > Removal of e.g. NO3- > Replacement with Cl- > Regenerative - must dispose of back-flush 5) Chlorination > Prophylactic > No specific levels set > Different from hyperchlorination in approved meat establishments

WATOK - Article 1

1. "...for the killing of animals bred or kept for the production of food, wool, skin, fur or other products as well as the killing of animals for the purpose of depopulation and for related operations". "However as regards fish, only the requirements laid down in Article 3(1) shall apply" > Article 3 - General requirements for killing and related operations. > 3(1) Animals shall be spared any avoidable pain, distress or suffering during their killing and related operations. 2. Chapter II, except for Article 3(1) and (2) thereof, Chapter III and Chapter IV except for Article 19 thereof, shall not apply in case of emergency killing outside of a slaughterhouse or where compliance with those provisions would result in an immediate and serious risk for human health and safety.

FAO/WHO technical guidance re: Microbiological Classification and Monitoring of Bivalve Production

1. Competent authority decides to progress designation of a production area 2. Sanitary survey to assess pollution sources 3. Monitoring towards initial classification 4. Classification by competent authority. > Classification is an assessment of risk of faecal contamination in an area (Regulation (EU) 2019/627) - Based on time series monitoring of water and bivalve samples, with faecal indicator E. coli > Guidance categories I, II and II relate to classes A, B and C under EU regulation > Category I - Fit for direct human consumption > Category II - Need for depuration (purification) or short-term relay > Category IIIa - Need for long-term relay > Category IIIb - Need for post-harvest treatment (high pressure, cooking, canning, freezing) > Category IV - Not fit for human consumption in the form generally consumed (no mitigation available to address the relevant contaminants) 5. Ongoing monitoring for microbiological, biotoxin and chemical parameters together with verification and enforcement measures by competent authority 6. Review of ongoing monitoring results but no review of sanitary survey required

Definition of humane

1. benevolent, compassionate. 2. inflicting the minimum of pain.

Definition of slaughter

1. the killing of an animal or animals for food. 2. kill for food, butcher.

Butter and cream manufacture

1/3 milk is made into cream and butter Adding 10-13% salt improves keeping quality > Reduces microbial growth > Affects microbe balance - Inhibits yeasts and moulds - Inhibits proteolytic and lipolytic organisms Composition - 82.41% fat, 13.9% water 2.51% salt > Low moisture should prevent microbial growth but > Emulsion of water in fat - Sufficient moisture and soluble food - Growth can occur between the fat globules Flavour comes from milk components, esp. fat/feed, and certain bacteria (starters) - Strep. lactis. S. citrovorus, S. paracitrovorus

Trichinella spiralis

10 genotypes, only 4 found naturally in Europe (Trichinella; spiralis, nativa, T6, britovi, murrelli, nelsoni, papuae, pseudospiralis) Larvae can survive in the host from a few months to 30 years (humans), 20 years (polar bears). > Some larvae found in wildlife might be resistant to freezing, and some are not surrounded by the capsule. Thorough cooking kills larvae, but curing, drying, smoking, fermenting not always effective Assessment of human exposure to Trichinella > Consumers' habits (undercooked, raw); usually cultural, traditional to the region or the nation > Factors that influence the receptivity of the individual consumers - number of newborn larvae - their viability - alcohol intake

Rabies surveillance in Europe (2011)

1232 cases diagnosed > 550 domestic animals - dogs, cattle, cattle > 660 wildlife (85% foxes) > 16 bats > 6 humans Mostly in East > Russia, Belarus, Croatia, Poland, Turkey, Ukraine >95% cases

Food safety - developing world

1500 million cases of diarrhoea / yr in children >5yrs, of which 2 million die. Factors > poor sanitation, > poor food storage, > lack of knowledge, > urbanisation without infrastructure > Immune compromise Typical infections: > Bacteria: E coli, Shigella, Campylobacter, Salmonella, Vibrio cholerae. > Protozoa: Giardia, Entamoeba, Cryptosporidium. > Viruses: Rotavirus, enteric caliciviruses. > Helminths: Trichinella, Taenia saginata, Taenia solium, Ascariasis, trematodes.

Hygiene rules

178/2002 on priniciples of food and feed law Competent authorities: 882/2004, 854/2004 - now replaced by 2017/625 on official controls FBOs: 852/2004 and 853/2004 on hygiene 1375/2015 Trichinella 2074/2005 Implementing rules Regulation 2073/2005, Microbiological criteria - testing for microbes e.g. Salmonella and making recommendations, e.g. removing food from market or recommendation for disinfection of equipment for processing

Anthrax in Humans

2 in the UK 2013, none in 2017 Cutaneous > Spores enter skin through open wound or abrasion > Skin lesions > Fever and malaise > Septicaemia and death > Oedema can lead to death from asphyxiation > Contact with infected tissues, wool, hide, soil > Biting flies Inhalation > Mild fever, malaise > Severe respiratory distress > Tanning hides, processing wool or bone Gastrointestinal > Severe gastroenteritis > Undercooked meat

The Mutilations (Permitted Procedures) (England) Regulations 2007 & as amended 2008, 2010

2007 very useful paper, lays down all procedures and who may do what, when and with or without analgesia 2008 clarifies tail docking in pigs and certain laparoscopic and ovum transplant procedures 2010 Now permits beak trimming in conventionally reared meat chickens or laying hens, or a chick that is intended to become a laying hen WITH STRICT RESTRICTIONS

Chlamydophilia abortus - sheep

267 incidents of abortion in sheep in 2017 Enzootic abortion of ewes: > Abortion, near to term > Pneumonitis, conjunctivitis and fever > Infected ewes will shed subclinically in future

Chlamydophila abortus in Humans

3 in 2004; 9 in 2005, 9 in 2006; 6 in 2007 No cases in 2013/ 2015/2017 Pregnancy: Abortion (14 to 36 weeks), perinatal sepsis Otherwise immune compromised: 'flu-like signs, neural signs, conjunctivitis, and respiratory signs Prevention and control: > Segregate sheep from pregnant women > Antibiotic treatment of aborting / susceptible ewes > Vaccinate sheep using live attenuated 1B strain > Education

Numbers slaughtered per year (UK)

3 million cattle 13 million pigs 19 million sheep 70 million farmed fish 900 million poultry

Brown rat: zoonosis profile

35 Zoonoses (100,000 pet rats in 28,000 households in the UK (PFMA 2014) Faecal: Campylobacter, Salmonella (S. Typhimurium), Yersinia enterocolitica, Cryptosporidium Rat bite fever: Spirillum minus (rats, mice, guinea-pigs), Streptobacillus moniliformis Urinary: Leptospira icterohaemorrhagiae Skin: Dermatophytes (Microsporum spp). Hanta virus (33% owner prevalence)

Brucellosis in Humans

5 cases in 2017 (all acquired abroad) Food/skins/abrasions/inhalation The incubation period 1-2 months, after which the onset of illness may be acute or insidious > an intermittent, "undulating" fever > headaches, chills, depression, profound weakness > arthralgia, myalgia > weight loss > orchitis/ epididymitis in men and spontaneous abortion in pregnant woman Brucellosis lasts for days to months, and can be quite debilitating, although the case fatality rate is very low (except in cases of B. melitensis endocarditis) Chronic sequelae > sacroiliitis, hepatic disease, endocarditis, colitis and meningitis

Microbiological sampling procedure

5-10 carcases on a single day in each week. Sampling day to rotate through the week. Sample in mid-run (not at beginning or end of day) Multi-species - alternate sp. each week. Low through-put risk based OV's discretion. 4 sites sampled from each carcase. Samples taken pre-chill in poultry after chill. Sample sites: > Vary by species (e.g. ox: rump, flank, brisket, neck; pig: back, belly, ham, jowl) > Can replace by samples from areas most likely to be contaminated Excision or wet-dry swab technique

Risk of Importing Zoonotic Diseases through Wildlife Trade

50,000 wild animals imported to US each year Macaques, hamsters, racoons, chinchillas Sources: China, Guyana, UK, Vietnam, Indonesia. Minimal disease screening. Possible zoonoses include Rabies, Bacillus anthracis, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Brucella, etc.

Eggs are produced in one of three main systems

51% cages 2% barn 47% free range (includes 2% organic) Breeding flocks -> hatcheries -> rearing farms to 16 weeks -> laying farms 16-72 weeks -> packing

Gelatine - raw materials

69% pigskins 19% bones 10% bovine hides i.e. split hides from leather ind. 2% other Fish by-products - only small amounts In EU, industry is organised in association Gelatine Manufacturers of Europe (GME) homepage Main players in Europe: Germany, France, Belgium, Netherlands

Vehicle approval equipment requirements

8-12 hours in UK > Feeding equipment > Partitions > Water supply > Securing points Over 12 hours in UK > As above, AND: - Insulated roof - Ventilation and temperature control equipment - Temperature monitoring equipment Over 8 hours in Europe > As above > Less stringent vehicle requirements in UK for <12h journeys due to less extreme weather

How important are honeybees economically?

90 studies and 1,394 crop fields on crop-visiting bees On average wild bees contributed $3,251 per ha (range $7-14,252) Managed honeybees $2,913 per ha (range $0-18,679)

Pasteurisation

<100C Low temperature long time (LTLT), e.g. 63°C/30 minutes High temperature short time (HTST), e.g. 72°C/15 sec

Listeriosis - Human disease - clinical signs

<30days incubation period Non-pregnant: Meningitis, encephalitis, neonatal septicaemia Pregnant: flu-like signs with overwhelming infection of foetus Other strains: gastroenteritis Mortality 10-20% (75% in immunosuppressed)

Bite associated injury

>250,000 bites/yr registered in UK - 10% of these are cat bites. 27% of facial injuries at A&E are bite associated: > 77% in children <6 years. Pasteurella spp is common isolate: > Cellulitis, septicaemia, cardiac tamponade. > 688 human cases in 2012 INCREASE to 855 human cases in 2015 and 928 cases in 2017 Capnocytophaga canimorsus. > Can progress to DIC and acute renal failure. > 8-10 cases in humans UK in each year. > Significant in immunosuppressed, alcoholics and older people. > Also described in cats. > Obtain medical advice regarding prophylactic antibiotics Cat scratch disease

Poultry slaughter

>800 million poultry processed in the UK each year. Broiler average body temperature 41.5°C > Hypothermia (birds can tolerate drop of 10°C before death) > Hyperthermia (a rise of 4 to 5°C is fatal) > Thermal comfort zone (Open space: 8 to 30°C; when confined in modules: 8 to 18°C) Feed withdrawn before transport (usually 4 to 10 hours) - reduces contamination during transport, handling and evisceration

Brucella

A bacterial infection caused by the bacteria Brucella: Long lasting fever (flu-like), joint pain and fatigue Brucella species are small, gram-negative, non-motile, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped (coccobacilli) bacteria Incubation 5-60 days (can be months) Around 10 human cases diagnosed in England and Wales each year > Consumption of raw milk and dairy products > Also occupational disease (livestock or laboratory) UK has Officially Brucellosis Free (OBF) status including Northern Ireland (6th October 2015) B. melitensis (goats, sheep, camels), B. abortus (cattle, camels) and B. suis (swine) regularly cause human infection

Contiguous populations

A contiguous population is one in which there is much contact between individuals in the population and members of other populations.

What is a potential poisoning?

A disease outbreak where evidence exists Animal disease associated with feed or a defined environment Any disease or production problem for which there is no alternative diagnosis

Disease

A disorder of structure or function in a human, animal, or plant, especially one that produces specific symptoms or that affects a specific location and is not simply a direct result of physical injury

Define risk

A function of the probability of an adverse health effect and the severity of that effect, consequential to a hazard(s) in food.

Microbiological testing - Salmonella

A group of bacteria that includes several pathogens of significance in human food poisoning disease. They mainly arise from faecal contamination but can also arise from the processing environment. Further analysis of the type of Salmonella can be useful in investigating and preventing the re- occurrence of positive results as well as providing information that can be used in a risk analysis.

Characteristics of hosts

A host's susceptibility and infectiousness determine its ability to transmit infection.

Outcomes of Pharmacovigilance

A new benefit-risk assessment Changes to warnings on labelling Recall of a defective batch Change to distribution category Suspension of Marketing Authorisation to resolve problem Withdrawal of Marketing Authorisation in extreme cases

Anthrax: Diagnosis and Control

A notifiable disease: > Anthrax Order 1991 > All unexplained deaths in cattle reported to DEFRA Animal Health Diagnosis by methylene blue stained blood smear from ear clip (APHA task) NEVER open the carcase of suspected case Incinerate carcase in situ Prophylaxis by medication or vaccination

Pollinator

A pollinator is any agent that moves pollen from its source to the recipient flower Biotics - bees, butterflies, moth, hummingbirds, fruit bats Abiotic - wind and rain

A risk and benefit assessment for visual-only meat inspection of indoor and outdoor pigs in the United Kingdom

A potential for less cross-contamination of the carcass with foodborne hazards such as Salmonella. Spp. or Yersinia Spp., and the potential for less occupational exposure of meat inspectors to S. suis if the heart incision is omitted Economic benefits may include increased line speed at abattoir and less inspectors at each abattoir needed to fulfil the required inspection demands, but assessment of these purely economic factors were not within the scope of this project

Bushmeat and Zoonotic Disease

A problem from a public health perspective (conservation issues as well): > Wildlife populations frequently harbour, often sub-clinically, zoonotic pathogens > Bushmeat hunting places people in intimate contact with wildlife blood/tissues and increases risks of disease transmission Zoonoses that have jumped from wildlife reservoirs to humans through bushmeat hunting and consumption in Africa > HIV > HTLV > Ebola Virus > Marburg Virus (similar to Ebola) > Monkeypox Virus > Simian Foamy Virus Hunting and butchering are the highest risk activities > Consumption is a risk, but many viruses inactivated by cooking Another important route of infection is scavenging of carcasses that have been killed by the virus

Prescriptions for horses under the cascade

A product authorised for use in a food producing animal other than horses can be used under the cascade. > The minimum statutory withdrawal periods apply. Substances with an entry in Table 1 of allowed substances (EU Regulation 37/2010). Any product containing an active substance in the EU's list of Essential Substances can be used. > You must observe the statutory six month withdrawal period and record the use in the animal's passport. Emergency situations: > If it is necessary to prescribe medication not allowed for food producing horses, you must ensure that the animal is excluded from the food chain.

Define risk assessment

A scientifically based process consisting of four steps: hazard identification, hazard characterisation, exposure assessment and risk characterisation

Contamination of eggs with Salmonellae:

A significant number of human cases of Salmonella Enteritidis were associated with eggs and egg products in the 1980s. Salmonella largely associated with primary production (on-farm) > Oral route infection - High inoculation dose - Low percentage of birds infected > Airborne route - High percentage of birds infected - stress related - Clusters of infected eggs > Veterinary Involvement - Significant - Control measures Salmonella contamination of eggs may occur by: > Transovarian / trans-oviductal contamination > Trans-shell contamination via hen faeces > Contamination at a later point in processing or storage or use. Bacteria are usually detected in the albumen indicating that the trans-ovarian route of contamination is significant. > Salmonella originates from birds' genital organs > Infection of developing egg whilst in oviduct > Later found in albumen or yolk Salmonella in albumen cannot proliferate > Killed over time by antibacterial properties of albumen > Movement to yolk a critical factor i.e. attachment to yolk membrane > Yolk membrane starts to break down after long storage, and high (>20C) or fluctuating temperatures > Pathogen passes through membrane, proliferates in yolk (especially storage at higher temperatures) > Infection only detectable when very high numbers >10^7 cfu per egg. > Consumers cannot detect. Growth of Salmonella in egg albumen is limited at 20°C over the first 21 days of storage after lay, but may occur at higher temperatures. Egg yolk will support rapid growth of Salmonella at 20°C irrespective of egg age. There is evidence that S. Enteritidis and S. Typhimurium, if present in yolk, may survive some forms of cooking where the yolk remains liquid.

Health

A state of complete physical, mental, and social wellbeing - not just freedom from disease

Quantitative investigations - screening

A type of diagnostic survey identifying undiagnosed cases of disease using rapid tests or examinations. May not use definitive diagnostic test

Trichinellosis - humans

Abdominal symptoms (1-2 days) > Nausea, diarrhoea, vomiting, fatigue, fever and abdominal discomfort Further symptoms (2-8 weeks) > Headaches, fevers, chills, cough, eye swelling, aching joints and muscle pains, itchy skin, diarrhoea or constipation > Severity depends upon number of infectious worms consumed Caused by eating raw or undercooked meat infected with the larvae of Trichinella, commonly pork and horse meat

Gout in poultry

Abnormal deposition of uric acid in tissues > Associated with high protein diet Generally affects individual birds Possible genetic defect in uric acid metabolism Found in 2 forms:- > Visceral gout - Form of peritonitis > Articular gout - Affects joints

Localised abnormalities (offal/ carcases) found at VIPs that may require FIPs

Abscess - in the case of multiple abscesses (e.g. two or more in posterior or anterior part of the carcase); TB-like lesions - enlarged lymph nodes, e.g. lungs, mesentery, submaxillary or enlarged tissues around lymph nodes; also consider miliary TB

Microbiological testing - bacteriological methods

According to legislated standards: e.g. Samples prepared, diluted and cultured according to standardised, quality assured methods or in some cases equivalent methods can be used Culture for: > Total viable count ISO 4833 > Enterobacteraceae ISO 21582-2 > Salmonella e.g. EN /ISO 6579 Salmonella

Red Meat Inspection

Accuracy requires line speed/lighting, time to inspect, facilities etc. Visual inspection of all external surfaces Palpation of some organs/parts of carcasses Incision/detailed examination of some lymph nodes/organs Additional inspection(s), examination(s) or test if required, e.g. Trichinella testing Goal - detecting visible abnormalities, e.g.: > Bruising > Oedema > Arthritis > Conditions of the peritoneum/ pleura > Swellings > Other abnormalities e.g. contamination

Animal Welfare Act 2006

Act applies to any living vertebrate animal and on the basis of scientific evidence, invertebrates capable of experiencing pain or suffering. Defined as protected: > normally domesticated in British Isles > permanently or temporarily under a person's control > not living in a wild state (does not apply to certain groups e.g. laboratory animals ASPA 1986) Places a 'Duty of care' on owners and keepers to ensure welfare needs are met with respect to: > suitable environment > suitable diet > exhibit normal patterns of behaviour > housed with or apart from other animals (as applicable) > be protected from pain, suffering and disease Aims to reduce animal suffering and improve animal welfare by enabling preventative action to be taken BEFORE suffering occurs. Act is divided into Sections: > Prevention of harm - unnecessary suffering - mutilation - docking of dogs' tails - administration of poisons etc - fighting > Promotion of welfare - duty of person responsible for animal to ensure welfare - IMPROVEMENT NOTICES may be served by an Inspector (APHA or Local Authority) >> ITS NEED FOR A SUITABLE ENVIRONMENT >> ITS NEED FOR A SUITABLE DIET >> ITS NEED TO EXHIBIT NORMAL BEHAVIOUR PATTERNS >> ANY NEED IT HAS TO BE HOUSED WITH, OR APART FROM, OTHER ANIMALS >> ITS NEED TO BE PROTECTED FROM PAIN, SUFFERING INJURY AND DISEASE >> QUOTES UNLIMITED FINES/UP TO 6 MS IMPRISONMENT - transfer of animals to persons under 16 by way of sale or prize, is illegal - Regulations to promote welfare Licensing and registration of activities involving animals Codes of Practice Animals in distress > powers in relation to animals in distress > powers of entry, includes VOs to agricultural premises > Orders in relation to animals taken/seized Enforcement powers > seizure of animals involved in fighting > entry & search > inspection Prosecutions, if found guilty can be: > fined (up to £20,000) > banned from keeping animals > have a custodial sentence or community service It is a 'Common informers Act' The Animal Welfare Act 2006 also enables government and parliament to make secondary legislation on specific issues > mutilations, tail docking > racing greyhounds > primates as pets > wild animals in circuses > game birds

Rigor mortis

Actin and Myosin: binding together Gradual process in unstressed animals > Very stressed animals - quick rigor mortis (e.g. hunted - immediate) As time goes by, carcass undergoes softening, tenderising

Bite associated zoonosis: Rabies

Actions on bite from suspected rabies case: > Notify authorities (APHA, NHS and HSE). > Isolate and test dog for infection. > Immunoglobulin (IM and around wound). > Vaccination. > Amputation of limb if rabies confirmed in dog?

In Summary: HACCP/Risk Analysis

Actual/Perceived risk Scientific uncertainty/best estimates Vets play crucial roles in Risk analysis Fundamental (Risk analysis essential part of veterinary study)

Acute versus chronic conditions

Acute conditions > Lesion developed over a period of some days > Inflammation of different organs or tissue > Enlarged haemorrhagic lymph nodes > Often petechial haemorrhage of the mucosal and serous membranes and different organs such as heart, kidney and liver Chronic conditions > Development of lesions over a period of some weeks, months or years > Inflammation replaced by adhesions, necrotic and fibrotic tissue or abscesses

Vesicular Exanthema of Swine

Acute febrile disease of pigs characterized by vesicles and erosions in the mouth and on the snout, feet, and teats Hard to distinguish from FMD 1932 - Vesicular disease in CA was thought to be FMD; 19,000 pigs killed 1933 - Vesicular disease found not be FMD and named VES 1932-36 - Ten more outbreaks in CA, each eradicated 1939-52 - VES spread to all major pig producing areas in US. Appears to have spread through feeding of swill, then subsequently through swine fever antiserum 1954 - National eradication program started 1954- Law requiring swill fed to pigs to be cooked 1956 - Last case of VES recorded 1959 - US declared free of VES 1972 - Existence of marine caliciviruses recognised 1972-95 - At least 14 marine caliciviruses recognised; likely that experimentally, they can all produce vesicles in pigs VES may have resulted from feeding of marine mammal (seal) meat and fish to pigs as a protein supplement during the Great Depression

Pericarditis in poultry

Acute or chronic Changes to pericardium > Increase in opacity > Cloudy or turbid fluid in pericardial sac > Dense white inflammatory tissue > In chronic cases, becomes adhered to the heart Bacterial infection is the most common cause with infections occurring:- > Early in life as a chick > During the growing period > E. coli and Salmonella spp. usually following viral infection - Majority of cases are multifactorial > Mycoplasmas have been implicated

Signs of FMD

Acute: mouth lesions & salivation& sudden onset lameness/ drop in appetite and milk yield, high fever, many animals affected, maybe some deaths in young animals (per-acute heart disease) Chronic: loss of production, chronic illness and wasting, high infectious subclinical carrier rate, low agricultural livestock efficiency Other animal species may act as transmission agents (skin & clothes) but rarely show disease (mild transient signs of illness); not a major health problem in humans

Snake bite envenomation

Adder is only UK poisonous snake. 70% of bites yield mild symptoms in humans. Envenomation: > Protease, hyaluronidase. > Swelling and pain > Occasional cardiotoxic and coagulopathy effects. > Compartment syndrome. Treatment: > Antivenin: may be anaphylactic so assess need over 24hrs. > Anti-inflammatory, antihistamine, fluids (?steroids)

To carry out satisfactory ante-mortem inspection must have available:

Adequate lighting Adequate space Adequate access Adequate separation facilities for detailed examination Isolation pen(s) for suspect animals Staffing assistance Sufficient time Equipment such thermometer, stethoscope

Birds in lairage

Adequate suitable lairage facilities required by H2 Regulation, protection from further unnecessary suffering required by Welfare Regulations Lairage facilities usually covered space with fans provided to cool birds which usually stay on lorry in modules transferred by forklift In hot humid weather it is more effective to drive lorry than use fans. Minimum time in lairage - IMPORTANT timing/organisation

Inspection of the Udder

Adults > Visual inspection > If necessary, palpation and incision of udder and lymph nodes In bovines >6 weeks if intended for human consumption > Each half of udder opened by long deep incision as far as lacteriferous sinus > Lymph nodes of udder incised

Taenia saginata

Adults in small intestine Non-viable or viable cyst Cysticercus bovis Prevalence: > Carcases: 2% in Africa; on rise in UK > Humans: <30% in Africa/ Middle East; 74 cases reported in UK in 2016 Epidemiology: > Survival of eggs for <6 months > Contamination of pasture by human sewage - FLOODS > Cysts infective 10 weeks post infection and viable for <9 months Clinical signs (people & animals) - minor weight loss Detection and Prevention: > Meat inspection 625/2017: - Incision of masseters and heart (cattle >6 weeks), serological tests - Examination and palpation of tongue and diaphragm JUDGEMENT > Generalised infection (e.g. heart and diaphragm affected) - dispose of entire carcase; > Local infection - local rejection with freezing of carcase (-7°C for 3 weeks or -10°C for 2 weeks)

Health and Safety Executive (HSE) guidance (2019) at visitor attractions or open farms

Advice to barrier feed Clean dry straw, well supervised and followed by hand washing Minimal contact - clean walkways Signage, separation, hand washing

HSA - information and advice

Advising government on legislation Information to press and general public University lectures Exhibitions Animal welfare assessments - on behalf of FBOs, on requirement of customers/ retailers e.g. Waitrose

Microbiological testing - ACC

Aerobic Colony Count (ACC) (also known as TVC): a measure of the bacteria in a sample that can survive on the surface of carcases, can be harvested and can grow in the presence of air on an agar plate. Source of these bacteria: animals, slaughterhouse or meat processing environment and equipment/ handlers. ACC includes the organisms responsible for spoilage of meat, it will also give an indication of the keeping quality of the meat.

Spoilage of poultry and game birds - eviscerated

Aerobic spoilage (<5C) of eviscerated carcases very similar to red meat: Pseudomonas spp., Brochothrix spp. Bacteria will be distributed across cut surfaces and feather holes. Modified atmosphere packaging: > Vacuum / anaerobic packaging not used due to discolouration of meat (game). > 100% CO2 packaging is used - spoilage as for red meat (discolouration not an issue).

Septicaemia/Toxaemia in a carcass

Affected carcases > Congested > Petechial haemorrhages > Lymph node enlargement > Fatty change in organs Judgement: > Entire carcase and offal unfit

Warbles

Affects Cattle Larvae of warble flies Hypoderma bovis and Hypoderma lineatum Predilection sites: > Submucosa of oesophagus - H. lineatum > Epidural fat in lumbar region - H. bovis In early spring the larvae migrate to the back and perforate the skin - create breathing holes The final stage under the skin causes tissue to become greenish and jelly-like Hide is downgraded due to the perforations Judgement: > Notifiable disease > Rejection of the affected parts

Hydatidosis in the carcase

Affects all species > Mainly sheep Intermediate stage of the canine tapeworm Echinococcus granulosus Hydatid cysts are slow growing (6-12m) fluid filled cysts up to 20cm Usually form in the liver or lungs > Occasionally elsewhere (heart, brain) Zoonotic significance - risk from handling dogs unhygienically > Educate farmers and public about hygiene > Worm dogs regularly Judgement: > Offal containing cysts are rejected as unfit > Dispose of with category 2

Peritonitis

Affects all species Inflammation of peritoneum Variety of causes Generalised or localised May be associated with adhesions and abscesses Judgement: > If peritonitis diffuse and septic, entire carcase and offal rejected > If localised affected tissues and organs rejected

Pleurisy

Affects all species Inflammation of the pleural membranes Tends to be complication of pneumonia Judgement: > Affected parietal pleura can be stripped from ribs and rejected Very common

Muscle Degeneration

Affects all species Muscle cells alter their type ranging from increase in fat to ossification Can occur due to various reasons: > Genetic susceptibility > Injury - Muscle atrophy - Muscle fibrosis (scarring) > Nutritional deficiency - Selenium/vitamin E

Congestive Haemorrhagic Hepatitis

Affects cattle Dark red liver > Haemorrhagic areas > Congestion Associated with > Mycotoxins > Ragwort ingestion Judgement: > Generally, rejection of liver only

Liver Fluke: Fascioliasis

Affects cattle and sheep Caused by migration of Fasciola hepatica Acute stage > Swelling and congestion of liver > Haemorrhagic tract Chronic stage > Bile ducts enlarged, thickened and calcified > "Pipy", "fluky" liver Judgement: > Affected livers rejected > Sheep may be emaciated and oedematous Very common

Zenker's Degeneration

Affects cattle and sheep Hyaline degeneration of striated muscle > Affecting entire muscle fibres Appears as white to cream tubules within the muscle Most commonly found in the forequarters May be due to: > Lactic acid production > Bacteria or bacterial toxins -Introduced by poor injection technique. Judgement: Affected parts rejected

Linguatula serrata

Affects cattle and sheep Intermediate hosts of pentastome arthropod worm The larvae burrow through the intestinal wall Migrate to the mesenteric lymph nodes > Lymph nodes become enlarged and contains a cyst Uncommon Judgement: Reject affected mesentery as unfit

Bacterial nerosis of the liver

Affects cattle and sheep Micro-abscessation of liver Likely cause is ascending infection via portal system Judgement: > Liver unfit > Check rest of carcase for pyaemic spread > Rejected as category 2

Fat Necrosis (Lipomatosis)

Affects cattle and sheep Necrosis of renal and or abdominal fat > Becomes chalk-like and difficult to cut Thought to be caused by leaching of the pancreatic enzymes Judgement: > Reject affected area > Where generalised, may consider rejection of entire carcase and offal

Sarcocystosis in the carcase

Affects cattle and sheep Sarcocysts often found embedded in the muscle > Parallel to muscle fibres, > Oval and length up to 1mm > Off-white or green in colour Often occurs in conjunction with eosinophilic myositis Judgement > Local areas affected can be trimmed and rejected > If infestation is generalised, entire carcase and offal rejected as unfit

Lumpy Jaw: Actinomycosis

Affects cattle and sheep (misdiagnosed often as tooth abscesses) Infection with Actinomyces bovis Rarefying osteomyelitis of bones of head especially mandible Does not normally spread to lymph nodes of head Judgement: > Reject affected head as unfit

Milk Spot Liver: Ascariasis

Affects pigs Caused by migration of Ascaris suum Chronic focal interstitial hepatitis Judgement: > Reject liver as unfit > Category 3

Atrophic Rhinitis

Affects pigs Damage to turbinate bones Caused by several species of bacteria > Pasteurella spp. > Bordetella spp. Judgement: > Reject head as unfit > Check rest of carcase for signs of septicaemia

Shotty Eruption

Affects pigs Lesions are small black elevated areas of the skin These contain an elongated coiled hair and a black secretion Judgement: Reject affected area

Decisions concerning meat (carcases & offal)

After inspection > Meat passed fit for human consumption (health marked) - Stamp with unique 4 digit number > Unfit for human consumption (ABP), Cat 1, 2 or 3 - Partial rejection or Total rejection > Detained for further examination following rectification (24 hours or more) Legality in UK: > In UK, meat is rejected rather than condemned (as in other countries) > Meat is usually voluntary surrendered by FBO for disposal (ABP) > If FBOs disagrees with OVs, they may appeal to court of law - In that case, meat may be seized by OV initially and then condemned by court

Host determinants

Age Sex Species and breed Size and conformation Coat colour (white cats prone to SCC on ears)

Protected Geographical Indication - PGI

Agricultural products and foodstuffs closely linked to the geographical area. At least one of the stages of production takes place in the area Meat products with Protected food name: > Melton Mowbray pork pie (PGI) > Newmarket sausage (PGI) > Stornoway Black Pudding (PGI) > Traditional Cumberland sausage (PGI)

Protected Designation of Origin - PDO

Agricultural products and foodstuffs which are produced, processed and prepared in a given geographical area

Scalding

Aids feather removal > Water bath > Steam Temperature (51-65°C) > Bacterial loading > Quality of carcass

UK contigency planning

Aim to exclude through quarantine and PETS If it comes in: > Prevent establishment of disease in wildlife > Ring vaccination - poisoning might be an option > But urban foxes! Emergency vaccination of pets etc. Prevent spread of disease in domestic animals

Control of Brucellosis in the UK

All abortions (calved under 271 days) reported to DEFRA Animal Health Cow isolated Abortion investigated > Blood sample, milk sample, vaginal swab Dairy cows monitored through monthly bulk milk serology Currently only abortions in suckler herds are tested Routine brucellosis blood testing no longer carried out

Clinical signs of rabies in other animals

All animals have non-specific signs of encephalitis Cats > Prodromal: subtle behavioural changes, pyrexia > Acute: 80% aggressive, irritable, restless, anorexia, salivation, phonation, lethargy, paralysis, death > Most dead-end hosts, usually die within 3-4 days Horses > Bitten by a range of species - bats, dogs > Often present with choke (paralysed oesophagus), prior to obvious central signs > Most common animals transmitting to vets in East Africa pre-vaccination, usually dead-end Cattle and Sheep > Most dead-end, but high % furious form > Weakness, bellowing, depression, incoordination

The Welfare of Farmed Animals (England) Regulations 2007 - Water

All animals must either have access to a suitable water supply and be provided with an adequate supply of fresh drinking water each day, or be able to satisfy their fluid intake needs by other means

Other ecological impacts of veterinary medicinal products

All new VMPs must undergo ecological impact evaluation during safety testing. Example issue of Salmon fishery in sea lochs: > Release of antimicrobials > Release of antiparasitics > Release of carrier substances Antibiotics: > Use is declining with new vaccines (e.g. Aeromonas salmonicida furunculosis): - 48 tonnes (1989) to 0.68 tonnes in 1998 in Norway. - Resistance in fish pathogens and sedimentary bacteria. Antiparasitics: > Effect of pyrethroids, OP, and avermectins on ecosystem. > 7 tonnes (1989) down to 0.2 tonnes in 1998 in Norway. Carriers: > Phthalate acid esters: endocrine disruption.

Reporting of possible adverse events

All should be reported Report to VMD or the company that market the product (if it is a veterinary product - they will pass it on to the VMD) If it is a human product, must contact the VMD as human market authorisation holders are not obliged to pass adverse event reports on to the VMD

Renal Retention Cysts

All species Affects single or partial lobule of kidney Congenital defect in tubule supplying affected area Judgement: > Reject affected lobule or part as kidney as unfit

Vegetative endocarditis

All species Lesions range from plaques and ulcers to vegetative growths on heart valves Tend to be bacterial in origin Erysipelothrix can be a cause Judgement: > Heart is rejected > Carcase inspected for signs of: - Systemic infection - Petechiae - Infarctions

Inspection of pleura and peritoneum

All species Visual inspection

Renal Infarction

All species affected Caused by emboli causing necrosis of kidney Pale area on kidney surface Cone shaped when incised Judgement: > Kidney rejected as unfit > Systemic signs

Cirrhosis

All species affected Change in liver substance > Fibrous connective tissue > Distortion > Hepatic necrosis Judgement: > Rejection of liver > Check for secondary signs of infection, toxaemia, jaundice

Nephritis/Nephrosis

All species affected Infection in kidney causing interstitial nephritis Acute > Small pale areas Chronic > Fibrotic pitted areas Judgement: > Kidney rejected as unfit > Systemic signs?

Pneumonia

All species affected Inflammation of lung tissue Bronchopneumonia > Small patches of pneumonia scattered among normal tissue Lobular pneumonia > Involves whole or large part of lung lobe Usually viruses and secondary bacteria in cattle Judgement: > Affected lungs are rejected > If systemic involvement entire carcase and offal rejected

Pericarditis

All species affected Inflammation of the pericardium > Thickened > Opaque > Adhered to the heart Causes > Traumatic > Bacterial Judgement: > Heart rejected as unfit > If pericarditis is acute and septic, total rejection of carcase and offal

Myocardial infarction

All species affected Ischaemic necrosis of cardiac muscle Occlusion of blood supply to section of cardiac muscle Judgement: > Reject affected hearts > Carcase checked for signs of septic emboli

Pyelonephritis

All species affected Kidneys and ureters enlarged Abscesses in kidney substance Judgement: > Affected kidney rejected > Check carcase for uraemia and pyaemic spread

Emphysema

All species affected Lungs extended due to air escaping into lung tissue Marked increase in lobular texture of lungs Secondary to objects inhaled, parasitic bronchitis or tuberculosis Judgement: > Affected lungs rejected as unfit

Renal Uroliths

All species affected Normally due to metabolic imbalances Can lead to blockages leading to hydronephrosis Judgement: > Often missed > Kidney rejected

Hydronephrosis

All species affected Obstructive uropathy Physical or infectious of ureter(s) Judgement: > Reject affected kidney > Check carcase for uraemia

Definition of milk proteins

All types of milk protein (caseins, caseinates or whey proteins or any mixtures of these).

Risk of Tarantulas?

Allergy: commonest problem is skin rash from hairs.

Pre-sternal Calcification

Also known as 'putty brisket' Affects cattle Pressure necrosis of the fat overlying the anterior sternum Due to repetitive pressure and trauma The area can become hard and granular as calcium salts are deposited in the affected tissue Judgement: > Reject affected area as unfit for human consumption

Microbiological testing is not only used for classification purposes

Also used for investigating possible or known pollution incidents - outcomes support risk management decisions Used at purification centres, dispatch, point of sale (random samples) Check on efficiency of purification system

Generalised carcase conditions that may require FIPs

Although some of the conditions can be conclusive at VIPs, MHI/OV may actually suspect the named generalised condition and appropriate decision cannot be made without further examination. FIPs of the carcase and correlated offal may be justified to be carried out on a separate detained rail or on the line (depending on s/h layout) Anaemia - rare but may be part of generalised condition Badly bled - may mask other abnormalities Contamination of gut content Cysticercus cellulosae - not present in UK Emaciation, generalised oedema Erysipelas Generalised TB, generalised tumours, jaundice Machine damage Polyarthritis, septic peritonitis +/- pleurisy Suspect pyaemia, multiple abscesses, tail bite Suspect uraemia, abnormal odour, fever, septicaemia, residues FIP may include a range of inspection options - palpation, incision, sample taking

FMD - race against time at 1st outbreak case

Always a delayed catch up start due to infectiousness in affected animals before visible signs (critical interim uncontrolled risk period) Speed of reporting (foot lesions in pigs most obvious + mouth lesions in cattle) > harder to spot and eradicate in hill sheep) Speed of investigation response: > Crucial to discover - where it comes from (hidden cases elsewhere?) - what is it and how long has it been there (? ageing of lesions) - where might it had gone to > Stop further virus production and spread: - get affected animals inside (NEARBY HOUSING ON THE SAME PREMISES; AS MINIMAL MOVEMENT AS POSSIBLE) - get affected animals killed ASAP (slaughter on suspicion?)

Factors affecting meat spoilage - composition of atmosphere

Ambient air: 21 % oxygen, 78% Nitrogen, and 1% other gases (including CO2) Reducing oxygen hinders growth of aerobic bacteria

Prevalence

Amount of disease in a known population, at a designated time, without distinction between old and new cases. Although prevalence can be defined simply as the number of affected animals, it is usually expressed in terms of the number of diseased animals in relation to the number of animals in the population at risk of developing the disease:

Factors affecting meat spoilage - nutrition

Amount of fat, cartilage, offal, may affect perishability

UK apiculture

An apiary (also known as a bee yard) is a location where beehives of honey bees are kept. 275,000 colonies Approx. 40,000 hobbyists 450 professionals: 50,000+ colonies Average honey yield is 10kg but good beekeepers can get up to 100kg of honey per colony.

Benefit of VMP regulation to the vet professional

An assurance of efficacy (also reliant on the product being shown to be of consistent quality) Veterinary specific and reliable information provided to users Advice to ensure that veterinary medicines are used in a way which will not pose a risk to humans, animals or the environment

Define cutting plant

An establishment used for boning and/or cutting up meat. Depends, internal traceability may be lost to an individual animal (except beef), but it can be traced back to farm (also ID mark) Bar codes on retail packages may point to time of productions e.g. between 10-11 am on 29 January

Define slaughterhouse

An establishment used for slaughtering and dressing animals, the meat of which is intended for human consumption. > Different species, sizes, throughputs > Health Mark (ID mark) Kill number, batch number > Carcase may be traceable to the day of production, farm is usually known

Diseases caused by mixed agents

An important example of interaction between agents is the mixed infection, that is, an infection with more than one type of agent. > Enteric disease in many species > Atrophic rhinitis in pigs > Foot rot in sheep - Synergism between C. pyogenes, Fusobacterium necrophorum and Bacterioides dodosus > Enzootic pneumonia in calves Two categories of diseases can be identified : (1) those diseases in which clinical signs can be produced by single agents independently, although mixed infections usually occur in animals; e.g. E. coli, rotaviruses, caliciviruses, and Cryptosporidium spp., all of which can induce diarrhoea in many species (2) those diseases in which two or more microbial components are necessary to induce disease. e.g. calf pneumonia, which is caused by many pathogens including 5 viruses, 4 mycoplasma and 19 bacterial species rarely found in isolation

Contact zoonoses: skin - MRSA

An increasing problem: Recurrent wound infections of cats, dogs, horses. A sub-clinical focus for infection of humans. Survey at RVC hospital: positive samples from 18% of personnel, 9% of dogs, 10% of environmental swabs.

Assuring that the EU has the highest standards of food safety based on...

An integrated approach - 'farm to fork' Scientific advice Data collection and analysis Regulatory control Consumer information

Purpose of ante mortem inspections

An outcome of ante mortem inspection is a duty and responsibility of a veterinarian. Ante mortem inspection skills are a Day one competence. Purpose: > Determine any signs of any condition which might affect human or animal health > Enable the OV to make decision whether animal can be slaughtered for human consumption > Determine whether tests to be carried out in relation to disease diagnosis or for residues of veterinary medicine products > Determine whether welfare has been compromised > IF NO ANTE MORTEM THEN UNFIT FOR HUMAN CONSUMPTION

Clostridium perfringens

Anaerobic Gram-positive Spore forming rod Human disease mainly caused by Type A Types B and D rarely cause human disease Type C associated with necrotizing enteritis Ubiquitous in environment > Raw meat > Water > Sewage > Dust > Asymptomatic faecal carriage in animals Incubation period - 8 to 22 hours Symptoms > Severe abdominal pain > Profuse diarrhoea (vomiting, nausea, fever are rare) > Illness up to 2 days > Usually complete recovery Young and elderly most at risk Necrotic enteritis is rare but often fatal Infectious dose is high > 100,000,000 CFU/g of vegetative cells > Growth in food is necessary Enterotoxin > Vegetative cells sporulate in small intestine, during which CPE is produced > Damages brush border of epithelial cells > Disrupt water and ion flux > Fluid movement and diarrhoea Some cases ingested pre-formed enterotoxin > Shorter incubation periods

Anaerobic Digestion

Anaerobic Digestion processing of C3 ABP or C2 ABP (after pre-sterilisation) into Biogas and digestate.

Clostridium botulinum

Anaerobic, gram + spore-forming rod Environmental contaminant found in damp soils muddy sediments Produces potent neurotoxin Spores are heat resistant Seven types of botulism recognised (A to G) > Based on antigenic specificity of toxin > A,B,E and F cause human botulism > C and D cause most animal disease

Origins of infectious foodborne disease

Animal - Brucella, BSE, Campylobacter, EHEC, Listeria, Mycobacterium, Salmonella, Taenia, Toxoplasma, Vibrio vulnificus, Yersinia Human - Caliciviruses, E. coli (ETEC, EPEC, EIEC), Entamoeba, Hepatitis A, Rotavirus, Salmonella, Shigella, Staph. aureus, Vibrio cholerae Environment - Bacillus, Clostridium, Listeria

Yersinia

Animal Hosts and Human Disease Yersinia enterocolitica: > Subclinical tonsil and gut carriage > Pigs, (sheep, cattle, rodents, dogs) Y. pseudotuberculosis: > As above, also birds

Not intended for human consumption

Animal by Products listed as such e.g. Specified Risk Material (SRM) and those identified as such during inspections and audits e.g. being risky for humans animals and environment directly or indirectly

Physical signs of an effective stun

Animal collapses immediately and stops breathing. Front legs and neck extended with hind legs flexed into the lower abdomen (tonic). A fixed, glazed expression in the eyes No corneal reflex. Relaxed lower jaw with tongue hanging out. (Can have all of the above but if still breathing, NOT DEAD)

Notifiable diseases

Animal diseases which, if suspected/diagnosed in the UK, must be legally reported to the Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA). Classed as such because of either economic and/or zoonotic importance. In the UK some of these diseases may be endemic i.e. already present in the UK (bovine Tb), or exotic which are not normally present in the UK (FMD). A responsibility to control notifiable diseases rests with all having clearly defined roles: animal keepers, private and government veterinarians. Depending on the actual disease for example its infectivity, zoonotic potential or economic importance (trade implications), local situation etc. when a notifiable disease is suspected then the APHA Official Veterinarian/ Veterinary Inspector will: > carry out further enquires, take samples and; > in some situation e.g. for some exotic diseases, place immediate restrictions on the movement of animals, products of animal origin and animal by- products.

Statutory Controls: When to use government intervention?

Animal diseases with significant impact on > Public health (zoonosis)- food, live or carcase animal & products > Animal Health economy- production loss > International trade- direct or indirect loss > Animal Welfare- cultural bias > Political Climate - Cost vs Benefits; who pays, who benefits in short, mid & long term.

Tallow

Animal fat derived from the rendering process.

Two main roles of APHA:

Animal health - inspection, enforcement, notifiable disease > Field service Veterinary Investigation > Scanning surveillance - keeping an eye out for zoonotic disease > Endemic disease - trends, e.g. liver fluke > New and emerging disease - Schmallenberg disease > Research - Weybridge site

Who has the primary responsibility for animal welfare?

Animal keepers and owners.

Mass garden bird mortality

Animal presentation: > Found dead > Occurring in clusters with variable no. per incident > Causes: - Infection: Salmonella Typhimurium (zoonotic), Trichomonas sp. (not zoonotic) - Trauma: Rainstorm (killed 700 starlings in Hull). - Toxicity: chemical, biological. Risk management: > Education of public on hygienic feeding of birds, safe handling and disposal of dead birds. > Garden Bird Health Initiative (GBHI): active surveillance and investigation project (Zoological Society London) Public health implications: > Zoonoses > Curiosity / panic

What is clinical waste?

Animal tissue Items soiled by blood or body fluids: (Wound dressings, Swabs, Disposable gloves, Bandages, Soiled cotton wool) Empty IV bags and giving sets Empty syringes without needles Sharps (in approved containers) Drugs.

Legislation relating to poisoning

Animal welfare legislation and welfare codes of practice require farmers to provide a wholesome diet, with implications for environments known to cause livestock poisoning. Food safety regulations are also similar internationally. > Food businesses including farms must take due diligence to avoid contaminating the food chain (Food Safety Act 1990). > Maximum levels for a range of contaminants are prescribed in regulations. > Farmers are legally responsible for managing hazards expected to occur on their farms.

Observation during ante mortem inspection

Animals (except poultry) moving and at rest Sufficient to identify animals showing > Neurological symptoms > Respiratory symptoms > Alimentary tract abnormalities > Change in gait > External abnormalities

The Welfare of Farmed Animals (England) Regulations 2007 - Inspections

Animals kept in husbandry systems in which their welfare depends on frequent human attention must be thoroughly inspected at least once a day to check that they are in a state of well-being. Animals kept in husbandry systems in which their welfare does not depend on frequent human attention must be inspected at intervals sufficient to avoid any suffering.

Moving animals in lairage

Animals must not be dragged by its: head, horns, feet, tail, fleece, other parts of its body likely to cause avoidable excitement pain or suffering Efforts made to reduce noise: slamming gates, machinery, metal fittings, other loud unfamiliar noises Requirements for movement from lairage > Unimpeded movement forward > Minimal risk of physical damage - No sharp edges or protrusion > Stress kept to a minimum > Lighting sufficient - Positioned to encourage forward movement - Lighting control dimmer switches

The Welfare of Farmed Animals (England) Regulations 2007 - Lying areas

Animals not kept in buildings must, where necessary and possible, be given protection from adverse weather conditions, predators and risks to their health and must, at all times, have access to a well-drained lying area. Where any animals (other than poultry) are kept in a building they must be kept on, or have access at all times to, a lying area which either has well-maintained dry bedding or is well drained.

Movement of Animals from Slaughterhouses

Animals that are presented to a slaughterhouse for slaughter must be slaughtered, however Returning animals or forwarding to other abattoir for slaughter i.e. in case of line breakdown? > Generally not, exceptionally licence issued by DEFRA Animal and Plant Health e.g. in Scotland, may be returned!

Unloading animals

Animals unloaded ASAP with care, calmly, unhurried, sympathetic manner exploring their natural behavior at the time of unloading and staying in lairage At unloading need to prevent animals falling (or jumping) off ramp > Non-slip surface > Appropriate slope of ramp > Proper footing e.g. batterns > Solid sides, side rails, gates Animals may be unsteady on their feet following journey

Basics of ante mortem inspections

Animals with a disease or condition that may be transmitted through handling or eating meat and in general, animals showing clinical signs of systemic disease or emaciation - KILLED - unfit Animals suspected of having disease or condition that may adversely affect human or animal health - detailed ante mortem examination required in order to make diagnosis; (if necessary the animals to be slaughtered separately or at the end of normal slaughtering taking all necessary precautions.) > JUDGEMENT DEPENDS ON POSTMORTEM Ante-mortem inspection is covered by Regulation (EC) 853/2004 (Food Business Operator (FBO) duties) and Regulation (EU) 2017/625, Regulation, 2019/624 and Regulation 2019/627 (FSA requirements). Ante mortem inspection may be carried out on an individual animal or on a group of animals according to the professional standards agreed: > Routine inspection; observing animals when moving and/or at rest (interacting with each other in groups) > Clinical inspection; closer inspection but not full clinical examination > Clinical examination; a full clinical examination - Abnormalities, Diseases >> Notifiable (FMD, Anthrax, Swine fever) >> Other Diseases (Pneumonia, Orf, Scab) >> Verification of Welfare and Clean Livestock Ante mortem inspection includes checking Food Chain Information, ID and any other papers required

Fish-borne parasites associated with human illness - nematodes

Anisakiasis > Anisakis simplex > Pseudoterranova decipiens > Life cycle results in presence of larval forms in the flesh of marine fish or squid > If fish or squid eaten in raw or undercooked state, larva can penetrate gastric/intestinal mucosa, causing symptoms > Usual hosts for adult stage are some marine mammals, e.g. dolphins Some other related genera/species

Role of FAO in international trade

Another WTO reference organization for standards related to food of animal origin and food of non-animal origin. Codex Alimentarius = "food code" IPPC - Plant health

Zoonoses of pigs

Anthrax Brucellosis Erysipelas Leptospirosis Streptococcus suis Ringworm Swine Influenza Food-borne zoonoses > E. coli O157:H7 > Listeriosis > Campylobacter > Salmonella > (Taenia solium) > (Trichinella)

Zoonoses of sheep/goats

Anthrax Brucellosis Toxoplasmosis Chlamydophila Q Fever Cryptosporidia Orf Ringworm Food borne zoonoses: > E. coli O157:H7 > Listeriosis > Campylobacter > Salmonella

Zoonoses of cattle

Anthrax Brucellosis Tuberculosis Leptospirosis Q Fever Cryptosporidia Pseudocowpox Ringworm Food-borne zoonoses > E. coli O157:H7 > Listeriosis > Campylobacter > Salmonella > Taenia saginata > BSE

Notifiable zoonotic diseases reportable under RIDDOR to HSE

Anthrax, Rabies, Acute hepatitis, Brucellosis, Chlamydosis (avian/ovine), Leptospirosis, Lyme disease, Q fever, Clinical syndrome due to Streptococcus suis, Tetanus, TB NB: > Food poisoning is notifiable under public health legislation in England and Wales, Northern Ireland but NOT Scotland > Clinical syndrome due to STEC E. coli (including O157) infection is notifiable in Scotland but NOT England, Wales or Northern Ireland

Wildlife disease can indicate underlying pollution

Anticholinesterase related toxicity > Organophosphorus and carbamate pesticides are cholinesterase (ChE) inhibiting chemicals that have been responsible for avian die‐offs. Avian botulism > Organism: - Gr +, spore former, anaerobic. - Poisoning associated with ingestion of toxins - Rare gut or wound infections, crop infections. > Human disease: - Types A (meat/veg), B (meat/veg), E (marine) in humans (C in birds). - Avian outbreaks not a direct threat to human health: >> Possible threat to cats and dogs, cattle - Botulinum toxin blocks neurotransmitter (ACh) release. - Initial diarrhoea then constipation, blurred vision, dry mouth, paralysis. > Source: - Spores ubiquitous in environment - Toxin production following anaerobic growth in decaying material Vulture die-off in India (>90%) traced to use of diclofenac in cattle (and people). > Drug banned in cattle and breeding program introduced.

Treatment of Campylobacteriosis

Antimicrobials of choice in humans: Fluoroquinolones (ciprofloxacin) and erythromycin Emergence of resistance to ciprofloxacin: > 30% of EU isolates in late 1990s > Little change in resistance to erythromycin > Farms source of resistance?: - Not whole story - variable resistance on EU farms - Many resistant strains are associated with recent travel outside of EU > Active monitoring DEFRA and PHE

Approach to incidents of AI

Antiviral prophylaxis: > Strict approach: within 7 days of last exposure, for 10 days (up to 42 days duration) > Standard approach: not usually recommended Health surveillance: > Strict approach: if full PPE and antivirals used throughout exposure, passive health surveillance for 10 days post exposure; in all other cases, active surveillance for 10 days > Standard approach: passive follow-up for 10 days When to apply the strict approach > Advised by the National Infections Service based on public health and veterinary risk assessment > Most H5, H7 and H9 incidents - Some exceptions e.g. H5N8 specific guidance > Whenever the subtype is associated with - Severe human disease or death - Lab confirmed human-to-human transmission - Person-to-person transmission of an AI associated clinical illness e.g. conjunctivitis

The Welfare of Farmed Animals (England) Regulations 2007 - Veterinary care

Any animals which appear to be ill or injured must be cared for appropriately and without delay; where they do not respond to such care, veterinary advice must be obtained as soon as possible. Where necessary, sick or injured animals must be isolated in suitable accommodation with, where appropriate, dry comfortable bedding

Determinants of disease

Any characteristic that affects the health of a population. Diet, for example, is a determinant of bovine hypomagnesaemia: reduced food intake and low levels of plant magnesium, related to rapid grass growth, are associated with an increased incidence of the disease HOST, AGENT, ENVIRONMENT

Zoonosis

Any disease or infection that is naturally transmissible from vertebrate animals to humans and vice-versa is classified as a zoonosis

Define game-handling establishment

Any establishment in which game and game meat obtained after hunting are prepared for placing on the market.

Animal by-products (ABPs)

Any part of an animal not intended for human consumption which can pose a risk (i.e. has hazards) to human and animal health and environment Examples of potential harm to humans/animals/ environment > Re-entry of rejected poultry meat into food chain. > Presence of spinal cord (if SRM material) > Fallen stock on farms. > Feeding of catering waste to farm animals. > Feeding of mammalian protein to food-animals. Legislation: > EU legislation directly applicable: EU ABP Regulation 1069/2009 and EU Implementing Regulation 142/2011 - Also legislation specific to TSEs > Domestic enforcement legislation: Defra/ APHA/ FSA/ Local Authorities and equivalents in devolved offices - ABP (Enforcement) (England) Regulations 2013

Food additive

Any substance not normally consumed as a food in itself and not normally used as a characteristic ingredient of food, whether or not it has nutritive value, the intentional addition of which to food for a technological purpose in the manufacture, processing, preparation, treatment, packaging, transport or storage of such food results, or may be reasonably expected to result, in it or its by-products becoming directly or indirectly a component of such foods".

Legal definition of a VMP:

Any substance or combination of substances presented as having properties for treating or preventing disease in animals Any substance or combination of substances that may be used in, or administered to, animals with a view either to restoring, correcting or modifying physiological functions by exerting a pharmacological, immunological or metabolic action, or to making a medical diagnosis i.e. medicinal by presentation or function

Why is surveillance of wildlife valuable

Appearance of new / emerging diseases. Zoonotic diseases. Reservoirs of disease for domestic species Exotic pathogens may enter during migration. An indicator of underlying pollution. Public interest (e.g. mass mortalities of birds). Maintenance of biodiversity

Human Hepatitis E Virus

Approx. 10% of human infectious hepatitis > 20% mortality rate in pregnant women. > 186 UK cases 1996-2003 - Most associated with travel to developing world - 9% not travel associated - virus homologous to swine virus in UK (>55yr old men, coastal dwellers) > 800-1200 cases p.a. 2012-2018 > Now ~1000 cases p.a. diagnosed in UK, some association with processed pork products 1990's: Swine HEV described in pigs > 80% prevalence in UK pigs > Increased seroprevalence in pig vets > Possibly a rodent virus carried by pigs? > Not clear whether infection was causing any disease in pigs Role for pig-derived Swine Hepatitis E virus in human disease > Association with raw pig liver consumption in Japan > Genotyping data - Swine virus sequences are closely intermingled with sequences from human population - Consistent with multiple spill-over events from animals into humans or vice versa > Association with processed pork products in UK

When was compulsory microchipping of dogs introduced?

April 2016

Water sources

Aquifer/ ground water is old water slowly filtered with good microbiological and chemical qualities Surface water: Reservoirs and abstraction from rivers > Higher risk of microbiological contamination (agricultural run-off, eutrophication, floods, human) and chemical contamination e.g. Nitrates from farming, heavy metals from roads. Regional differences - Northampton, Buckingham is surface water, Thetford, Diss, Cambridge is ground water Ely is mixed

OV's decisions/actions based on observations/findings:

Are aiming to protect public/animal health and welfare of animals by enforcing/ promoting FBO's compliance and being responsible for fulfilling inspection tasks But not taking a full responsibility for food production Professional approach expected from: > Public (consumers) > Industry (agri-food)

Appraising models

Are any assumptions biologically plausible? What type of model is being used? What are parameter estimates based on? How was the model validated? (e.g. with second dataset) Does the model reflect the decision-making context?

Legislation surrounding traceability

Article 18 of Regulations (EC) No 178/2002 Regulation (EU) 931/2011 (commercial documents/ delivery notes accompanying consignments being dispatched from one place to another, wholesaling) Organic food legislation (if organic) Regulation (EC) No 1760/2000 and Regulation (EC)1825/2000 (cattle identification and beef labelling)

Authorised Officer

As well as appointing a proper officer, LA must authorise officers to exercise the powers specified in the Public Health (Control of Disease) Act 1984 and associated regulations. Local authority powers - can be exercised without applying to a Justice of the Peace but specific criteria must be satisfied. The powers include: require that a child is kept away from school; require a teacher to provide a list of contact details of pupils attending their school; disinfect/decontaminate articles on request; Part 2A Orders are obtained by local authorities on application to a Justice of the Peace and impose restrictions or requirements on a person, thing, a body or human remains, or a premise, e.g. for a person to be detained in hospital; to restrict a person's movements or contact with other people; or to require that a premises is closed or decontaminated. Other powers include powers of entry or inspection to carry out health protection functions. > Powers of entry and inspection require a warrant, order or 24 hours notice.

Mortality of rabies

Asia and Africa > ~50% of the deaths occur in Asia (30,000 in India) > ~40% of deaths occur in Africa > >90% of deaths follow dog bites USA > 1980-2003: approximately 40 reported cases - Now 1-3 cases/year > Bat, non-domestic dogs, skunks, foxes, racoon in the US; dogs from outside the USA

Overview of APHA role in outbreaks

Assist CHP and Outbreak Control Team (OCT) Veterinary advice on husbandry/hygiene aspects Animal sample/environmental collection Liaise with PHE reference laboratories (Colindale) regarding samples Identify animal sources of human infection

Purpose of APHA investigation

Assist Outbreak Control Team (OCT) in preventing further human cases Identifying sources of infection > Expertise in animal disease > Faecal sampling and cultures > Statistical approach > Compare human and animal isolates - phage typing and molecular work (WGS) Advising on control measures within the veterinary remit > Husbandry/ hygiene/ farming practices/ disinfection.

Psittacosis: Chlamydophila psittaci

Associated primarily with contact with psittacine birds but also other avians (+ dog) Spread through infected dust, dried faeces Occupational risk (duck pluckers disease!) Human high risk groups

Spoilage of joints; Bone taint

Associated with deep meat/ bone marrow spoilage of cured meats (gammon, ham etc.). Putrefaction by psychrotrophic bacteria (e.g. psychrotrophic Clostridium spp.) Factors: > Poor distribution of curing agents? > Possible internal contamination by Clostridia during agonal phase of slaughter (sticking). > More common during warm weather > More common in meat with high pH. Inadequate knife technique - blood vessels are cut and contamination introduced into circulation (blood is still pumping) > Bacteria settles in appropriate environment within body

Scombrotoxin

Associated with scombroid fish (tuna, mackerel, herring, marlin, bonito and jacks) - have high levels of histidine in their tissue Histidine converted to histamine (scombrotoxin) by bacteria If consumed, leads to short onset allergic type response > 10 min to 2h onset of rash on face, neck and upper chest, flushing, sweating, nausea > Usually resolves within 24 hours 71 outbreaks reported between 1992 and 2009 > Unlikely to be reported unless large number of people in one incident Under conditions that allow proliferation and activity of Gram-negative bacteria from skin and in guts (shown by aerobic plate count), production of histamine increases Rapid cooling after harvest is primary control measure Temperature abuse may occur later in the food chain Filleting immediately after harvest with subsequent chilling or freezing has been proposed, as bacterial sources removed

Types of association

Association is the degree of dependence or independence between two variables. There are two main types of association. 1. Non-statistical association; > An association that arises by chance; 2. Statistical association. > Occur together more frequently than would be expected by chance. > May be causually (indirectly/directly) or non-causally associated If infection of cattle with Haemonchus contortus were being investigated, then the following statistical associations could be found: > between the presence of the parasite and abomasal mucosal hyperplasia; > between the presence of the parasite and anaemia; > between abomasal mucosal hyperplasia and anaemia The first two associations are causal and the third non-causal. > Abomasal mucosal hyperplasia and infection with H. contortus are risk indicators (risk markers) of anaemia, that is their presence increases the risk of anaemia. > Thus risk indicators may be either causal or non-causal. > Causal risk indicators are called risk factors.

Farm Quality Assurance schemes - Poultry: Broilers

Assured British Chicken: > Facilities and procedures > Food safety > Salmonella monitoring/ vaccination > Contingencies for infection > Nutrition

Farm Quality Assurance schemes - Cattle, Sheep and Pigs

Assured British Meat > Identification and traceability > Farm animal management > Environment and hygiene management > Feed composition, storage & use > Housing & handling facilities > Medicines and veterinary treatments > Transport of livestock > RSPCA's 5 freedoms > Independent audit

Poultry tumours

Avian leucosis: Similar to visceral form of Marek's Haemangioma: Benign congenital overgrowth of blood capillaries Fibrosarcoma: Virus induced Fibromyoma: Virus induced

Maintaining infection

Avoiding external environment - vertical or venereal transmission - vector transmission - via food chain Development of resistant forms Short duration in host Persistent infection in host Extension of host range

Brucella species

B. abortus (bio/serovar 1-6, 9) -cattle B. melitensis (1-3) - goats, sheep B. suis - pig (1-3), hares (2), reindeer, caribou (4), rodents (5) B. canis - dogs, other canids Not human pathogens: B. ovis - sheep B. neotomae - desert wood rat B. maris - marine mammals

Brucellosis in Sheep & Goats

B. melitensis causing late term abortions > Retained placenta > Birth of dead or weak lambs/kids Goats - articular and periarticular hygroma localizations B. ovis causing abortions, fertility problems > Orchitis, epididymitis > Abnormal breeding soundness exam > Organisms present in semen

Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council (BBSRC)

BBSRC is one of 7 Research Councils that work together as Research Councils UK (RCUK). It is funded by the Government's Department for Business, Innovation and Skills (BIS).

Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE)

BSE commonly known as mad-cow disease, is a fatal, neurological (neurodegenerative) disease in cattle, that causes a spongy degeneration in the brain and spinal cord. The disease is a type of transmissible spongiform encephalopathy (TSE).

Bluetongue

BTV8 since 2006 in EU Control: Vaccination

Anthrax

Bacillus anthracis Large, gram positive non-motile rod Vegetative form and spores Sporulation requires > Poor nutrient conditions > Presence of oxygen Spores > Very resistant to extremes > Survive for decades > Taken up by host and germinate Clinical Signs in Animals > Signs differ by species > Ruminants at greatest risk > Three forms of illness; 1. Peracute (Ruminants (cattle, sheep, goats)) 2. Acute (Ruminants and equine) 3.Subacute-chronic (Pigs, dogs, cats)

Food-borne zoonoses: bacteria

Bacillus spp. Brucella spp. Campylobacter spp. Clostridium spp. E. coli O157:H7 Listeria spp. Mycobacterium spp. Salmonella spp. Yersinia spp.

Sequence of egg spoilage

Bacteria penetrate the shell pores and reach the shell membranes. > Most bacteria are capable of penetration of the shell membranes. Bacteria multiply on the shell membranes and eventually pass through. Relatively few types are able to grow in the albumen: > Gram negatives: Pseudomonas, Acinetobacter, cold-tolerant coliforms. > Incubated eggs that fail to hatch: Gram positives - Micrococcus, Staphylococcus, Bacillus, Enterococcus. E coli and Proteus may also be found.

Spoilage of frozen meats

Bacteria will not grow on frozen meat: > Enzyme activity requires liquid phase. > External water in food freezes before cell contents > Slow freezing - microbes dehydrate/survive > Rapid freezing - water in microbes crystallises, resulting in death Some moulds and yeasts spoil food stored down to about -10C Moulds and yeasts will not grow at temperatures below -12°C. Spoilage is primarily due to oxidation of fats: > Storage life correlates inversely with content of unsaturated fatty acids. > Pork cannot be kept stored as long as beef meat due to unsaturated fatty acids, especially if exposed to light (rancidity occurs earlier)

Bioterrorism - potential agents

Bacteria, parasites and toxins > Cat. A: anthrax, botulism, plague, tularaemia > Cat. B: brucellosis, cholera, Cl. perfringens, Cryptosporidium, Glanders, Melioidosis, Psittacosis, Q-fever, Ricin, enterotoxin, mycotoxins, Typhus (Rickettsial), food-borne zoonoses Virus > Cat. A: smallpox, viral haemorrhagic fevers (Ebola) > Cat. B: viral encephalitides (West Nile Fever Virus (WNFV), Venezuelan equine encephalitis (VEE)) > Cat. C: Nipah virus, Hantavirus MANY ZOONOTIC

Pathogens causing bivalve-associated illness

Bacteria: Salmonella, Shigella, Vibrio, Campylobacter Viruses: Norovirus, sapovirus, astrovirus, Aichi virus, hepatitis A virus > Norovirus and hepatitis A virus are the main problem in developing world Protozoa: Giardia, (?Cryptosporidium) > Cryptosporidium has been found to contaminate bivalves but has not been reported to cause bivalve-associated illness

Mastitis

Bacterial infection of udder Often chronic cases with abscesses or gangrenous May be pyaemia and septicaemia Judgement: > Reject udder > Check carcase for systemic signs

Public Health Risk Assessment

Balance of risk based on available information Inform a proportionate timely response > Confidentiality, impact Can include reassurance, appropriate information and advice

Cat scratch disease

Bartonella henselae Subclinical infection in cats > 38% of cats may carry infection > In blood and saliva Risk factors for zoonosis: > Kitten ownership > Flea problem reported Disease in humans: > Infected lesion with local LN swelling > Conjunctivitis, uveitis. > Severe in immunosuppressed. > Diagnosis: often presumptive > Treatment: aminoglycosides

Control of Salmonella in layer and broiler flocks

Baseline surveys prevalence Targets: % annual reduction Implementation of monitoring and actions (Poultry Order 2008) Positive Flocks will be subjected to control steps including early depopulation, slaughter precautions, and stringent cleansing and disinfection. A recent baseline survey found 8% prevalence of Salmonella in the UK commercial Layer Flock (c.f. 55% in Poland; 51% in Spain). Controls required under legislation and associated Codes of Practice being implemented highlight the importance of strict hygiene (cleansing, disinfection, dust removal), biosecurity (feed, water, buildings, vectors, visitors), and all-in-all-out policies in production. Eggs from affected premises must be classed as Category B (require pasteurisation or processing).

Farm inspections

Basic Payment claimant visits, (organised by the Rural Payments Agency-England). > EU driven - 1% of claimants are selected annually on a risk/random basis. > If breaches are found there may be monetary consequences. Complaints - risk assessed High, Medium or Low with HIGH - unnecessary pain, unnecessary distress (UPUD) requiring a response within 24 hours. > Sometimes visit with Local Authority (Trading Standards Departments of Local Council or Unitary Authority), occasionally with RSPCA. OV generated slaughterhouse/FSA complaints with on-farm implications, e.g. in-grown horn. FORMALISED SYSTEM NOW IN PLACE. Although criteria are laid down in the legislation, the question as to whether a welfare problem exists may require veterinary judgement. > N.B. some complaints are malicious. Aim initially to give encouragement and advice (verbal, letter) or improvement notice, or may end as a prosecution which will be taken forward by enforcement agency (usually Local Authority/Trading Standards) with veterinary officer acting as a witness of fact and occasional an expert witness depending on your experience/qualifications. Can only act within legislation.

Overwrapping

Before modified atmosphere packaging and centralised pre-packing, overwrapping was extensively used for the retail display of meat The film used for overwrapping is purposely permeable to external air The film facilitates oxygenation of the meat, causing the production of oxymyoglobin and the red 'fresh meat' that consumers tend to look for However, the meat soon oxidises further, changing colour to dull brown Ensure packing only occurs when the meat is less than 2°C as low temperatures favour deeper oxygen penetration Be aware of... > Meat that is >2 days old - should not be overwrapped < Meat that has been stored for long periods as it discolours more rapidly than fresh meat

Effect of type of animal on sensory properties of meat

Belgian Blue had more tender meat, probably related to heavy muscling diluting out connective tissue Aberdeen Angus more tender than Holstein Intramuscular fat level (marbling) - highest in Holstein (Tenderness not exclusively related to amount of fat in meat) Tenderness probably related to muscle fibres > % slow oxidative, red muscle fibres mirror pattern of tenderness better than IMF > SO fibres do rely on fat as energy source Callipyge gene has been described in sheep > Callipyge = beautiful buttocks > Huge difference in conformation score > In loin - much tougher meat Duroc genetics in pigs increase tenderness Restricted feed was widely used to reduce fat content of pig carcase, when pigs were not as genetically lean as they are now > But reduces tenderness Selecting pigs for lean growth efficiency increases shear force score of longissimus muscle (decreases tenderness) Bulls are tougher than steers > When maturing for 14 days, tenderness increases (vs. 4 days) - Greater effect in bulls vs. steers, sucklers > Sucklers similar to steers when ageing for 4 days, but at 14 days steers are more tender > When aged for 14d, yield force for bulls decreases so it is similar to that of steers for 4d, and close to steers matured for 14d - Conclusion - young bulls can be used, but extra maturation required for good quality meat Lamb - feeding on roots creates toughness? When comparing diets at same age, effects are small (actually seing age effect - those fed on roots slaughtered later) > Meat from lamb slaughtered in Jan tougher than slaughtered from June

Biofilms

Biofilms in Dental Practice water systems: Organisms isolated: > Mycobacterium sp > Pseudomonas aeruginosa > Legionella sp > Fusobacteria sp > Staphylococcus sp >10,000 cfu/ml (EU guideline of 100cfu/ml) Significance of appropriate cleaning and disinfection procedures.

Hazards in cattle - may be in/on live cattle or in/on meat

Biological (some examples): Salmonella spp, Campylobacter spp, Clostridiums species (perfringens), Listeria, Shiga toxin-producing E. Coli 0 157, Staphylococcus aureus, Brucella, TSE, Tb, aflatoxin, viruses, yeasts, fungi, parasites C.bovis- etc. Chemical (some examples): Residues of antimicrobials, anti-ectoparasitics, pesticides (DDT, dieldrin), heavy metals (lead, mercury), other environmental chemicals (dioxins), hormones or hormone like substances, mycotoxins etc. Physical: Foreign bodies (bone, glass, metal e.g. needles, plastic) Biological e.g. E Coli > Live animals: epidemiology (feed, water, from other animals, people, environment, air) > Meat: processing, cross contamination > People: direct/indirect contact with animals (and people), contaminated environment, ingesting contaminated food (not only meat) How do we know about hazards in cattle? > Not easy: not visible unless symptoms observed > Epidemiological reports etc.

Biosafety in veterinary research

Biological agents in research: > Categorisation according to hazard. - COSHH (Control of Substances Hazardous to Health)/ACDP - Category 1 (harmless) - Category 4 (highly contagious zoonoses) > Advice on containment. Research animals: > Containment according to pathogens > Welfare (ASPA 1986) Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) > Containment legislation > Welfare (ASPA1986)

Define hazard

Biological, chemical or physical agent in, or condition of, food or feed with the potential to cause an adverse health effect

HAACP 1. Identifying any hazards that must be prevented, eliminated, or reduced to acceptable levels

Biological, chemical, physical hazards: may be not recognised or not considered at all > It should be simple, with naming a few most important specific hazards. > Are physical hazards realistic? > Chemical hazards might be controlled by GHP? Unrealistic hazards chosen: usually too many, without a logical explanation > Theoretically many hazards, but practically a few

Hazards in milk

Biological: > Bacteria: Aeromonas hydrophilia, Campylobacter, Pathogenic Escherichia coli e.g. O157, Salmonella, Bacillus anthracis /cereus, Staphylococcus aureus/agalactiae, Brucella (abortus/ mellitensis), Listeria monocytogenes Coxiella, Yersinia enterocolitica/pseudotuberculosis, Mycobacterium bovis/tuberculosis/paratuberculosis, Shigella, Clostridium perfringens/ botulinum, Streptococcus pyogenes/ zooepidemicus, Corynebacterium spp. > Viruses: Enteroviruses, Rotaviruses, Foot and Mouth Disease > Parasites: Cryptosporidium, Entamoeba, Giardia, Toxoplasma Chemical: > Mycotoxins (aflatoxions), Veterinary Residues, Pesticides, Dioxin, Heavy metals (lead cadmium, mercury) Physical: > Visible particles (plastic, glass)

Being shackled

Birds need time to settle before entering the water bath After this time majority of birds have stopped flapping > Broilers 12 sec > Turkeys 25 sec Factors contributing to increase in wing flapping > Bends or unevenness in line > Obstructions > Lighting > Presence of personnel > Water sprays > Pre-stun shocks

Emaciation (poultry)

Birds of all sizes with > Poor muscle development > Little or no fat deposits > Protrusion of sternum > Concavity of breast muscle Causes: Emaciation - not nutritional but pathologic > Immuno-suppressive diseases (IBD) > Lymphoid diseases (Marek's) > Bacterial disease (avian TB) > Septicaemia > Airsacculitis > Parasitic diseases > Mixed infections (egg peritonitis) If occurring in large numbers, there is a possible welfare issue

Problems with slaughter

Blood inhalation > Seen in lungs > Also inhaled water from scald tank? Back bleeding > Knife too big, causing bleeding in thoracic cavity Blood Splashing > Caused by electrical stunning

Define minced meat

Boned meat that has been minced into fragments and contains less than 1% salt

Official Veterinarians check animals and their products imported to UK through designated Border Control Posts (BCPs)

Border Control Posts (BCPs) present at major airports and ports Government (usually local authorities) employs vets to perform vet checks at the UK border

Contact zoonotic infections - respiratory organisms

Bordetella bronchiseptica, Mycobacterium spp. Corynebacterium ulcerans.

Lyme disease

Borrelia burgdorferi (B. afzelli, B. garinii in UK) Ticks transmit from wildlife to humans, dogs, horses. Local rash, fever, headaches, muscle pain, arthritis. > Erythema migrans Diagnosis: serology Treatment: doxycycline Control: cover up, check for ticks.

Bleeding

Both carotids Automatic (rotating blade) followed by checks by back-up slaughterman Nothing to be done to the birds at that time Blood not allowed into general drainage system Further details on welfare of ALL animals at the time of killing: REGULATION (EC) No 1099/2009 of 24 September 2009 on the protection of animals at the time of killing

Wooden Tongue: Actinobacillosis

Bovine Increase in fibrous tissue of tongue with small abscesses within > Infection by Actinobacillus ligniersi Infection may affect other soft tissues of head > Spread by lymphatics May cause generalised infection Judgement: > Tongue rejected as unfit > Check carcase for generalised infection

Badger: zoonosis profile

Bovine TB: refer to previous lectures in VPH and BIDDS. > Spill-over bovine TB reported in 2013 in wild boar and Muntjac. Salmonella (S. Typhimurium, S. Agami) Cryptosporidium L. icterohaemorrhagiae

Brisket opening

Brisket split or cut along midline Cleaning and sterilising brisket saw or knife between carcases Ensure GI tract not punctured

Cattle Passports

British Cattle Movement Service (BCMS) > Cattle born (or imported) after 1st July 1996 > Older cattle - Cattle Tracing Scheme (CTS) documents > Application within 7 days of ear tagging (within 27 days of birth) > Late applications will be refused Must accompany animal in all movements Cattle without passports > Must not move from holding unless direct to knacker's yard or hunt kennel to be destroyed > Cannot enter human food chain > May appeal with DNA testing of calf and dam Single-page passport - newest type of passport, issued from 2011 Notice of registration - issued if passport is refused, places restrictions on movements Chequebook-style passport - issued between 1998 and 2011 Blue/green passport - Issued between 1996 and 1998; animals also have CTS CTS - animals born, imported or moved into GB before 1996 have this form alone

UK Veterinary Associations

British Veterinary Association (BVA): with 21 specialist divisions providing services to, and representing, veterinary surgeons across different specialisms and across the UK. Veterinary Public Health Association (VPHA) is BVA specialist division dealing with Veterinary Public Health. Association of Government Veterinarians (AGV) is a specialist Division of the British Veterinary Association representing the views of veterinarians working in UK Government Departments and Executive Agencies.

Types of food additives

Broadly speaking these are: colours, sweeteners, preservatives, antioxidants, emulsifiers, flavour enhancers. On food they must be declared with either name or an E number - a reference number for specific additives. Before getting on the approved list they: > Should not pose food safety concerns > Their use should be technologically justified > Should not mislead consumers > Some should have advantages and benefits e.g. preserving nutritional quality of food, enhancing keeping quality or stability, aiding manufacturing processing of the product or its transport and storage

Structure of hive

Brood nest - deeper box > Queen lives here, lays eggs, bees raise young > Queen excluder - queen cannot pass Bees bring nectar, passed to receiver bees, who move through queen excluder and deposit it in honey super (this is where the crop comes from)

Brucella in Horses

Brucella abortus most common > Susceptible to B. suis Fistulous Withers or Poll Evil > Inflammation of the supraspinous bursa > Exudative process - Fills with clear viscous liquid - Can eventually rupture

Definition of whey

By-product in the manufacture of cheese. It is the liquid remaining after milk has been curdled and strained and varies in characteristics with the type of cheese from which it originates. (There is no legal definition of whey; it is included in the definition of a milk product).

Campylobacteriosis - Human disease

C. jejuni (92% of human disease) C. coli (8% of human disease) Commonest identified infectious bacterial diarrhoea in humans in UK Risk factors: > Eating lightly cooked chicken meat > Handling uncooked chicken meat > Eating under-cooked pork Faecal: Human cases linked to puppies and diarrheic animals in 6% of cases (72,629 human cases in 2012 - mainly poultry).

HAACP 2. Identifying the critical control CCPs points at the step or steps at which control is essential to prevent, eliminate or reduce to an acceptable level.

CCPs not present at all > In UK, CCPs are acceptance of animals, dressing and chilling (PMI is not a CCP) Too many CCPs > FBOs are putting more CCPs just to satisfy customers and CA, but in reality, they are uncontrollable.

Campylobacteriosis - Animal Hosts (typically no disease)

Campylobacter jejuni > Prevalent in poultry (30-100%) > Prevalent in cattle (23-89%) > Low prevalence in pigs (<10%) Campylobacter coli > Prevalent in pigs (90%), also cattle These and other Campylobacters in birds, wildlife, pets and flies and surface water Shedding in dogs: 22% of healthy dogs (C. upsaliensis, C. jejuni) > Can also be primary pathogen > <75% of diarrheic dogs will shed - enhanced by disease and stress Control > Prevent/treat canine infection/shedding (diet, antibiotics, isolation) > Prevent human exposure (direct/indirect contact, hygiene)

Guillain-Barré Syndrome

Campylobacter-associated (<1% of outcomes) > Of those that develop GBS, 20% require ventilation, and 10% of these die Pathophysiology > Autoimmune polyradiculoneuropathy > Inflammatory demyelination of proximal nerve Clinical signs > Symmetric acute progressive weakness <4 wks > Neurological signs > Autonomic symptoms > Dull aching pains of lower back, flank, proximal legs > Respiratory failure

Carcass lesions - melanosis

Can affect all species Black pigment melanin is found in abnormal amounts at unusual sites within the body, especially > Lungs > Kidney > Spinal cord Vary in size and appear like ink splashes Judgement - affected parts rejected

Dark Firm Dry (DFD) Condition

Can affect all species Usually beef carcases The meat has a dark colour and a dry or sticky texture The condition comes about due to more chronic stress > Glycogen stores are used up in the muscle Judgement: > Depends on the severity > Usually fit for human consumption

Canning

Cans filled under steam & then sealed creating vacuum. Followed by heating at 115C under pressure, 23-100 mins. Different foods cooked at different temperatures and durations (meats lower and longer, liquids shorter and hotter).

Alternative packaging techniques

Captech process Secondary packaging (masterpacks) Hyperbaric Oxygen

Exposure to gas mixtures

Carbon dioxide used to anaesthetize pigs since the 1950s. Now known as 'controlled atmosphere stunning' (CAS): > Unconsciousness takes up to 15s, so is it really stunning? > Not 'instantaneous' - induction period Gases used in mixtures used include: argon, nitrogen and carbon dioxide in varying proportions.

Components of meat quality

Carcase > Composition - fat and lean > Dimension - weight, length Meat > Sensory - smell, taste, look > Technological - how well it holds in processing, e.g. water holding capacity > Nutritional - linked to composition, but modifications based on trimming Hygiene > Pathogens > Shelf life > Residues Ethical > Animal welfare > Environmental impact > Genetic modified feeds/animals

Presentation of Carcase and Offal: Regulation (EC) 853/2004 (may differ in different slaughterhouses)

Carcase and kidneys presented together Head and tongue presented together Abdominal and thoracic contents > Pluck (red offal - liver, heart, lungs) presented together > Other viscera (green offal, spleen) presented together Regulation requires carcase splitting (in half) if: > Soliped (horses) > Bovine over 6 months > Pig over 4 weeks - Derogations for pig carcases not to be split for traditional products (cuts, pork chops) > Ovine over a year (remove SRM - spinal cord).

Carcase Splitting

Carcases can be contaminated if hygienic procedures not followed Cleaning and sterilising of saws and knives between carcases Distance between carcases to prevent cross contamination FOLLOWED BY SRM REMOVAL

Psittacosis - control in birds

Careful selection of stock from reputable suppliers Import / export: health testing certification and quarantine (35d) - EU Decision 2000/666 > Cases must be treated in quarantine and held for a further 2 months Segregation of domestic from wild birds Treatment of affected birds with chlortetracycline (30-45 days)

Control of Toxoplasmosis in Humans

Cat control: High risk > Keep indoors, feed only tinned/dry food > Neuter to control population > Vaccination: oral vaccination in development Sheep control: > Vaccination: S48 attenuated strain (Toxovax, Intervet), > Retain aborting ewes (immune) > Care with disposal of aborted material > Prevent oocyst contamination of feed Food safety: hygiene etc. > Cook meat to 67°C; alternatively freeze meat Pregnant women: Avoid contact with cats, litter trays, soil, raw meat, unwashed salad, aborting sheep

Process flow poultry processing

Catch Transport Unload Stun, kill, bleed Pluck Eviscerate Inspect Chill Pack

Categories of Animal by products

Categorise Animal by-products into 3 Categories and clarifies (prescribes) rules for identification, separation, storage, collection, transport, records, use and/or disposal Also, clarifies rules for official controls e.g. registration, approval, export/import, feeding animals, enforcement (inspection & auditing)

Inspection of the Liver

Cattle >6 weeks, Sheep and Goats > Visual inspection and palpation of liver, hepatic and pancreatic lymph nodes > Incision of gastric surface of liver at base of caudate lobe to examine bile ducts Pigs, Solipeds and calves > Incision of liver and lymph nodes if necessary

Inspection of the respiratory tract

Cattle and Solipeds Visual inspection of: > Lungs (and palpation) > Trachea > Oesophagus Incision of bronchial and mediastinal lymph nodes > Incision in pigs, sheep and goats if necessary If lungs for human consumption > Trachea and main branches of bronchi opened length ways > Lungs incised in posterior third perpendicular to main axis

Paramphistomes

Cattle and sheep affected Tremotode parasite of rumen and reticulum > Paramphistomum cervi Judgement: > Rejection of affected areas

Process of red meat slaughter

Cattle receiving and holding Ante mortem inspection Stunning Shackling/hoisting Neck hide opening/sticking/bleeding Removal of hooves Dehiding Head removal Brisket saving Evisceration Cacass splitting Spinal cord removal Trimming Carcass grading, weighing and stamping Final cacass inspection

Inspection of the heart and pericardium

Cattle, Solipeds and Pigs > Visual inspection > Heart incised lengthways - Open ventricles - Cut through interventricular septum > Bovine hearts incised to look for Cysticercus bovis Sheep and goats > Incision if necessary

Control of bovine TB

Cattle: Notifiable disease, Scotland free, culling reactors, meat inspection, traceability, badger controls Humans: Milk pasteurization, Hygiene Regulations, Milk from reactors is not permitted for consumption, Milk from remainder of herd must be pasteurized Occupational health (liaison between vets and doctors): > Prophylactic treatment of human 'in contacts' by risk assessment. Other VPH measures on-farm > Medication: e.g. Rifampicin, isoniazid, pyrazinamide

Application of prevalence and incidence values

Causal factors operate before a disease is identified. > Therefore, an incidence value, recorded as near as possible to the time of onset of a disease, can associate the disease with the action of causal factors. Prevalence of a disease may be recorded a long time after the causal factors have operated. > The main use of prevalence measurements is in indicating the extent of disease problems for administrative purposes and for defining research priorities and long-term disease control strategies.

Q fever

Causative Agent: Coxiella burnetii Sheep, cattle, goats > Usually asymptomatic > Reproductive failure - Abortions, stillbirths - Retained placenta - Infertility - Weak newborns - Mastitis in dairy cattle > Carrier state Transmission of Q Fever > Exposure to infected animals > Arthropods (ticks) Occupational and environmental hazards > Farmers, producers > Veterinary surgeons > Meat processors, abattoir > Laboratory workers

V. vulnificus

Causes primary septicaemia (not preceded by other manifestation of illness) or wound infections Infection via GI tract (raw oysters) or wounds > Wounds contaminated by sea water contained in the organism, or via contaminated objects (e.g. cut from oyster shell when preparing food) > Surgical debridement required Death may occur within 2 days of start of symptoms (regardless of antibiotic therapy) Predisposition by certain illnesses (liver disease, haemochromatosis, diabetes, immune disorders) Risk may be predicted by model based on sea water temperature: > Similar tool for V. parahaemolyticus uses both sea water temperature and salinity

Control of canine rabies

Cell culture vaccine has reduced adverse effects and improved efficacy (c.f. nerve tissue vaccines) > Duration of immunity 3-4 years Strong empirical and theoretical support for target of vaccinating 70% of dogs in preventing epidemics > 90% reduction at least in risk of epidemics > Due to public concerns, rabies must be ~eliminated in order to see reduced PEP uptake Newer oral vaccines becoming available > Not yet in widespread use Avoid culling at all costs > Ineffective, removes attention from effective control > May make things worse (moving dogs to stop them being culled)

Fatness and flavour

Cell wall fats > Less than 1% of meat by composition > Sufficient for meat flavour > Sufficient to distinguish species Marbling and subcutaneous fat > Possibly more species flavour > Fatty flavour (and mouth feel) Type of fat also importance > Difference in grain versus forage fed animals > North America - more grain fed beef

BSE clinical signs

Changes in temperament, such as nervousness or aggression; Abnormal posture; lack of coordination and difficulty in rising; decreased milk production; or loss of body weight despite continued appetite. Not all affected cattle display all signs of the disease.

Three factors are important in the transmission of infection:

Characteristics of hosts; Characteristics of pathogens; Effective contact.

Control points - milking parlour

Check for mastitis in foremilk Dry wiping or washing of teats before milking. > Disinfect after milking. General hygiene and contamination control. > Equipment and pipelines correctly washed and disinfected > Circulating cleaning - 10-15 litres per milking unit - 85°C at start - Not less than 50°C at end > Acidified boiling water - 14-18 litres per unit - Start at 96°C - All parts of equipment to reach 77°C for at least 2 minutes > Milk Tank and Collection - Cleansing and disinfection of tank - Maintain cold chain through transport - Hygienic handling at collection centre - HACCP Equipment functioning properly (vacuum level). Antibiotic and drug residues Protective clothing for milking staff (including covering of skin lesions) Control of vermin. Water supply must be potable.

Microbiological checks carried out by FBOs are integral part of HACCP

Checked by Official controllers OV checks must include: > Microbiological (food safety) criteria of some end products (if they are produced in factories supervised by OVs) e.g. - Baby food (factories not supervised by OVs in UK, but are in some countries), cheese, pate, smoked salmon tested for Listeria - Minced meat tested for Salmonella > Process hygiene criteria - Carcases, minced meat - Environment (utensils, surfaces and machinery) > In particular, checking: Sampling methods, Bacteriological methods, Results and response to adverse events. Hygiene plan must be implemented in the context of HACCP

UK Chemical surveillance

Chemical products > Pesticides, fungicides, rodenticides, slug pellets, herbicides Veterinary products > Antibiotics, hormones Environmental contaminants > Anthropomorphic and natural > Industry, emissions, disasters (fires, floods), volcanic ash > Electricity pylons (lead paint) > Lead poisoning (batteries) Biotoxins (and plants) > Mycotoxins, botulinum, plant toxins (e.g. Ragwort) Processing and packaging contaminants > Acrylamide, Bisphenol A (BPA - hormonal problems)

Bacon spoilage

Chilled Vacuum packages spoil due to lactate fermenters mainly, plus Brochothrix, Micrococcus etc

Spoilage of cooked ham

Chilled: > Re-contaminated (Pseudomonas spp, Brochothrix, lactate fermenters, Staph., moulds) at handling. > Vacuum packed: Lactate fermenters. Warm: > Spore formers: Clostridia, Bacillus spp.

Avian Chlamydiosis: Ornithosis/Psittacosis - Disease in birds

Chlamydophila psittaci Asymptomatic or generalised loss of condition, diarrhoea, anorexia, respiratory distress Ducks: Seropurulent nasal/ocular discharges All birds may be infected (wild, game, domestic, pets)

Minimising exposure by prudent use of antimicrobials:

Choose correct AB: accurate diagnosis, select approved AB, consider spectrum (narrow & wide) Use correct AB: justify off-label use, correct dosage, duration (short & long), justify group & individuals, prescribing (under your care), supply to (records kept), client administration (trained, proper etc.) Exposure through: farm animals, pet animals, hospitals, faeces -> waste water -> fruit/veg, etc.

Yogurt hazards

Clean in place (CIP) > Problem: survival of pathogens, foreign material > Action: check temperature achieved, visual inspection, test for residues Raw materials intake > Problem: presence of pathogens, foreign material > Action: bacteriological chekc, pre-pasteurisation filter (1mm) Pasteurisation > Problem: pathogen survival > Action: check temperature, automatic divert (check pressures), check flow rates Fermentation > Problem: pathogen check due to low acidity > Action: measure and plot acidity Base filtration > Problem: foreign material in white base > Action: mesh filter (0.1mm), check integrity Addition of fruit > Problem: presence of pathogens in fruit, pathogens on outer surface of pack > Action: obtain from reliable source, dip in 336ppm chlorine for 2 min prior to opening Storage > Problem: outgrowth > Action: cool to <5C

Milk collection

Cleaning and bactericidal treatment of tankers and receptacles. Handling of milk at collection centres (6°C maximum holding temperature).

Outcome infection

Clinical disease may result in the development of a long-standing chronic clinical infection, recovery, or death. Recovery may result in sterile immunity following an effective host response, which removes all of the infectious agent from the body. The carrier state - sheds an infectious agent without demonstrating clinical signs. > Incubatory and convalescent carriers also occur when animals excrete agent during the disease's incubation period or when they are recovering from a disease. Latent infection - one that persists in an animal without producing clinical signs.

Fish-borne parasites associated with human illness - trematodes

Clonorchis sinensis - Chinese liver fluke Opisthorchis viverrini - South East Asian liver fluke Opisthorchis felineus - Cat liver fluke Produce larval stages that are located in the flesh or skin of freshwater fish Humans ingest fish raw, undercooked or pickled Adult forms can develop in bile ducts Mainly problem in far East, but can arise elsewhere from imported fish

Rodding the Weasand (oesophagus)

Closing the oesophagus with clip to prevent gut contents from leaking Changing or sterilising equipment between carcases

9 signs of septicaemia (CHEAP BEEF)

Cloudy swelling Haemolytic jaundice Alkaline pH Petechial haemorrhage Blood engorged vessels Enlargement of spleen Evidence of primary lesions Fever

Smoking

Cold smoking (different times and temperatures e.g. 32 °C for >20 hours, 10°C for >24 hours, 49 °C for >6 hours Hot smoking (similar as above - but much longer) Note: Beech wood commonly used, uniform smoke absorption, heat exposure and dehydration. Smoke flavouring legislation (EC) no 2065/2003 sets up the limits for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in smoke flavouring

How to enforce?

Collect and record relevant evidence e.g. observation, examination, tests, support by notes, photos, videos etc. Say/describe/write report - and express your opinion e.g. is it a "non-compliance" with the law (which law, Paragraph, Article, Section etc.) It is your opinion about this, e.g. abnormal & normal, fit & unfit, safe & unsafe, adequate, unnecessary, risk to public or animal health, etc. Be aware that your action or inaction has serious consequences In some cases, no need to prove much, apart that it has not been completed e.g. no ante-mortem inspection

APHA has seven Veterinary Investigation Centres (VICs)

Collection service (aids scanning surveillance) Supplemented by field vets and third-party post-mortem facilities (Bristol university and London) National surveillance network Diagnostic submissions (from private vets) -> surveillance information (for Defra) Collection, analysis and dissemination of disease information

Clinical and special waste: requirements

Collection: > Segregated form other waste in yellow bags or bins. > Sharps in approved sharps containers. > Special waste segregated and placed in containers approved by the handling contractor (e.g. DOOPs - Destruction of old pharmaceutical). Storage: > Generally <1 week at <5C in a secure place. > If deep frozen then there is no time limit prior to collection. Security: > Reasonable steps to prevent escape of waste from control by leakage, vandalism, or scavenging. Transfer and disposal: > Transfer note must accompany the consignment: - description of the waste. - copies must be retained by both parties for 3 years. > Carriers / contractors required to give Environment Agency 3d notice of transfer. > Waste must be disposed of by approved method within 24 hours of collection: - Incineration - Land-fill after treatment (not special waste)

Hepatic Lipidosis

Common condition in older cattle Fat accumulation in hepatocytes Commonly associated with attachment of mesentery Judgement: > Partial rejection of the liver

Clostridium difficile

Commonest antibiotic associated diarrhoea; hospital acquired. Prevalence of 11% in community including to 18% in vet hospital. 'Therapy' dogs more likely to be colonised. Typically resistant - treat with metronidazole / vancomycin.

Plum Pudding Liver: Telangiectasis

Commonly found in livers of old cows Bluish-black irregular lesion throughout liver Judgement: > Minor area partially rejected > More generalised requires total rejection of liver

GB Wildlife Disease Surveillance Partnership

Comprising: > APHA > SAC (Scottish Agricultural College) > Institute of Zoology > Food and Environment Research Agency (FERA). > Centre for Environment, Fisheries, and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS). Quarterly reports Annual reports to OIE.

Glasser's disease in a carcass

Condition of pigs Caused by Haemophilus parasuis Clinical signs of polyserositis and polyarthritis Findings include > Fibrinous pleurisy > Fibrinous peritonitis > Increased synovial fluid Chronic lesions throughout abdominal/thoracic cavity and joints Judgement: > Depends on the severity of the lesions > Stripping of the pleura and peritoneum is all that is necessary in many cases

Erysipelas in a carcass

Condition of pigs/poultry Caused by Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae Occurs in three forms (some overlap) > Urticarial (mild) type - Diamonds on skin - Petechiae in kidneys > Acute or septicaemia type - Petechiae in kidneys, lungs and intestines - Fevered carcase - Haemorrhagic lymph nodes - Splenic enlargement > Chronic type - Arthritis with brown synovial fluid - Vegetative endocarditis - Infarcts in the kidneys Judgement: > In mild cases, reject the affected parts > In acute cases, the entire carcase and offal are rejected > In chronic cases, often only the affected organs and arthritic joints are rejected

Conditions of Bones and Joints

Conditions of bones and joints detected by: > Lameness > Joint swelling > Atrophy > Bruising and pathology > Regional lymph nodes Many causes including: > Congenital > Fractures (pathological) > Osteomyelitis > Arthritis (septic) Judgement: > Affected areas rejected > There may be a welfare issue

Osteohaemochromatosis

Congenital porphyria All species can be affected Accumulation of plant or endogenous porphyrins in blood Results in: > Tissue pigmentation > Photosensitisation Judgment: > Head and bones rejected > If muscle unaffected - Meat boned out - Bones rejected > If generalised, carcase rejected

Causes of Dead on Arrival (DoA)

Congestive Heart Failure 51% Physical Damage (Trauma) 35% > Dislocation > Broken Hip 76% > Ruptured Liver 11% > Crushed Head 8% > Intraperitoneal haemorrhage 3% > Other 2% Neck Dislocation 3% Unknown 11%

Toxoplasmosis - Human disease

Contact from cat faeces, sheep abortion, meat Dogs roll in cat faeces Infection is common (40% seroprevalence) Usually asymptomatic: Low grade *encephalitis*? Foetal/neonatal disorder 370 cases reported in UK in 2014 and 298 in 2017 Diagnosis: serology, antigen detection Treatment of human cases: sulphonamides

Snakes - risks

Contact infection: > Salmonella spp > Aeromonas spp > Mycobacterium spp (M. xenopi, M. marinum - 'aquarists nodule') Injuries: > Constrictions (pythons), garter snakes, king snakes - commonest and non-toxic). Poisonous > Adder (Vipera berus) the only poisonous snake in the UK (plus illegally imported)

Contamination of poultry carcase

Contamination can occur from: > Plant machinery - Oil and grease > The birds themselves - Faeces, crop contents - Bile contamination Problems may arise due to > Birds not fasted long enough prior to slaughter > Machine problems

Evisceration of cattle

Contamination of carcase and edible offal if viscera not handled properly Using knives to prevent puncturing of organs Any contamination removed (NOT WASHED) in a timely manner

Salmonella - surveillance and controls

Continues to decrease in EU because better surveillance and controls > Feeding stuff > Animals (poultry in particular) and humans > Foodstuffs (all controls from farm to fork)

Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA) - role in food safety

Control of notifiable diseases (zoonotic or economic significance). Transport, import and export control of animals, Products of Animal Origin (POAO), Animal-by-Products and pathogens Implementation of welfare legislation. Investigation of food contamination reports. Surveillance and diagnostic testing for known and emerging animal diseases (central laboratory at Weybridge plus regional Veterinary Investigation Centres (VICs)). Research into detection, epidemiology and pathogenesis of zoonotic pathogens. Laboratory detection of pollutants. Scientific research and education. Targeted research into pathogens of zoonotic significance or with significant consequences in terms of animal health economics or welfare. Animal models of human disease (comparative medicine). Training of veterinarians.

Bovine TB

Control: Endemic in UK, more complex controls (slaughter and compensation) Regionalisation based on disease prevalence > England HRA/EA/LRA > Wales: HRA > Scotland: TB Free Scotland - no change in TBF Wales & Eng HRA - ? Problem of persistent infected herds linked to cattle-cattle transmission + wildlife reservoirs Eng EA- ? threat of spread, so reclassify counties included. Finding more disease due to looking harder. Eng LRA- no change in low incidence despite high challenge rate - measures effective

Wildlife rabies

Controllable in terrestrial species through oral baited vaccination Campaigns have to be > Combined with public health education programmes > Sustained, intensive, monitored carefully - Bait uptake can be monitored simply using marker (OTC) Little conclusive evidence of population threshold to allow/prevent transmission Ensure full understanding of local infection driver > Critically important finding from Tanzania: prevent rabies in Serengeti wildlife by vaccinating dogs around edge In 1998, Western France free of rabies (but not East) as this is where the fox vaccination programme started > By 2000, rabies eliminated from France and most of Germany, but still prevalent in eastern Europe Bat rabies is widespread, but doesn't seem to significantly present in other mammals > EBLV-2 in endemic in UK bat populations, whereas EBLV-1 is less common

Gas killing

Controlled atmosphere killing systems Birds exposed to anoxic gas mixtures e.g. (CO2, Argon, Nitrogen). Welfare improved, e.g. > No stress of unloading birds shackling and inverting birds > No problems of pre-stun electric shocks > No birds missing the electric water bath

Farm Quality Assurance schemes - goals

Convergence of consumer perception with producer reality Improve transparency in food production Improve standards of food safety, welfare and animal health Enhance industry sustainability

Effect of end point temperature on pork loin tenderness

Cooking As temperature increases, tenderness decreases (but flavour increases) Best efforts to improve meat quality through the chain are still seen even if cooking quality is poor

Bulk milk tank - controls

Correct temperature control (less than 8°C if daily collection; less than 6°C if collected less regularly, e.g. every other day)

HAACP · 5. Establishing corrective actions when monitoring indicates that a critical control point is not under control

Corrective actions not recorded > Because there is no adequate monitoring. > Afraid to put down mistakes, errors etc. (liability) > Acknowledgment that mistakes do occur (human nature) e.g. spill the guts on the line etc.

Quantitative investigation - surverys

Counting and characterising the animals in a group (e.g. age, sex, milk yield, conformation, presence of disease signs). Population sample (usually) or total population (e.g. tuberculin testing). > A cross-sectional survey records events occurring at a particular point in time. > A longitudinal survey records events over a period of time. - Prospectively from the present into the future (better, more control), or may be a retrospective record of past events.

Products from honeybees

Coveted for hive products Honey, wax, pollen, propolis > Propolis - resinous mixture that honeybees produce by mixing saliva and beeswax with exudate gathered from tree buds, sap flows, or other botanical sources o Royal jelly

Control points for cow health and cleanliness

Cow health: > Zoonotic diseases > Environmental stress and immunosuppression. > Exclusion of cows with mastitis (check foremilk). > Monitor/ isolate new stock after purchase (e.g. Lepto, TB). > Uterine disease, brucellosis Cow cleanliness: environmental conditions (yard and cubicle hygiene), fly control, udder contamination.

Carcase sampling: criteria

Critical limits set by species: > Differ according to the sampling method used. > Key words - unacceptable, acceptable, marginal TVC (Total Viable Count) log cfu/cm2: - Acceptable: <3.5 log (e.g. cattle) (m = lower acceptable limit) - Marginal (>m but <M): 3.5 - 5 (e.g. cattle) - Unacceptable (>M): >5 (e.g. cattle). Enterobacteriaceae log cfu/cm2 - Acceptable: <1.5; m=1.5; M=2.5 Salmonella: - Acceptable: absence of any Salmonella - Unacceptable: presence of Salmonella on 3 or more carcasses per 50 tested. > e.g. absence in 25g pooled neck flap tissue from poultry carcases. Examples shown are for excision > Swab method criteria are 20% lower

FSA activities related to Hepatitis E

Critical reviews on: i) approaches for assessing the infectivity of hepatitis E virus and ii) the effects of heat, pH and water activity on the survival of hepatitis A and E viruses Increasing number of cases of Hepatitis E from food, specifically pork HEV is the most frequent cause of enterically transmitted hepatitis > Poor sanitation (developing countries) > Foodborne exposure The risk from acquiring hepatitis E virus (HEV) from eating thoroughly cooked pork or pork products is low. Most people will clear the virus without any symptoms. > Some people who have suppressed immune systems may find the infection hard to fight which in turn can cause chronic inflammation of the liver. Further work: > Developing methods to assess the infectivity of the virus in pork (incl. products) > Determining the risk profile of imported pork > Developing databases for tracing viruses > Exploring new effective treatments and innovative technologies for the mitigation > 'Dose - response' via food consumption and whether it is dependent on the type of virus

Gelatine process

Crushing of raw materials Degreasing raw materials (bones and hides) Acidification (several days) Alkalisation (several weeks) Extraction Filtering, concentration, sterilisation (140°C), drying.

Food-borne zoonoses: parasites

Cryptosporidia Giardia Toxoplasma Taenia Trichinella Anisakis Diphyllobothrium

UK/FSA - role in food safety

Current campaign on Campylobacter

Bunging

Cut made around rectum to free from carcase Tied off to prevent spillage of faecal material onto carcase Hygienic procedure to prevent cross contamination

Risk-based inspection as a cost-effective strategy to reduce human exposure to cysticerci of Taenia saginata in low-prevalence settings.

Cysticercus bovis is the larval stage of the adult tapeworm Taenia saginata Cattle infected through feed or water contaminated with human faeces Humans infected through viable cysticerci in under-cooked or raw beef Europe: prevalence estimates range from 0.01% to 6.2% (low) Current meat inspection technique has low sensitivity: 10% - 50%: i.e. out of 10 infected animals between 1 and 5 will be detected Risk factors for infection: > Farm close to potential source of human faecal contamination > Farm uses manure from animals other than cattle > Animals that had been on a farm which appeared in the movement history of an infected animal were 4x higher odds of being infected > Females and males older than 20 months had 3x higher odds of disease than young males A risk-based inspection regime using readily available data in the UK such as the movement history, age and sex of cattle slaughtered could improve the sensitivity of meat inspection while at the same time save money. > A more sensitive meat inspection method (more incisions) could be used on high-risk animals. > Targeting of high-risk animals would lead to fewer necessary meat inspections and less handling and degrading of tissues in the beef carcass (contamination, economic loss). > Targeted inspection on animals from high-risk farms should be accompanied by inspection of high-risk animals from low-risk farms to ensure newly infected farms are identified by the system

UK animal disease risk assessments

DEFRA risk assessments regarding important notifiable and emerging risk diseases . Veterinarians play crucial role in these assessments.

Septicaemia in poultry

Dark soft dehydrated carcase Generalised condition may be accompanied with petechial haemorrhage in red offal and muscle Incidence of condition > Good indicator of overall health of flock Unfit for human consumption

Primary cutaneous listeriosis in a veterinarian

Dead calving, bare hands Widespread pustular rash Both arms Mild systemic illness Listeria monocytogenes Potential risk to livestock

Prescribing under the cascade for food-producing species

Decision tree still applies but; > Only products authorised for use in food-producing species may be used (cascade i and ii) or, if unavailable: > Substances with an entry in Table 1 of allowed substances (EU Regulation 37/2010) (cascade iii) > Substances listed in Table 2 can never be used (e.g. chloramphenicol, dapsone, metronidazole) EU Regulation 37/2010 is published by the European Commission

· ABP: Category 2

Definition: > Fallen stock: Whole bodies of pigs or poultry. > Material rejected at meat inspection as hazardous (communicable) to human or animal health (inc. visible contamination) > Products of animals containing veterinary residues. > Digestive tract content Staining / labelling: > MM BLACK or Brilliant Black E151 > Labelled: Category 2 - Not for animal consumption Disposal: > Incineration > Rendering, followed by incineration, land-fill, biogas, fertiliser > Majority of material disposed as category 1

ABP: Category 3

Definition: > Parts of animals that were fit for human consumption but for which there is no human market. > Hides, skins, hooves, horns, pig bristles, feathers from slaughtered animals that passed AMI and PMI > Blood (different from blood decided to be used for human consumption) Staining / labelling: > Not stained. > Labelled: Category 3 - not for human consumption Disposal: > Incinerated > Rendered then incinerated or buried at land-fill > Processed to pet food > Processed to other derivatives (fertilisers, oils, proteins). - tallow markets such oleochemicals, whereby fats are split into components which can be used in soaps, cosmetics and pharmaceuticals > Mammalian protein may not be used in farm animal feeds. > No protein may be fed to the species of origin (except fur animals). Some components that were traditionally ABP have now been 'upgraded' at the slaughterhouse to edible co-products or offals which have human food markets outside of the UK/EU. > Some examples include animal organs such as ear, snout, trotters, penis, which could be a food or an ABP. > Food and ABP legislation both recognise that the ONE WAY STREET principle applies, so Food can become ABP, but ABP cannot become Food.

Department for Environment, Food & Rural Affairs (DEFRA)

Defra is the UK Central Competent Authority (CCA) for animal health, welfare and international trade with a number of Agencies

Factors affecting meat spoilage - chemical composition

Depends on microorganisms e.g., some needs group Vitamin B (lactobacilli multiply well in meat because > Vit B).

Meat and bone meal (MBM)

Derived from processing of C1 or C2 ABP only

Processed animal protein (PAP)

Derived protein made from C3 ABP Only

Contact zoonotic infection - skin

Dermatophytes, Mycobacterium spp, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, MRSA. Ectoparasites

Qualitative risk assessment

Describes evaluated risk in words Justified where data, time, resources limited Must be objective (based on fact / unbiased) May precede quantitative Risk Assessment

Lairage design

Design of pens, races, floors, watering equipment (troughs) etc. required to be designed not to cause any injury, capable to be used and cleansed and disinfected effectively. Curved rather than straight approach Adequate Lights Must not be able to escape No sharp edges, corners, protrusions Slightly gradient encourages movement What is the point of having water/ feed troughs with water feed if animals are too small to reach them

Slaughterhouse structure (including lairage) and the procedures within

Design, Construction, layout, facilities etc. are required to facilitate hygienic slaughter. > For example, this is a commercial decision and really depends on the slaughterhouse, layout etc. > A number of hygienic stations (handwash basins, sterilisers, apron washing) should be readily available for operatives to carry out hygienic work/ operations Once the adequate structure (and equipment) is in place then FBO's practices and procedures are also IMPORTANT - IT MEANS THE MANAGEMENT IS REQUIRED TO TRAIN EMPLOYEES / STAFF to use the available hygiene stations > In reality Staff should do so because the training with no practical application is useless

Wild-caught imported animals - legally and illegally imported

Destinations: Research labs, (zoos). Viral zoonoses: > Herpes B (Cercopithecine herpesvirus 1) > Hepatitis A, B. > SIV, SRV-D > Ebola-Reston Bacteria: > Leptospira, Salmonella, Shigella, Mycobacteria. Parasites: > Entamoeba, Toxoplasma, helminths, ectoparasites, dermatophytes.

Water Resource Management: Dams and Disease

Development projects resulting in major schistosomiasis: > Dams block the migration of snail-eating river prawns > Aswan Dam, Egypt > Senegal River Dam Emergence of major epidemic of Japanese B encephalitis in Sri Lanka: > irrigation projects > pigs act as reservoir

Bacillus licheniformis

Diarrhoea/abdominal pain 2-14h incubation period Sources as for B. subtilis

HAACP 6. Establishing procedures, which shall be carried out regularly, to verify that the measures outlined in subparagraphs (a) to (e) are working effectively;

Difference between validation, verification, review > Lack of understanding of this terminology: > Validate - accurate > Verification - fit for purpose and works > Review - rewriting, making changes Either not done or not documented > Microbiological testing is a part of verification procedures

Animal identification

Different and complex for each species Traceability of animals > From birth to death > Entering the food chain Prevent spread of animal diseases > Underpins control programmes Subsidy control/ Welfare in transport

Valuing insect pollination

Different crops are not equally dependent on honeybee/ insect pollination Almond crops are 100% dependent on honeybee pollination Grapes are more dependent on other insect pollination 87/125 crops used for human consumption require insect pollination (FAO data) The total economic value of animal pollination worldwide: $232-577 billion pa Insect pollination is very valuable

Measuring carcase composition in ruminants

Different measurement of fat c.f. pigs In ruminants, more abdominal and intermuscular fat, rather than subcutaneous fat Furthermore, as skin is removed during dressing, subcutaneous fat is disrupted inconsistently so can't be measured reliably Use visual scales for sheep and cattle EUROP - conformation class: E is most rounded, P is more concave > E is excellent, U is Very Good, R is Good, O is Fair and P is Poor. 1-5, with some classes (3 and 4) divided into low (L) and high (H), with 5 being the most fat Should be R3L or better Key - selecting best lambs for slaughter Knowing where to feel for fat depth in live animal

Journey Times

Different requirements depending on distance and length of journey e.g. less than 65km (40 miles), greater than 65km and less than 8hrs, greater than 65Km and greater than 8hrs For farm livestock destined for slaughter in the country of origin, the milestone point of travel is eight hours in one go. Journeys for animals which take longer than eight hours are permitted but are subject to strict rules covering feeding intervals, watering intervals and rest periods

Corynebacterium ulcerans

Diphtheritic laryngitis in humans. Toxigenic strains found in cats, cattle, otters

Fish-borne parasites associated with human illness - cestodes

Diphyllobothrium latum > Fish tapeworm > Largest tapeworm found in humans > Complex life cycle > Infestation results from eating raw/undercooked freshwater fish containing larvae > Adult form can grow in small intestine > Adult can reach 10m in length > Most cases in Europe - Scandinavia, western Russia, Baltics (also in Asia) Some related species

Zoonotic Pox Viruses in Humans

Direct contact Fomite Symptoms > Small, red, raised, flat-topped spots > Sores become firm nodules > Heals without scars

Ringworm in Humans

Direct contact Fomite - persists in environment Symptoms > Take 1-2 weeks to appear > Itchy > "Ringworm" lesion

Avian influenza in humans

Direct infection of humans by avian virus is rare: Transfer of H5N1 infection to humans is rare: > Requires close contact > Transmissibility may change through co-infections with recombination or via direct mutation At risk in UK: > Poultry keepers > Vets, govt. officials responding to HPAI outbreaks > Wild bird / waterfowl rescue and rehabilitation workers Prevention & control of disease in humans: > Vaccination: - Small stocks of H5N1 vaccine available for key workers - Govt contracts for rapid upregulation of manufacture of appropriate H5N1 vaccine strain - Value of prevailing endemic strain vaccines Chemotherapy: amantadine (M2), oseltamivir (N) Exposure control (inhalation and mucous membranes): > Dust particle control > Respirators > Eye protection > Barrier clothing

Rabbits/rodents - risks

Direct/indirect contact with wild rodents through bedding, location etc. Physical injuries: > Bites, scratches, kicks (rabbits) Aerosolised infections: > Bordetella bronchiseptica - a rare zoonosis > Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV -mice) > Encephalitozoon cuniculi Contact infections: > Faecal: E coli 0157, Salmonella, Yersinia, Brachyspira, Clostridium difficile (guinea-pigs, hamsters, gerbils) > Urine: Leptospira spp. > Skin: Mites (e.g. Cheyletiella, Trixacarus), ringworm

WHO, Geneva

Directing and coordinating authority for health within the United Nations system. It is responsible for providing leadership on global health matters, shaping the health research agenda, setting norms and standards, articulating evidence-based policy options, providing technical support to countries and monitoring and assessing health trends. In the 21st century, health is a shared responsibility, involving equitable access to essential care and collective defence against transnational threats.

Waste from veterinary practice

Directly hazardous to handlers and environment: > Sharps. > Infectious material. > Active unused pharmaceuticals. Indirectly hazardous to handlers and environment: > Attraction of vermin and scavenging > Proliferation of pathogens > Non-biodegradable materials Governed by The Environmental Protection Act 1990 through the: > Controlled Waste Regulations 1992 > Special Waste Regulations 1996

Washing of eggs

Dirty and damaged eggs may be permitted for processing as non-grade A eggs. Washing and disinfection can improve the keeping qualities of the egg but can enhance spoilage if not carried out in a controlled way: > Wash water temperature should be >10C greater than that of the egg in order to prevent water movement into the egg. > Eggs visibly soiled with faeces tend to have a higher spoilage rate than those that appear clean. > Wetting of the egg increases spoilage so all washed eggs should be dried as quickly as possible. > Damage to the cuticle should be avoided to minimise microbial penetration. > Frequent changing of wash water and use of sanitising agents are necessary to prevent build-up of microorganisms. > Wash water containing iron will increase the spoilage rate since it will neutralise the inhibitory effect of ovotransferrin in the albumen. Some of the above problems can be minimised by cleaning eggs using a spray wash system rather than an immersion system. Note that washing of eggs classified as Grade A (i.e. typical retail eggs) is not permitted. Washed eggs (Grades B - soiled, and C - soiled and or damaged but with intact shell membranes) must go for further processing only.

Contact zoonosis: Urinary bacteria - Leptospira canicola / L. icterohaemorrhagiae (Weil's)

Disease in dogs: > Interstitial nephritis of dogs with prolonged shedding in urine. > L. icterohaemorrhagiae much more severe. > Infection of dogs by direct / indirect contact with rat urine. > Survival of organism in water. Human disease: > 92 indigenous human cases of Lepto spp in UK in 2015 (L. ictero = 3). > Infection via mucous membranes / abrasions. > Aseptic meningitis in humans (rare): - Contact with dog urine - Contaminated food / water Diagnosis: serology, antigen detection in urine / tissues. Treatment and control: > Vaccination (L. ictero and L. canicola) may not prevent shedding in dogs > Human treatment: penicillin.

Symptoms of hydrocarbon poisoning in pigs

Disease in post-weaning groups - diarrhoea, weight loss, lethargy, inappetence and mortality No response to antimicrobials Hepatomegaly with marked haemorrhagic stippling and increased friability Ascites and oedema Pigs appear attracted to sources - rooting

Roles of vets in animal health management

Disease monitoring and surveillance: > Serology / bacteriology > Clinical Disease investigations Disease prevention > General management and environmental stress > Nutrition > Vaccination > Biosecurity

Role of Health Protection Teams

Disease notifications - risk assessment Surveillance Outbreak detection and investigation Incident management Advise on chemical, radiological, environmental hazards Longer-term preventive activities Work with partners, e.g. APHA, NHS

Human Psittacosis

Disease: > Fever, headache, malaise > Dry cough, atypical pneumonia Epidemiology: > 32 cases in 2014 in UK > No data available for 2017 > Demography: >45 yrs age > Pets, aviaries, pigeons > Duck abattoirs (1980's) > No specific serological testing means reported cases could have been caused by Chlamydia species other than C. psittaci Control and prevention: > Food safety: - Screening of poultry pre-slaughter - Ventilation and infection control at abattoir > Treatment with doxycycline > Reducing exposure through import regulations > Education of pet-owners: risk-based advice, contamination control

Mycobacteria

Dogs and cats susceptible to M. bovis and M. tuberculosis

Inspection of heads - horse

Domestic solipeds > Visual inspection of head after freeing tongue and throat > Palpation and (if necessary) incision of submaxillary, retropharyngeal and parotid lymph nodes In some cases, splitting of head may be necessary for full examination > Suspicion of glanders in solipeds

Strongyloides stercoralis

Don't walk bare foot in some parts of the world Present in South Europe and global Enteritis in dogs, humans, primates. Humans: may be asymptomatic, itchy legs, cough Diagnosis: faecal exam, ELISA for Ab. Treatment: anti-parasitics

HSA - research

Dorothy Sidley Memorial Scholarships (for students) Research Training (PhD) Scholarships HSA General Research Grants. In-house research: Head restraint survey 1992. Collaboration: e.g. Market Survey, with RVC

WATOK - Regulation will not apply in following areas

During scientific experiments. During hunting or recreational activities. During cultural or sporting events. To poultry, rabbits and hares slaughtered outside of a slaughterhouse by their owner for his/her own consumption.

Chilled raw meat in MAP (Modified Atmosphere Packaging)

E.g. Beef packaged in 80% O2, 20% CO2 Type of flora depends on gas composition: > High levels of oxygen (nice red colour) gives an aerobic putrefaction (Pseudomonas spp). > Addition of CO2 slows down aerobic putrefaction but still permits spoilage due to lactate fermenters.

Raw meat fermented sausages (RMFS)

E.g. Salami di Varzi (Italy) Added salt, lactic acid bacteria, sugars, nitrite, spices etc. Permeable sausage casings Fermented initially at temp around 15-30 C Produces semidry or dry sausages which are further dehydrated, matured. Salmonella, Staph. aureus - mitigated by salt, fast acidity initially, drying, maturing Clostridium esp. Cl. botulinum - mitigated by nitrites E. coli O157 - mitigated by higher temperature initially, longer drying

European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC)

ECDC (Stockholm- Sweden) was established in 2005. It is an EU agency aimed at strengthening Europe's defenses against infectious diseases. ECDC publishes a variety of reports on issues related to the prevention and control of communicable diseases. Ranging from analyses of current trends in European public health to comprehensive reports from key scientific meetings, they are primarily aimed at experts and public health professionals. However, other interested stakeholders are encouraged to consult the reports as they provide useful background and reference information for decision makers and politicians.

European Food Safety Authority (EFSA)

EFSA (Parma-Italy) is the EU risk assessment body for food and feed safety. It provides independent scientific advice to risk managers. EFSA publishes all its scientific outputs, including its scientific opinions, in the EFSA Journal. It also issues a range of supporting publications and corporate publications. The EFSA Journal is an open-access, online scientific journal that publishes the scientific outputs of the European Food Safety Authority. EFSA's various output types are devoted to the field of risk assessment in relation to food and feed and include nutrition, animal health and welfare, plant health and plant protection.

Legislation related to post-mortem inspection

EU Official Controls Regulations - EU Regulation 854/2004 and 882/2004 have been revoked in EU&UK and replaced by > REGULATION (EU) 2017/625 of 15 March 2017 on official controls and other official activities performed to ensure the application of food and feed law, rules on animal health and welfare, plant health and plant protection products > COMMISSION DELEGATED REGULATION (EU) 2019/624 of 8 February 2019 concerning specific rules for the performance of official controls on the production of meat and for production and relaying areas of live bivalve molluscs in accordance with Regulation (EU) 2017/625 of the European Parliament and of the Council > COMMISSION IMPLEMENTING REGULATION (EU) 2019/627 of 15 March 2019 laying down uniform practical arrangements for the performance of official controls on products of animal origin intended for human consumption in accordance with Regulation (EU) 2017/625 of the European Parliament and of the Council and amending Commission Regulation (EC) No 2074/2005 as regards official controls New EU/UK Official Controls Regulations now provides > Purpose of legislation > Post-mortem Inspection procedures > Decisions to be taken concerning meat (slightly different terminology but the purpose is the same) Regulation (EC) 853/2004 (H2) > Details standards that FBOs are required to provide for OVs/ MHIs to carry out PMI e.g., facilities, structure, system to present carcases/offal for PMI etc.

Regulation of trade - bees and honey

EU approved country Establishment registered by the competent authority of the exporting country Be accompanied by a health certificate Enter the EU through a Border Inspection Post where 'veterinary checks' must be carried out > For honeybees and honey > Post 2020, this may change > We do export some honey Honey must be sold with particular labelling (The Honey (England) Regulations 2015) > Name > Weight > Durability > Countries of origin

Cattle Identification

EU regulation UK legislation (in England) - The Cattle Identification (Amendment) Regulations 2013 WHY? History, BSE, traceability, consumer confidence All cattle must be double tagged within 20 days of birth Except dairy calves - must have at least one tag within 36 hours Both tags must be fitted before animal moves off holding (even if younger than 20 days) Exception for Bison - allowed to be tagged up to 9 months after birth Primary Tags > Since 1st April 1998 only yellow primary tags produced > At least 45mm high, 55mm wide, letters minimum 5mm high Secondary > Metal, plastic button type > Must be in different ear > Lost tags need to replaced ASAP - no later than 28 days

UK Orders

EXAMPLE: The Anthrax Order 1991 Interpretation, Regulations, *Articles, Paragraphs* (and subparagraphs), SCHEDULES...

UK Regulations

EXAMPLE: The Food Safety and Hygiene (England) Regulations 2013 Contents, *Regulations, Paragraphs* (and subparagraphs), SCHEDULES...

UK Acts

EXAMPLES: Food Safety Act 1990, Animal Welfare Act 2006, Animal Health Act 2002, Veterinary Surgeons Act 1966, Health And Safety Act 1974 etc. PARTs, SCHEDULES, *SECTIONS, Subsections*...

Conact zoonoses - Faecal - Cestode parasites

Echinococcus granulosus: > Small tapeworm in gut of dog > Intermediate (HYDATID CYST) in sheep and other animals. E. multilocularis, Taenia multiceps. Dipyllidium caninum, Hymenolepis nana. Humans: > Direct / indirect (flies) oro-faecal contact > Hydatid disease. > Localised to sheep areas (e.g. Powys). > ON RISE e.g. NO DATA for 2017, 16 human cases (2015 and 2014), 14 human cases in 2013 (6 in 2012) Control: > Surgical excision of cysts > Education of owners and worming of dogs. > Disposal of ABP and sheep carcases

Qualitative investigation - natural history of disease

Ecology of diseases Distribution Mode of transmission and maintenance of infectious diseases Field observations - factors directly/indirectly cause disease

Potential effects of agri-terrorism

Economic devastation Human public health concerns > Environmental health, occupational health, food-borne disease and chronic disease concerns > Mental health Potential agents with epizootic potential: > Farm level: - Food borne zoonoses - Anthrax - Newcastle Disease · Foot and Mouth Disease - Classical swine fever - Highly pathogenic avian influenza - African swine fever > Processing: - Food-borne zoonoses, toxins (Staph enterotoxin, trichothecenes, botulinum)

Hedgehog: zoonosis profile

Ectoparasites > Ticks, fleas. Dermatophytes Gut infections: > Cryptosporidium > Salmonella (S. Enteritidis PT11, S. Typhimurium PT41). > Yersinia pseudotuberculosis > Campylobacter spp. > Coxiella burnettii > Chlamydophila psitacci > Mycobacteria Urinary infections: > Leptospira bratislava

Varroa destructor

Ectoparasitic mite on Asian honeybee Arrived in the UK circa 1992 Drinks haemolymph (eat fats); injects viruses; suppresses immune function Difficult to manage Mass colony losses worldwide Symptoms: > Individuals that have died beneath the cappings > Bees have chewed out the dead individuals > Death due to high levels of virus - deformed wing virus - Change in shape of abdomen, deformed wings, impaired

Prevention of bites

Education at clinic: > Heed warnings/ labels on cages of aggression. > Better use of muzzles. Education at home/ children: > Selection and socialisation of puppies > Neutering > Never leave children alone with dog > Advice to children: - Never disturb dog that is sleeping, eating, nursing. - Remain motionless when approached by unfamiliar dog.

Effective contact

Effective contact describes the conditions under which infection is likely to occur. For a particular infection, it depends on the stability of the organism and the routes by which the organism leaves an infected host and enters a susceptible one. Effective contact may be very short (e.g. seasonally transmitted, vector-borne diseases) or potentially of many years' duration (e.g. anthrax spores in soil).

Environmental consequences of waste hazards

Effects on marine/ river populations: > Human faecal pathogens > Die-off of Hong Kong dolphins Eutrophication (blue-green algae) Persistent organic pollutants > High cancer rates in Beluga whales linked to PAH (Polycyclic Aromatic Carbons) levels. Endocrine disrupters: > Dibutylin (boat paint) in sterile molluscs

Biotechnology: Veterinary issues in xenotransplantation

Efficacy: > Research and development: - Welfare of research animal models - GMO issues (transgenics) > Physiological compatibility > Immune rejection - drug efficacy and toxicity. - pathology Safety: > Infection risk analysis > Rejection sequelae Ethical considerations: > Species selection and justification > Production impact on animal welfare

Egg inspection

Egg marketing inspectors (EMIs) are part of APHA and are responsible for enforcing the legislation which covers the production and marketing of eggs up to, but not including, retail and catering level Environmental Health Practitioners/Officers (EHP/EHOs) enforce compliance at retail Differences in Scotland, Northern Ireland

Egg products

Egg products include yolk (mayonnaise), albumen, melange (mixed yolk and albumen), and premium products such as hard-boiled eggs and scrambled eggs. > Scotch eggs, quiches, etc. > Spoilage organisms as for whole eggs Preventive steps for both egg and egg products: > Candling > Wash and disinfect > Pasteurisation > Assess by microbiology or enzyme (α- amylase) activity. > Steps to prevent cross-contamination. HACCP.

Storage of shell eggs

Eggs keep best at about 1°C. Humidity should be low enough to prevent microbial colonisation but not so low as to enhance evaporative losses (Relative Humidity 70-85%). Evaporative losses can be minimised by use of shell sealants such as mineral oil. Regulations require storage to be at less than 20C during collection and transit. Importantly temperatures must be kept stable to maintain shell integrity. Sell-by date-stamp: 21 days post lay.

Egg contamination

Eggs, when freshly laid, are usually sterile internally but the external surface will be contaminated with large numbers of microorganisms arising from the cloaca during laying, feathers, and other environmental surfaces (dirty nests). Structural features of eggs in relation to contamination: > The inorganic calcium carbonate matrix of the shell is penetrated by pores of diameter 9-35µm. - 12,000 gas exchange pores > A glycoprotein cuticle seals the great majority of the pores. - A small number are left uncovered and present a route for entry of micro-organisms. - Damage to the cuticle (abrasion, chemical destruction, ageing) enhances the potential for translocation of pathogens and spoilage organisms. > The shell membranes underlie the shell and encase the albumen. - Two inner shell membranes impede microbial penetration - Albumen possesses antimicrobial properties (ovotransferrin; pH rises to ~9.2 soon (first 24h) after laying) and protects the yolk which is more supportive of bacterial colonisation. >> Lysozyme present >> Iron sequestering >> Viscous albumen hinders bacterial movement But eggs can be stored for substantial times at ambient temperature without spoilage Contamination most likely when > Cuticle physically damaged > Wet (open pores) Spoilage is almost entirely due to bacteria. Fungi may be involved at very high humidity.

Correct stuning tong positions

Either side of head, between eye and ear Difficult in pigs - may slip Compromised (acceptable) positions in pigs: > Directly below ears on both sides - Can slip down neck > Below ear on one side, between eye and ear on other side - Good grip

Listeria - who is susceptible?

Elderly and infants Pregnant women Neonates Impaired immune system (AIDS) Immunosuppressive therapy for malignancy or organ transplant Predisposing illness (alcoholism, diabetes, cirrhosis of the liver)

Electrical stun

Electrical current applied between 'live' water bath electrode and an earthed rail that contacts with the shackle Parameters e.g. frequency, amperage in (EC) Regulation 1099/2009 High frequency electrical current > Cardiac arrest induced between 50Hz and 500Hz > >500Hz results in the majority of birds being stunned only > Remain unconscious for a short period of time > Reduces the incidence of carcase damage Low-frequency electrical current > Majority of birds dying from cardiac arrest > Birds have their necks cut within 15 seconds - Ensures a rapid loss of blood - Kills birds that have only been stunned

History of infectious disease

Emergence relates to social structures and mixing > Paleolithic age - small populations, hunters and gatherers -> difficult for disease to spread and find naïve hosts > Larger population sizes and agriculture in modern day increase risk of transmission Animal domestication > Transmission between humans and domestic animals > Nipah virus - spread from bats to pigs, then to humans > Hendra virus - from bats to horses to humans > Measles - cattle > Rotavirus A - domestic herbivores

Reporting of Injuries, Diseases and Dangerous Occurrences Regulations 2013 (RIDDOR)

Employers are required to notify the Health and Safety Executive of specified illnesses in employees (after confirmation by employee's GP). > It is essential to report any death, work-related disease, major injury or other injury which causes an absence of greater than 3 days. > The aim is to monitor and prevent ill health associated with occupation. Following injuries are reportable: > Death of any person > Specified injuries to workers >Injuries to workers which result in incapacitation for >7 days > Injuries to non-workers which result in them being taken directly to hospital for treatment, or specified injuries to non-workers which occur on hospital premises Most of the significant occupational zoonotic diseases but also allergies, occupational dermatitis and extrinsic alveolitis are included In addition, the employer is required to record the details and nature of any accident. The contents must be regularly reviewed by the employer to determine the need for changes to working practices.

Listeria - animal disease

Encephalitis Abortion Mastitis Conjunctivitis in cattle, sheep Outbreak associated with climatic stress and poor silage Some cases (10%) associated with L. ivanovii

Infections primary to man that can be transmitted through milk:

Enteric infections (Campylobacter, Salmonella, E coli O157), non-diarrhoeal diseases - human TB, diphtheria, streptococcal and staphylococcal infections.

Red meat slaughter - hazards

Enteric pathogens Strict cleanliness and hygiene can reduce contamination Absence of pathogens is not always possible

Zoonotic Diseases Associated with Poultry

Enteric pathogens: > Campylobacter > Salmonella Chlamydiosis Erysipelas Avian Influenza (notifiable)

Bacillus spp. - source of infection

Environment: soil, sediments, dust, vegetation Food: cereal, herbs and spices, dried food, milk/dairy products, meat and meat products Transmitted by contaminated foods subjected to inadequate post-cooking temperature control during cooling and storage

Emerging/ re-emerging issues in water-borne disease

Environmental changes: > Climate change (cooling, floods) > Water resource management (dams) > Eutrophication New technologies and engineering: > Pipe-associated problems > Chemical contaminants Human behaviours: > Breakdown in precautions > Immunosuppression

Rennet

Enzyme - rennin > Coagulates the casein of milk > Forms an insoluble calcium complex 3 methods of harvest > Blumenthal Process > Hydrochloric Acid Process > Keil Process Production > Ground calf stomach is acidified > Agitated slowly for 24 hours or more > The mucin forms a curd on the top > This curd is dried and powdered for use THEN DILUTED Note: Rennet has low proteolytic activity. Combinations of enzymes are used to help e.g. Papain, Ficin, Pancreatin, Pepsin, Synthetic enzymes

Epidemiology of dog rabies

Epidemics may occur on continental scale > Africa/India May just appear as constant endemic disease Control through dog vaccination can be highly effective > Demonstrated clearly in Tanzania (Sarah Cleaveland), Chad (Zinsstag) > Mexican data etc. demonstrate effectiveness of vaccination Culling and ABC (animal birth control) also practiced > Why? Culling likely to be directly associated with increased transmission (greater movement) > Birth control more expensive than vaccination

Epidemiology

Epidemiology is the study of disease in populations and of factors that determine its occurrence, the key word being populations. Veterinary epidemiology involves observing animal populations and making inferences from the observations. Evidence-based veterinary medicine (EBVM) is clinical epidemiology > Using epidemiology to make decisions about an individual patient

Agriculture and Horticulture Development Board (AHDB).

Equip the industry with easy to use, practical know-how, which they can apply straight away to make better decisions and improve their performance. AHDB is a statutory levy board and is funded by farmers, growers and others in the supply chain. Groups: Pork, dairy, beef & lamb, horticulture, cereals & oilseeds, potatoes (NO poultry)

Avian Erysipelas

Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae Disease in birds: > Acute septicaemia, depression, cyanosis, multiple haemorrhages > Many wild and domestic species affected - Fomite transfer from pigs - Vector transfer from flies, mites (D. gallinae) Control of infection: > Environmental hygiene, segregation from pigs > Control of ectoparasites > Protect human health at slaughter and handling

Marine: zoonosis profile

Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae: > Associated with handling wooden fish crates. Salmonella: > 8% of fish tanks may harbour unusual serotypes. Mycobacterium marinum > Cross-reaction with Heaf test > Aquarist's nodule Brucella spp?: > Marine mammals around UK > 5% of polar bears seropositive Consumption of uncooked fish: > Diphyllobothrium latum (freshwater) > Anisakis spp (sea-fish). > Pseudamphistomum spp (fluke in freshwater fish/ otters in SW).

Pubic Health England (PHE)

Established in April 2013 An executive agency, sponsored by the Department of Health Aim: "We exist to protect and improve the nation's health and wellbeing, and reduce health inequalities" "We do this through world-leading science, knowledge and intelligence, advocacy, partnerships and providing specialist public health services". 5,000 staff: scientists, researchers, public health professionals Key priorities: to protect the public's health from: > Infectious diseases > Other public health hazards (chemical, radiological, environmental) Doctors have a statutory duty to report notifiable diseases to PHE Major incident response - new and emerging disease > Scientific and Technical Advisory Cells (STACs) provide advice to local Strategic/Tactical Coordinating Groups

UK insect pollinators

Estimate of UK pollinators is at least 1,500 species (NPS, 2014) Approx. 270 species bees Approx. 285 species of other Aculeates Approx. 60 species of butterflies Over 800 species of macromoths Over 270 species of hoverflies Many species of flies, beetles, etc. Honeybees are important as pollinators and commercially valuable organism (livestock)

Global impact of rabies

Estimated ~59,000 people die of the disease annually (OIE estimates 70,000) > Vast majority of cases are in children <15 years old > Far more animals than this Once clinically affected, ~all people die Majority of cases occur in developing world > esp. Africa and India sub-continent > Half global population lives at risk due to endemic dog rabies More or less entirely preventable by dog vaccination Many regions where sustained dog to dog transmission has been eliminated by vaccination

· Bat rabies - lyssaviruses

European bat lyssaviruses (EBL1 and EBL2): > Active surveillance identified EBL 2 in UK bats (Daubenton's); 2% prevalence. >3 human deaths in EU since 1977: > One death in Scotland (EBLV2) Strict caution in handling bats: > Refer to specialists > Training, protective clothing and vaccination > Contact Natural England and Bat Conservation Trust (http://www.bats.org.uk/ ) > Advice clients that licences (DEFRA) are required before disturbing a bat colony.

Evans' postulates

Evans (1976) has produced a set of postulates that are consistent with modern concepts of causation: Unlike Koch, acknowledges that: > Some diseases are multi-causal e.g. respiratory disease in calves > One pathogen does not necessary cause the same disease in all animals - depends on underlying health, management > Immunity can develop An important characteristic of Evans' postulates is that they require the association between an hypothesized causal factor and the disease in question to be statistically significant. This involves comparing groups of animals, rather than investigating associations in the individual. However, demonstration of a statistically significant association, however, does not prove that a factor is causal.

Who is responsible for VPH and environmental contamination?

Everyone who deals with animal by-products (ABP)/ clinical waste/ medicines etc.: with very complex division of responsibilities Defra: Central Competent Authority for ABP legislation and policy for animals, environment > ABP responsibilities are clarified for those who generate ABP, transport, collect, process and use as well as for the official controllers. > Approval and/or registration of ABP premises is mainly carried out by APHA officials whilst the actual enforcement is carried out on behalf of Defra by FSA officials (in establishments approved by FSA) and/ or Local Authorities in other places . Collaboratively (on bioterrorism and disaster planning) -many government departments

Jaundice in poultry

Excess levels of bilirubin tinges body tissues yellow This occurs less frequently in avians than in mammals > Bilirubin only forms 6% of bile in birds Usually accompanied by liver disease > Cholangiohepatitis > Hepatitis > Cirrhosis Can be: > Post-hepatic (obstructive) > Hepatic > Pre-hepatic

Categories of Response to notifiable diseases

Exotic (Freedom): vigilance, keep out, prevent & eliminate/ "stamp out" (FMD&SVD, AI, CSF&ASF, Rabies, EIA, AHS, EVEs). > "Insurance premium" (expensive but a necessary price to pay for freedom from disease) Endemic (Prevalence level): control, contain & mitigate (vaccinate), reduce incidence or eradicate over longer timescale (TB, BT, Salmonella national control programme (NCP), (historical Brucella, Aujeskzy's)). > Pump-priming resources. New or dormant & re-emerging (incidence): scanning surveillance, report & destroy (BSE, Anthrax), or monitor new incidence (Porcine epidemic diarrhoea, PED) Promote Industry self-responsibility & regulation (AHWG) > Health Schemes; subsidise research & diagnostic test (BVD), > Industry Codes of Practice (Horse breeding procedures); data protection & client confidentiality- promoted by statutory report/ tracing management & breeding use restriction (CEM & EVA) conditional upon private treatments

Entry of exotic pathogens

Exotic pathogens may enter during migration. Risks: > Highly pathogenic avian influenza (e.g.H5N1) > West Nile Fever virus Response: > Active surveillance > Contingency plans > Research (e.g. vector competence)

Types of epidemiological study

Experimental study - e.g. clinical trials (allocate animals to treatment group or untreated control group) or intervention studies (altering causal factors, e.g. diet) Observational: > Cross-sectional studies - investigate relationships between disease (or other health-related factors) and hypothesized causal factors in a specified population. > Case-control studies compare a group of diseased animals with a group of healthy animals with respect to exposure to hypothesized causal factors. > Cohort studies, compare a group exposed to factors with a group not exposed to the factors with respect to the development of a disease. - It is then possible to calculate a level of risk of developing the disease in relation to exposure to the hypothesized causal factors.

Benefits of trade

Exports - Good for commodities we have an excess off or where there is a high demand around the world. sell to a wider market > Brings money into UK economy. Imports - Good for commodities we are short on, food security, reduced cost for consumers Non-commercial trade - e.g. pets and horses for sports/competitions

Trichinellosis - animals

Exposure to wildlife (including rats) - controlled housing condition or not? "Controlled housing conditions" means a type of animal husbandry where swine are kept at all times under conditions controlled by the FBO with regard to feeding and housing Foxes indicator animals

Incidence

Expression of the number of new cases that occur in a known population over a period of time. The two essential components of an incidence value are: > the number of new cases; > the period of time over which the new cases occur. Usually expressed in relation to the population at risk. Incidence rate is calculated per week, per year, and so on.

Hepatitis A Virus

Extended incubation period of about 4 weeks (range 2 to 6) Serious debilitating disease with fever, headache, nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, abdominal pain and jaundice Self-limiting and rarely causes death but patients may be incapacitated for several months In areas where hepatitis A was common (some parts of Italy), prevalence has been reduced by an immunisation campaign

Inspection of heads - bovines over 6 weeks

External masseters > 2 incisions parallel to mandible > Internal pterygoid incised along one plane > L. Nodes: submaxillary, parotid and retropharyngeal Tongue Visual + Palpation

Latest advice from FAWC

FAWC advice on animal sentience FAWC opinion on the welfare of cattle kept for beef production Evidence and the welfare of farmed animals (Evidence-based decision making) Welfare of animals killed on-farm Sustainable agriculture and farm animal welfare Wellbeing of farmers and farm animal welfare Free farrowing systems CCTV in slaughterhouses Welfare of farmed fish

Conclusions on Traceability

FBO responsible for the external traceability However, if internal traceability is poor the FBO may > restrict markets for his products > cause serious disruptions/loss of credibility in case of withdrawal/recall > not be able to demonstrate due diligence OV can use traceability effectively when performing inspection/auditing task/risk analysis

Emergency slaughter

FBO's (farmers) have a duty under H1-H3 to ensure that animals send for slaughter are healthy and pose no threat to public heath In many cases, animals that are diseased or injured and requiring emergency slaughter on welfare grounds will not be eligible for human consumption The decision factors are: > Animal welfare > Food Safety On-farm slaughter: Note, Regulation (EC) 853/2004 (H2) only permits on-farm slaughter in situations where "... an otherwise healthy animal has suffered an accident that prevented its transport to the slaughterhouse on welfare grounds" > Difficulties: What is an accident? What is an emergency? The options: > Emergency slaughter on farm, with transport of the body to a slaughterhouse for processing for human consumption: - Accompanied by a joint farmer's declaration and veterinary certification (ante mortem) > Slaughter and disposal as fallen stock

Responsibilities for traceability

FBOs > Legal (supplied from/to) plus sector specific e.g. beef labelling > Commercial - towards customers and final consumers > Third party accreditation (ISO etc.) Officials > Verify compliance > Policy issues - RA, policy development, legislation > RASFF

Salmonella control - responsibilities on farms

FBOs - farmers > Small farms exempted < 350 birds > Operators sampling and Official samples (additional challenge testing) > Serotyping Success/ Challenges > Industry cooperation > Combining biosecurity with vaccination > Small holdings > Farm assurance schemes > Education > Proportionality

Water in Food Hygiene

FBOs requirements/ responsibilities > Providing potable water in food-producing factories > Required to monitor water through distribution plan - knowing which pipes carry potable and non-potable water > Regularly sampling for microbiological and chemical testing (Regulation 852/2004) > Know how wastewater is disposed of and distributed > Part of Pre-requisites/HACCP/GHP Recycling - What/How/Why? > Water can be reused in 'dirty places', e.g. cleaning floors in abattoir > But if it is not potable, it CANNOT come into contact with food > Wastewater can be treated to become potable, but this is expensive and often not achievable OV and other controllers > Auditing under EU/ UK Official Controls Regulations A route for primary contamination along the food-chain: > Production of food animals (contaminated drinking water - outdoor pigs). > Slaughter and primary processing (washing of floors and equipment, scald tank sterilisers, drinkers in lairage). > Further processing and distribution: meat products, cleaning etc

General problems with implementation of procedures based on HACCP principles

FBOs responsible for HAACP development and implementation - but lack of training Product not clearly defined e.g. ready-to-eat or not ready- to- eat. Important to know what you are dealing with - hazards and risks may be different Bad process flow diagram e.g. not updated Too simple (incomplete) e.g. not distinguishing GHP and HACCP Too complicated (not understandable), a lot of useless documents

Ante mortem inspection of poultry

FCI - The most important > Indication of the condition of the flock/ lorry on arrival > Condition of the birds on the outside of the modules Opening crates/drawers not recommended > Counterproductive in terms of bird welfare

Who is the Component Authority for feed in the UK?

FSA Day-to-day enforcement is delegated to Local Authorities.

Plants and food safety

FSA is interested in certain plant poisoning cases. Plants of particular interest include bracken due to the toxin ptaquiloside and those with pyrrolizidine alkaloids. > Both chemical toxins are potentially carcinogenic. Ragwort > Pas can cause hepatotoxicity and pulmonary toxicity and some Pas are carcinogens. > Increased long-term cancer risk may arise from exposure in food (e.g. honey). > The risk from milk and meat is undetermined (due to lack of data) but likely to be low. > Animal health and welfare concerns.

Official Controls for Food- Division of Responsibilities

FSA responsibilities > Food and Feed safety legislation: hygiene, contaminants, additives, labelling & composition in relation to food safety/allergy, genetically modified food, imports, food contact materials Defra responsibilities > Animal health and welfare, beef labelling, organics, non-food safety related labelling, animal product imports, pesticide/ veterinary drug residues, exports Labelling for nutrition is the responsibility of Department of Health in England, but of the Welsh Government in Wales and the FSA in Northern Ireland. Food law enforcement is the responsibility of FSA and local authorities throughout UK. Food Standards Scotland has all the above responsibilities in Scotland

Salmonellosis

Faecal. Up to 18% and 36% prevalence subclinical carriage in cats and dogs (resp.). Pets implicated in 3% of outbreaks. 8,798 total human cases in 2012. 79 human cases in US linked to dry dog food in 2010. Risk factors for shedding (faeces and saliva): Greyhounds, puppies, hospitalisation/kennels, <6 wks after gastroenteritis Control: > Prevent canine infection (housing, diet, exercise). > Prevent human exposure (hygiene, hand washing).

Red meat slaughter - Primary sources of contamination

Faeces Hide and fleece contact Aerosols and sprays Contaminated hands or equipment Spilling of body fluids

Important exceptions: Animal by-product legislation

Fallen stock (Cat 2) can be fed to zoo animals, hounds (subject to SRM being removed). Pet animals (Cat 1) can be buried at home. Animals killed in OIE programs (e.g. FMD) are exempt and may be incinerated on site / burial.

Role of FAWC in animal welfare

Farm Animal Welfare Committee (FAWC) provides advice and influences the UK legislation on all aspects of animal welfare; farms, market, transit, place of killing and on any other aspects considered necessary to improve standards of animal welfare "All farm animals should have a life worth living, from their point of view, and that an increasing proportion should have a good life". The FAWC identifies the FIVE FREEDOMS: > Freedom from hunger and thirst; discomfort; pain, injury and disease; fear and distress > Freedom to express normal behaviour

Erysipelas

Farm Animals World wide, especially pigs (sheep, birds, fish) Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae Bacterial disease of pigs: > Diamond skin disease (subacute) - Thrombotic vasculitis > Septicaemia (peracute) - Diffuse erythema, petechiation > Chronic endocarditis, arthritis Acute septicaemia in turkeys Arthritis in sheep Responds well to penicillin Vaccination of pigs and lambs

Definition of farmed game

Farmed ratites and farmed land mammals

Role of farmers in food safety

Farmers are primary food producers under REGULATION (EC) No 852/2004, on the hygiene of foodstuffs (ANNEX I). The primary responsibility lies with farmers and food producers

Effect of fatness on eating quality

Fat could: > Substitute for muscle - dilution with softer tissue > Weaken structural integrity of muscle > Lubricate during chewing > Influence flavour Factors confounded with carcase fatness > Breed > Sex > Age at slaughter > Weight at slaughter > Nutrient supply > Growth rate > Carcase chill rate (external fat acts as an insulator) Increasing P2 fat depth in pork loin up to 8mm increases tenderness and juciness > Above 8-9mm fat depth, very little difference in tenderness or juiciness > Higher levels - individual variation due to lower numbers sampled

Definition of butter oil/ anhydrous milk fat

Fatty products derived exclusively from milk by means of processes which result in almost total removal of water and non-fat solids.

2001 FMD outbreak

Feb till October: 2000 cases 10 million cattle& sheep slaughtered Estimated £8 billion cost (could have been worse if got into national pig herd (East of England free)

Salmonella - Human enteric disease

Febrile gastroenteritis,1-2d incubation, of 3-5d duration. Infectious dose varies from a few to 100,000 CFU/g (growth in food not always necessary) Occasional severe forms: > Rare entero-invasive forms with septicaemia (S. Virchow, S. Java) > Reactive arthritis > Multidrug resistant strains have increased mortality Reporting of illness: > Food poisoning is notifiable under public health law Outbreaks in humans: > Contaminated food batches > Person-person spread

European Veterinary Associations

Federation of Veterinarians in Europe (FVE) Divided in the following Sections. > EASVO: State Veterinary Officers > EVERI: European Veterinarians in Education Research and Industry > UEVH: Hygienists and Public Health Veterinarians > EUEVP: Practising Veterinarians

What is not food?

Feed Live animals unless prepared for placing on the market for human consumption Plants prior to harvesting Medicinal products Cosmetics Tobacco and tobacco products

Bioterror targets in the food chain: historical examples

Feed manufacture: (Wisconsin 1996) > Wilful fungicide contamination of poultry feed. > Product withdrawn from 500 farms Processing: (Chicago Salmonella 1985 and Japan Staph 2000) > Salmonella introduced to milk post-pasteurisation - 200,000 sick, 20 deaths, 2% reactive arthritis. > Staphylococcus pasteurised milk contaminated with during power-cut. - 15,000 cases with 1 death. Catering: (Oregon 1984): > Religious sect (Bhagwan) contaminated 10 salad bars with Salmonella. > 751 cases

Roles in the food chain

Feed manufacturers, farmers and food operators have the primary responsibility for food safety Competent authorities monitor and enforce The central management (e.g. the Commission) evaluates the competent authorities' ability - audits and inspections Consumers - storage/ handling/ cooking Everyone along the food chain to take appropriate actions to avoid the introduction of hazards

Feline TB

Feline TB is classically caused by M. bovis or M. microti Direct transmission from animals to humans is considered rare/negligible Clinical signs of systemic infection > Discharging lymph nodes and pulmonary signs (potentially breathing out bacilli - risk from 8 hours of continuous contact) > Some also presented with non-healing or infected wounds accompanied with discharge (recent history of bites) Whilst majority of feline TB cases present with cutaneous lesions (bite wounds), consistent pulmonary pathology is unusual - seen by radiography and sometimes with clinical signs > Generalised infection may have been aided by ingestion of M. bovis through constant licking of discharging infected wounds in some cases > Alternatively, a novel infection route may be present whereby heavy environmental contamination from wildlife infected the pulmonary system directly In the UK, it is recommended that cats diagnosed with TB should not be treated, but rather be euthanised to eradicate the source

Preventing spoilage - fermentation

Fermenting - pH based methods (salami, sharks in Iceland, etc) Hákarl - national dish of Iceland consisting of a Greenland shark or other sleeper shark which has been cured with a particular fermentation process and hung to dry for four to five months Salami is another name of 'fermented sausage'. > Fermentation is a process in which meats can be cured with salt and stored in 20~45°C for a few months. > Lactic acid made by those bacteria contributes to salami's distinguishable flavour.

Dead on arrival (DOA)

Finding dead birds in crates Causes: > Environmental: heat, exhaustion, panic. > Disease: HPAI, NCD Investigations: > Review FCI and health certificate > Necropsy a representative sample > Alert DEFRA/APHA if suspect notifiable disease > Bacteriology, virology, serology and histopathology Actions (depends on your suspicion) > Birds suspected of disease (e.g. Salmonella - NOT HPAI) must be slaughtered at the end of shift to permit full C+D of plant > Total rejection (when justified) > Where heat exhaustion is suspected then birds must be rested and cooled > Priority should be on welfare and Notifiable diseases

Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS)

First described in Nov 2002 in Guangdong Province of China By June 2003: 8349 illnesses reported, 812 died (case fatality 5-10%), global Most cases in China, but significant spread to Hong Kong and Singapore Coronavirus identified in 2003: > Coronaviruses responsible for 25% of all human colds > Widespread in other species: cats, pigs, birds Zoonosis > Same virus present in palm civets > Similar virus in Chinese Horseshoe bat (Rhinolophus spp.) Huge infection pressure for humans in Guangdong civet markets > Civets are widely traded and farmed Control: > Controls on animal sales and markets > Quarantine, screening, droplet borne > WHO co-ordination

Red squirrel parapox virus

First recorded in 1995 in UK. Red squirrel much more susceptible than grey squirrel. Death through secondary effects: > Bacterial infection > Inanition. Potentially zoonotic? > Homology with sheep parapox virus (orf). Most disease where co-existence of red and grey squirrels Grey squirrel sheds virus with subclinical infection. Red squirrel highly susceptible but don't appear to support onward transmission. Accelerating loss of species.

Whole Bird Inspection

First step in Post Mortem inspection > Diseased > Damaged > Poorly bled/unbled > Poorly plucked > Welfare issues Rejected birds -> Category 2 ABP

Control for fish-borne parasites

Fish and fishery products intended to be eaten raw (Regulation (EU) No 1276/2011) > EU requirement - must be subject to a freezing treatment at: >> -20°C for not less than 24 hours or >> -35°C for not less than 15 hours > The freezing must reach all parts of the product > This kills the larvae Neither freezing nor cooking prevents allergic reactions to larvae in fishery products Examination of fillets, etc., for larvae > Usually with candling table - strong light shone through fillet to show up any nematode larvae - Not suitable for all species/all part of the fish > Other methods: UV illumination, ELISA, PCR > Good practice during production and required ELISA under EU legislation

Fit or unfit?

Fit - suitable; of the right qualities New Regs mentioned 'unfit' only once 'not identified any shortcoming that would make the meat unfit for human consumption', If it is unfit is it unsafe? How unsafe? Meat may be normal, but no ante/ post mortem inspection therefore unfit. Lesions/ observations > Indicative? diagnostic? localised? generalised? notifiable disease? > Dangerous - communicable to animals/humans? Salmonella, Campylobacter non-visible

West Nile Virus

Flavivirus occurring in Africa, M. East, Asia, S. Europe Low mortality in birds (humans and horses also susceptible) Mosquito (and tick-borne) Human disease subclinical to encephalitis Index case in NY, USA in 1998 > 270 human deaths (3500 cases) in 2002 (peak of epidemic) Mortality rates higher with US/Israeli virus (variant) > Also causes higher mortality in birds Vaccine produced for horses Amplifying hosts: birds Vectors: Culex sp., Aedes sp., Ochlerotatus sp. Incidental hosts: humans, horses, other animals Source of US outbreak > Migratory birds > Viraemic human traveller (from Israel) > Infected mosquitoes (carried on plane) > (Bioterrorism) Approaches to control > Eradication impossible (widely present in bird population) > Active local surveillance with early control of mosquitoes - Vector control - Water control (where mosquitoes replicate) - Public awareness: >> DEET repellent >> Involve in surveillance >> Avoid going out at dawn and dusk - Treatment - symptomatic - Vaccination of horses Lessons learned > Local disease surveillance and response systems critical: - Better communication needed between public and animal health agencies - Laboratory capability is essential > Important to be aware, open minded, expect the unexpected > Public health preparedness is key Disease not described in humans, birds or animals in UK Migratory birds in UK would be expected to have antibody: > Data unclear at present - Some studies suggests UK birds are infected, but likely cross-reacting serology or laboratory contamination > WNFV or other flavivirus?

Flavour of meat

Flavour comprises taste and odour Meat tastes slightly sweet, salty, metallic The rest is really odour > Roast and boiled > Species > Fatty Odour > Volatile content > Maillard reaction products - Reaction between amino acids and sugars during cooking > Oxidation products > Taints > >1000 compounds identified as involved in flavour One of the many meat flavour compounds is 2-methyl-3-furyl 2-methyl-3-thienyl disulphide > Smells meaty - and very small amounts of this compound needed > Sulphur compounds often have high flavour influence

Beef flavour

Flavour varies and can be controlled Important factors are diet, gender and ageing (oxygen and antioxidant environment) Grass feeding has various benefits for consumers > Image (positive for consumers) > Omega-3 fatty acids > Antioxidants - better shelf life > Preferable taste Optimum combination of diet and processing will produce higher, more reliable beef flavour

Immaturity: Foetal Flesh

Flesh of animals younger than 7 days not permitted for human consumption Historically most likely to be a problem with calves Signs of immaturity include:- > Hooves being soft and yellowish with unworn sole pads > Umbilicus not healed > Flesh is wet, greyish red loose and flabby and easily torn > Fat around the kidney is unformed jelly like and contains small particles of fat Judgement: Rejected as unfit

Identification of Horses

Foals > All foals microchipped as well as passport from 1st July 2009 > Done before the foal is six months old or by 31 December in the year it is born (whichever sooner) > Earlier if want to sell foal without dam Older horses > If horse doesn't have a passport, will need to get it micro-chipped as part of the passport application process Issues > Horse meat scandal > Horses for human consumption or not > Many organisations issue passport > Since February 2015 FCI required

Food Standards Agency

Food Standards Agency is the UK Central Competent Authority (CCA) for food and feed. It is non-ministerial Government Department answerable to Parliament through Department of Health. Food Standards Agency Operations Group (FSA OG). Tasks: approval of meat establishments, ante and post mortem inspection, auditing. Also carrying out dairy hygiene inspections. On behalf of Defra, the implementation of animal health welfare and international trade rules and, on behalf of VMD, residue sample collection.

FAO, Rome

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Achieving food security for all is at the heart of FAO's efforts - to make sure people have regular access to enough high-quality food to lead active, healthy lives. Our three main goals are: the eradication of hunger, food insecurity and malnutrition; the elimination of poverty and the driving forward of economic and social progress for all; and, the sustainable management and utilization of natural resources, including land, water, air, climate and genetic resources for the benefit of present and future generations.

In what regulation is food and feed defined?

Food and feed are defined in REGULATION (EC) No 178/2002, laying down the general principles and requirements of food law, establishing the European Food, Safety Authority and laying down procedures in matters of food safety.

Role of veterinarians in responses to national disasters

Food and water security: > Animal health response implementation - Testing, culling, vaccination. - Production animal welfare > Increased risk of zoonoses if sanitation issues. > Food inspection demands increased. > Liaison, planning, implementation (DEFRA). Evaluation of impact of disaster on humans: > Data from veterinary cases > Animals as sentinels (WNF in USA 1998/9) > Liaison with medical colleagues Pet-owner psychological bonds > Advice on welfare and euthanasia

Zoonotic diseases of farm animals and poultry

Food borne zoonoses: Campylobacter, Salmonella, E. coli O157 Notifiable zoonotic diseases: Anthrax, bTB, Brucellosis, BSE, Avian influenza Other zoonotic diseases: leptospirosis, cryptosporidosis, pox viruses, ringworm, Q fever, enzootic abortion of ewes, toxoplasmosis, erysipelas, Streptococcus suis

Trade with veterinary relevance

Food for human consumption Live animals Animal by-products (not for human consumption) - e.g. pet food Other animal product (e.g. semen, ova/embryos) Veterinary medicines Many others

Listeria - control

Food industry: > HACCP and good hygiene Practices > Use-by dates different from sell by dates > Agreement on acceptable limits (100cfu/g in EU, zero tolerance in USA Consumers: > Adherence to use-by dates > Advice to vulnerable consumers (Pregnant or IS - no pate, soft cheese, reheat left-overs) > Urgent medical advice if flu-like signs when pregnant > Strict hygiene with neonates On farm: Surveillance, good silage

Cheese production

Food produced from the separated curd obtained by coagulating the casein of milk, skimmed milk or milk enriched with cream > Enzymatic > Lactic fermentation > Combination method Curd may be modified by: heat, pressure, ripening ferments, special moulds, seasoning Very hard > Without gas holes, e.g. Cheddar > With gas holes, e.g. Swiss Semi-hard > Ripened by moulds, e.g. Roquefort > Ripened by bacteria, e.g. Brick Soft Cheeses > Ripened by bacteria, e.g. Limburger > Ripened by mould, e.g. Camembert > Unripened, e.g. Cottage Traditional/ industrial Raw material: Pasteurised/ non-pasteurized milk

Microbiological sampling - actions

Food safety criteria > Withdrawal > Recall of products if in retail > Take steps for future production to meet criteria > RASFF > If products not yet at retail, then diversion to an alternative processing step that renders the product safe for humans or animals. Process hygiene criteria > Find out why the criteria have not been met > Take steps to ensure the criteria is met in future > Development of an Abattoir Action Plan documenting improvements in slaughter hygiene > Review of process controls at origin of animals and on-farm biosecurity.

Public health and poisoning

Food safety hazards arise from chemical residues transferred into tissues and milk. > Contamination of animal produce does not occur in all poisoning incidents, but the possibility should always be considered. > Also, it is important to remember that significant accumulation of residues in animal products can be entirely subclinical (e.g. lead). > When poisoning or exposure to chemicals has occurred, relevant food safety authorities (Food Standards Agency and devolved administrations in the UK) should be consulted immediately for risk assessment and advice on potential withdrawal of produce from the food chain. > Precautionary withdrawal periods may be recommended by regulatory authorities or imposed by dairies and supermarkets. > Farmers need to demonstrate due diligence but equally need to know how they will be able to demonstrate freedom from contamination as quickly as possible, especially when produce such as milk is leaving the farm frequently. > The use of unlicensed medicines as antidotes can engender long, even permanent, withdrawal intervals in food animals. > Suspected adverse reactions can have implications for public health and should be reported to Veterinary Medicines Directorate. Environmental toxicants, for example toxic gases in farm buildings can be a direct risk to humans as well as livestock. > Relevant authorities such as the Health and Safety Executive may need to be informed. > Other enforcement bodies, such as Local Authorities, that act on behalf of the Environment Agency or Public Health England, should also be involved if there are implications for public health or the environment. > If malicious poisoning is suspected the police should be contacted.

Environmental catastrophe - VPH Issues

Food security: > Lost food animals > Lost processing infrastructure > Consumer issues Other zoonoses > Water -borne (New Orleans) > Rabies, Leptospirosis > Dog attacks on humans Animal welfare: > Increased transport > Accommodation > Feed

VPH can divided into key areas

Food security: quantity, quality and safety (food borne zoonoses) Zoonoses: prevention, surveillance and control. Animals in society: companion animal, wildlife, and exotic animal issues. Environmental protection: Prevention, monitoring and response to naturally occurring toxins, industrial toxins and agricultural residues. Communication and liaison: Risk analysis and information transfer to health professionals, legislators, industry, and public.

Define food

Food' includes drink, chewing gum and any substance, including water, intentionally incorporated into the food during its manufacture, preparation or treatment. It includes water after the point of compliance as defined in Article 6 of Directive 98/83/EC and without prejudice to the requirements of Directives 80/778/EEC and 98/83/EC.

Hazard/risks of wild game

Food-borne disease transmission to humans > Species: deer (roe, red, fallow, sika), rabbits, brown hare, wild boar. > Processing of wild game: - Gutted as soon as possible - For sale: Hunter's ante-mortem declaration, skinned, dressed, inspected - Private: no official inspection > Hazards: Pathogens: - Bacteria: TB, Campylobacter, Salmonella, Yersinia, Clostridia, Listeria. E coli O157 e.g. rabbits and others >> Highest risks from venison = E. coli and M. bovis - Parasites: Cryptosporidium, Trichinella, Spoilage organisms >Chemicals - Chemical residues: Lead, Mercury, Cadmium in some parts of world - REAL RISK DEPENDS ON THE QUANTITY INGESTED/ CONSUMED Emerging risk: Wildlife act as a reservoir for many pathogens. > Important to monitor and carry out the surveillance > There are no boundaries, borders and passports for wildlife/game and there will never be - this goes without saying. FSA Wild Game Guide and MOC

Good Hygiene Practices (GHP)

Food-chain information (FCI), design & maintenance of premises and equipment, pre/post/operational/personal hygiene, training, pest control, water quality, temperature control and controls of food leaving the establishment and documents.

WHO - role in food safety

Food/feed is global trade commodity and food/feed safety high up on the agenda to minimizing the risks.

Food safety

Foodborne illnesses are amongst the most widespread health problems in the developed world, e.g. Campylobacter Can be caused by chemical or microbiological agents > Halides - respiratory irritants > Lead > Arsenic Aspects: > Chemicals - contaminants, packaging (plastics), additives, preservatives, natural toxicants (plant material) > Nutritional values > Biotechnologies (e.g. GM foods) > Novel foods (labelling introduced - QuornTM) > Nutritional supplements > Food Allergens > Risk analysis

Processed products

Foodstuffs resulting from the processing of unprocessed products These products may contain ingredients that are necessary for their manufacture Processing means any action that substantially alters the initial product, including heating, smoking, curing, maturing, drying, marinating, extraction, extrusion or a combination of those products

Unprocessed products

Foodstuffs that have not undergone processing, and includes products that have been divided, parted, severed, sliced, bones, minced, skinned, ground, cut, cleaned, trimmed, husked, milled, chilled, frozen, deep frozen or thawed Internal cellular structure unchanged

When should you report an adverse event?

For all medicinal products > Authorised use causing an adverse event in the animal (even if already stated in SPC) or human end-user > Cascade use causing an adverse event (off-label VMP, human product, EU VMP, extemporaneous medicines, etc.) > Even if there are complicating factors (co-morbidities) or you are not 100% certain it was caused by the product Microchips > Chip migration > Failure to read > Implantation reaction Report via VMD website

Risk analysis - why is it useful?

For defining national and international regulations: > Environmental standards (air, water, wastes) > Food safety (chemical / biological contaminants) > Animal health: - Incursions of notifiable disease (prevention and control) - Export and imports > Manufacturing (pharmaceuticals, pesticides) Dealing with any (actual/potential) issue or risk?

Current and future on legislations relevant to vet profession

For future UK trade with EU: live animals and animal products the UK will be required to comply with EU legislation To comply means UK having the SAME or EQUIVALENT legislation as EU Vets play crucial role in negotiations, regulatory development and implementation of legislation relevant to trade animals / animal products.

Salmonella - advise on eating eggs

For many years the UK government advice had been to avoid eating raw eggs or uncooked food containing egg. > Vulnerable groups, including the elderly, young, and immunosuppressed should only eat egg that has been thoroughly cooked or is pasteurised. HOWEVER, see the recent change/advice > Because of improved food safety controls in recent years, infants, children, pregnant women and elderly people can now safely eat raw or lightly cooked hen eggs, or foods containing them, that are produced under the British Lion Code of Practice. > But these groups of people should still avoid raw or lightly cooked eggs that are: - not British Lion stamped - not hen eggs (e.g. duck or quail eggs) - from outside the UK > People who have a severely weakened immune system and who are on a medically supervised diet prescribed by health professionals should cook all eggs thoroughly, even eggs that have the Red Lion stamp.

Welfare of Farmed Animals (England) (Amendment) Regulations 2010

Formalised computer-based feedback from slaughter house Food Standards Agency OVs based on agreed "Trigger Points" to: > Farmer > Central APHA Office, Worcester Central APHA requests local VOs to visit based on previous trigger history of a site from FSA Where problems are found, may agree an action plan with the producer (+/- private veterinary surgeon) If sufficiently severe/prolonged, VO can initiate drop in stocking density/ improvement notice/ welfare prosecution

Use of firearms

Free-bullet/shotgun: > licensing requirements > health and safety issues > aesthetics Captive-bolt equipment: > secondary operation required to kill animals > induces prolonged periods of random kicking (brainstem is not harmed).

Freezing treatments for Trichinella

Freezing can kill Trichinella in certain species, (pig meat) but some are resistant and not suitable for other species. 3 recognised freezing methods taking into consideration thickness of meat, time/ temperature combinations. Adequate records to be kept.

Define offal

Fresh meat other than that of the carcase, including viscera and blood.

Define meat preparation

Fresh meat, including meat that has been reduced to fragments, which has had foodstuffs seasonings or additives added to it or which has undergone processes insufficient to modify the internal muscle fibre structure of the meat and thus eliminate the characteristics of fresh meat Examples of meat preparations include seasoned steaks, flash fried products, meat with added marinades, spices, herbs, injected poultry breasts, Burgers, British sausage

Visual Inspection of Pigs

From 1st June 2014, REQUIRED legally to change inspection procedures - from Theory to Practice > Visual Inspection Procedures (VIPs) or > Further Inspection Procedures (FIPs) - indication of possible risk to public/animal health and welfare" - Epidemiological or other data from the holding of provenance (FCI) - Ante/post-mortem inspection findings Traditional post-mortem inspection of pigs involves visual inspection, palpation and incision of lymph nodes

Fermented milk/yogurt

Fruit additives can carry chemical/biological hazards Fermentation > Starter culture > Aim is pH 4.2-4.3 - 1.2-1.4g/100ml of lactic acid > Fermentation time - 4-5 hrs for bio-product - 12-16 hrs for mesophilic product - Fermentation is stopped by chilling, at around 1.0g/100ml lactic acid Acidity > Once over 1.0g/100ml lactic acid - Caseins coagulate - Too much gives a sour taste > Cooling halts fermentation - Fermentation causes heat production > Base is stirred from pH 4.6

Ringworm in Farm Animals

Fungi (dermatophytes): > Microsporum equinum > Trichophyton verrucosum, T. equinum > T. mentagrophytes Disease of all mammals: > Erythema, scaling, desquamation, secondary infections > Immune status dictates severity

Giardia

G. intestinalis (previously, lamblia, duodenalis) Mainly water and also in unprocessed foods, Low infective dose Profuse watery diarrhoea with abdominal pain, flatulence, fever (1-2 weeks or longer), susceptible young, old, immunocompromised. Usually self limiting Under reported in EU, In England higher Destroyed by pasteurisation, less resistant to Chlorine, freezing will also destroy

Immunosuppressed animals

GREATER RISK e.g. decreased response to vaccination, increased shedding of zoonotic pathogen. Primary immunodeficiency > Hereditary: >20 primary deficiencies are described > e.g. SCID in Bassetts, Great Danes, Rottweillers > Some result in massive infection and mortality within first weeks of life whilst some show no overt signs. > Serious deficiencies all manifest within 1 year of age. Secondary immunodeficiency > Age related, physiological, disease related, chemical, radiation associated, etc. Indications/clinical: > Recurrent/ protracted infections, > Fevers of unknown origin, > Opportunistic infections, > Unusually severe signs of a given infectious disease, > Poor response to antimicrobials or vaccines

Uses of gelatine

Gelling, foaming, emulsifying, binding properties Food Technical uses and ABP including feed purposes Photographic gelatine Pharmaceutical industry.

OPOAO legislation and control

General requirements the hygiene of foodstuffs; (H1) 852/2004 Specific requirements: (H2) 853/2004 - examples of some definitions e.g. milk/raw milk, dairy products, gelatine, collagen, honey Always, one way or another, there is a link with other rules and regulations e.g. Regulation 2073/2005 Microbiological criteria and others Food Business Operators (FBOs) (farmers are FBOs too) are primarily responsible for 'safe food' or for 'not placing unsafe food on market' or for 'safe food production'. > They must be either registered or approved for the activities carried out. Official controllers (OCs) are responsible for auditing and inspection of OPOAO establishments. The majority of the OPOAO establishments in the UK are under the responsibility of Local Authority (LA) and Environmental Health Officers/Practitioners (EHOs/P), but not all, e.g. vets supervise the slaughterhouses and the establishments that are co-located to slaughterhouses and cutting plants. > FSA Operation Groups e.g. Dairy Hygiene Inspections (Inspectors) visit dairy farms under hygiene regulations, Defra/APHA > LAs - EHOs responsible for approved premises for stand-alone meat product, cheese, honey, eggs premises In terms of international trade to third world countries, according to the international trade rules, the Official Veterinarians provide certification under RCVS 10 Principles of Certification for the majority of Products of Animal Origin whether or not they originate from the establishments that are under veterinary supervision.

COSHH - hazards to vets:

General: disinfectants Radiography: The Ionizing Radiation Regulations 1999 (IRR1999) - replaced by The Ionizing Radiation Regulation 2017 (IRR2017) in FORCE FROM 2018; Developing agents. > From 1st January 2018 FEW CHANGES: employers to notify HSE annually, estimate dose for public, lowering of dose limit to the eye.. > Goal of REGULATIONS is to reduce radiation exposure of staff, patients and other personnel as far as possible. > Key points: - Maintenance of equipment - Appoint Radiation Protection Advisor. - Local rules (signs, designated areas, supervisor) - Training - Dosimetry > National Radiation Protection Board: - Issues Guidance notes (see RCVS/NRPB websites). - Review of Practice standards in 2003. Anaesthetics: Injectable agents; gaseous agents. Medicines: > Handling, accidental self-injection, safe disposal; > Cytotoxic agents; > Organophosphates; > Reproductive hormones. Laboratory: > Chemicals; > Lab animals; > Pathogens (Advisory Committee on Dangerous Pathogens). Animal associated illness: > Occupational, level of contact, level of immunosuppression; > Zoonotic infection; > Injury (bite, crush, kick, envenomation); > Allergy; > On farm i.e. gases, machinery etc.

Runts - poultry industry term

Generally, well fleshed Significantly smaller than others Can cause problems due to automatic machine settings for: > Stunning > Neck cutting > Evisceration Where there is a high incidence it reflects: > Disease status of the flock > Nutritional management > Egg hygiene at the hatchery Often rejected for human consumption, but not necessarily unfit

Monkeypox

Globalisation Encroachment of humans into rainforest Virus of rodents in rainforests of central Africa Circulates in arboreal squirrels Not associated with infections in non-human primates (despite the name) Human Monkeypox: Zaire (DRC, Africa), 1996-7 > Human cases described - similar to smallpox (almost indistinguishable) > Fever and generalized pustular rash > Virus showed adaptation to humans: - Mortality fell - Human to human transmission increased > Most cases in <20yr olds: - Concern re: cessation of smallpox vaccination in 1980 (lack of immunity may increase transmission of monkeypox?) - Not yet to be the case AND Human Monkeypox in USA 2003 > 'Phil's Pocket Pets', Chicago IL: - Importing infected Gambian Giant Rats - Prairie Dogs and rabbits in shop also infected - 37 human cases reported, including 6 vets > Concern was release of infection to wild rodents

Some of the 'hazards' are not food safety related at all, or they are of little significance in that context.

Good examples are African/ Classical Swine Fever, FMD These are of the animal health significance with impact on food security (quantity). BUT It must also be remembered that these diseases could be transmitted through animal products and/or OPOAO. So, in reality, although there is different specific legislation that deals with animal health diseases, some of the food safety controls (e.g. effective implementation of HACCP principles) also contribute in minimising the risk of transmission of these disease.

Egg grading

Grade A - 'fresh eggs' Grade B - 'second quality or downgraded eggs intended for food industry Grade C - Industrial use

Rhodococcus equi

Gram positive coccoid bacteria found in dry dusty soil where livestock graze Disease in horses > Granulomatous lung infection in foals Disease in humans > Slowly progressive granulomatous pneumonia > Opportunistic in immunocompromised people (HIV)

Listeria monocytogenes

Gram positive non-spore-forming bacterium Sources > 1-10% of humans may be intestinal carriers > Domestic species, birds, fish and some shellfish > Soil and silage Resists freezing, drying and heat Associated with many foods including: > Raw milk, soft cheeses, ice-cream, fermented raw-meat sausages, cooked meat raw meat, smoked fish Grows as low as 3°C > Multiplication in refrigerated food

Bacillus cereus

Gram positive, large rods, facultative aerobe, spore-forming Common inhabitant of soil, water, dust, vegetation, faeces Infective dose high 1,000,000 to 100,000,000 CFU/g food Growth must occur in food CONSEQUENCES - TWO TYPES Diarrhoeal Disease > Caused by large molecular weight protein metabolite (Toxico-infection) - ingesting a large number of bacterial cells > Incubation 6-15 hours > Watery diarrhoea > Abdominal cramps > Nausea (vomiting rarely occurs) > Symptoms persist for 24 hours Emetic Type Disease > Caused by low molecular weight peptide metabolite (Intoxication) > Incubation 30mins to 6hrs > Nausea > Vomiting > Occasionally - Abdominal cramps - Diarrhoea > Toxin very heat and acid stable

Food-borne Brucellosis

Gram-negative facultative intracellular coccobacilli Transmitted to man by food-borne and direct means Environmental persistence > Temp, pH, humidity > Frozen and aborted materials Affects reproductive system of animals > Asymptomatic carriers > Venereal transmission Cattle, sheep/goats, pigs are possible sources UK disease: 5 cases in UK in 2017; 4 cases were B. melitensis. and 1 Unknown Clinical signs: > Undulant fever > Focal granulomatous localisations in body Diagnosis: History of animal contact / travel with consumption of non-pasteurised milk products/Blood culture / serology Treated with doxycycline (45 days) with relapse rate of 10% Geographic hotspots: Middle East, Africa, C. & S. America, SE Asia, Med. basin Shed in milk and placental material

Staphylococcus aureus

Gram-positive cocci Some strains produce highly heat-stable protein enterotoxin > Toxic dose of 1.0μg requires >100,000 CFU/g > Growth needs to occur in food Staphylococcal food poisoning > Staphyloenterotoxicosis > Staphyloenterotoxaemia Onset usually rapid Signs > Nausea > Vomiting > Retching > Abdominal cramping > Prostration Recovery in 2 days

Environment and climate: eutrophication

Growth of Cyanobacterium spp with toxic metabolites: > Occasional deaths in livestock and pets in UK. > Human disease in US. Enteritis/ death. > Enhanced by raised phosphate, nitrogen and temperature of surface waters. > Caused by discharge of human waste water Local Action Plans: Prevention & Treatments (chemicals & oxygenation etc) > Plants which can neutralise effects

Elements of Food Safety Management System (FSMS)

HAACP-based procedures Prerequisites GHP - Good Hygiene Practices GMP - Good Management Practices Regulation (EC) 178/2002 - Procedures for traceability, recall, communication

Other elements of public health controls re: bivalve production

HACCP for all of chain except primary production Hygiene standards for purification and dispatch centres Traceability > Registration document at harvest > Identification mark on packed product End-product standard > Five samples to be taken. One may exceed £230 E. coli per 100g but none may exceed 700 E. coli per 100g > Five samples to be taken. Absence of Salmonella in 25g in all. > In addition to microbiological standards, there are others for biotoxins and other chemical contaminants

Risk Assessment - necessary?

Hazard Exposure is complex Data on hazard and/or health impact(s) are incomplete Issue of significant regulatory / stakeholder concern Mandatory regulatory requirement to do a risk assessment Need to verify that interim response to urgent problem is scientifically justified

Steps in risk assessment

Hazard identification Hazard characterisation - qualitative or quantitative evaluation of the adverse health effects Exposure assessment - qual/quant evaluation of likely exposure Risk characterisation - estimation of the probability of occurrence and severity of health effects

Risk assessment for contact zoonoses

Hazard identification Release assessment e.g. diet/scavenging, recent travel, vaccination status Exposure assessment: Presence of infection in animal, frequency of contact with animal, intensity of contact

PERA rule

Hazards that must be: > Prevented or > Eliminated or > Reduced to > Acceptable levels

Relationship between phases of epilepsy and the importance of quick and effective sticking

Head-only reversible stunning: > Pigs bled at 10s and 15s post-stunning will be brain dead before resumption of breathing > Pigs bled at 20s post-stunning will be dead just at resumption of breathing, but unlikely to be aware > Bleeding a sheep on only one side of the neck could result in them being alive and possibly conscious before they are brain dead (over 1 min) > Sheep full cut or chest stick leads to brain dead before resumption of breathing > Timing and quality of bleeding is important

Occupational health

Health and safety at work is the legal responsibility of both the employer and the employee. Employers must take steps to provide a safe workplace, and education and protection from hazards. Employees must cooperate with employees in issues of health and safety and also take reasonable steps to protect their own, and others', safety.

Resistance of microbes to heat/radiation/UV

Heat - spores (most resistant), moulds/yeast/Gram+, Gram-, viruses (least resistant) Radiation - viruses, spores/yeasts, moulds, Gram+, Gram- UV - viruses, moulds, spores, yeasts/Gram+, Gram-

Control of infections transmitted through milk products:

Heat treatment of milk essential (note local sale of unpasteurised products in England and Wales is allowed). Cream - a higher pasteurisation temperature is required. Cheese: > Contamination may occur during manufacture, curing, storage. > Some cheeses made from raw milk. > Normal acidity in young cheese inhibits growth of microorganisms. > Best sold in pre-pack form to avoid recontamination. Butter: > Stored at low temperatures > Use milk specially selected for low bacterial count. > Clean water for washing of butter granules. > Automatic packing to reduce contamination. Ice cream: > Eggs, gelatine, fruits etc. may be additional sources of contamination and must be of the highest bacteriological standards. > All components should be pasteurised. > Any mix must be held at 4°C until frozen. > Packs should be a size to be consumed soon after purchase. Fermented milk / yoghurt: > Most pathogenic bacteria inhibited by low pH from Lactobacillus. > Pasteurise at min 90°C. > Care over preparation of bacterial cultures. Flavoured milk products - as for milk. Evaporated milk - pasteurised, homogenised and canned. Dried milk: > Spray dried (heat to 85°C) better than roller dried but even then does not destroy all the pathogens. > Store at 3-4°C prior to processing. > Water for reconstitution should be potable.

Sterilisation

Heating it above 135 °C for 2 to 5 seconds.

TB - Cattle to Cattle Control Measures

Herd test, remove reactors, herd restrictions, pre-movement testing, post -movement testing, penalise overdue testing, Approved Finishing units. Problem of calf movements (<6weeks)

Surveillance of bTB in cattle

Herd test; screen adult breeding animals by routine herd test (RHT) - reactor + contiguous herds (grazed/housed in locality of confirmed case); all animals by check test (CT)/whole herd test (WHT) Test frequency intervals; annual (WHT for HRA) or 4 yearly (RHT for LRA), Short Interval Test (60 days) in infected herds Slaughterhouse: visual carcase inspection Test specificity (CIDST) & sensitivity (gamma BT)-Combine use of CST &BT to interpret results in each animal: > in parallel either +ve - detects new infection in herd > in series both +ve - detects low persistent infection. Dynamic variation effect of regional prevalence & herd size "the field effect"; statistical analysis, Positive Predictive Value of a test (measures the likelihood a Reactor is truly infected). Herd immunity effects unrecognised?

Why are eggs expected to support microbial growth?

High available water Protein Other nutrients

Preservation: Newer methods

High pressure (not spores) Heat + ultrasound High voltage pulse techniques (not spores) Heat plus aseptic package Filtration Preservatives (Na nitrite, Ca propionate, Ethylene oxide, Na benzoate)

Salmonella in Reptiles

High prevalence in faeces Unusual serotypes Environment usually contaminated too. 94 human cases in Scotland 1988-2000: > S.orianenburg, S. poona, S. arizonae. Strict hygiene rules. Special concern for immunocompromised.

ABP: Category 1

High risk Definition: > Specified Risk Material (SRM). > Bodies of animals killed in TSE control programs. > A mixture of by-products containing Cat. 1 material Staining / labelling: > SRM must be stained with Patent Blue (v) dye > Labelled: Category 1 - For disposal only. Disposal: > Incineration > Rendering, then incineration or land-fill (not TSE). CATTLE: ABP Cat 1 - Specified Risk Material (SRM) > Must be stained with Patent Blue V E131 > All ages: the tonsils, mesentery, caecum and the last four metres of small intestine, and whole bodies of dead animals > Over 12 months age: add spinal cord and skull excluding mandible but including brain, eyes > Over 30 months age: add vertebral column including dorsal root ganglia but excluding vertebrae of the tail, spinous and transverse process of the cervical, thoracic and lumbar vertebrae median sacral crest and wings of the sacrum. SHEEP AND GOATS: ABP Cat 1 - Specified Risk Material (SRM) > Must be stained with Patent Blue V E131 > Under 12 months: PLEASE NOTE THERE IS NOW NO SRM in 2019 (used to be spleen, ileum, whole bodies of dead animals) > >12 months (or 1 permanent incisor): spinal cord, skull (including brain and eyes but NO HORNS)

Why is FMD an emergency

High risk of spread (widespread & quickly): > Within herds: - Large volume of virus production on infected premises (especially infected pigs) - Short incubation time (infected to infectious) - Low infectious dose of virus > Between herds: - Infected animal movements - Uncooked meat ("waste food", carcass/ animal by products) - Aerosol on wind (especially adjacent pig and cattle herds) - Cold and wet environment survival - Contaminated skin and clothes of animal handlers (+ farm dogs/ horses?) - Contaminated vehicles, feed & equipment, farm visitors - Contaminated footpaths and local roads? - Wildlife predators? > Highly infectious viral disease of Cloven food animals (domestic & wild) > Serious disease (Foot and mouth vesicles) reducing agricultural livestock production; might be seen on farm premises, hobbyist, zoos and private life wild parks > Spreads very easily and quickly; important national impact on rural economy including international trade, agriculture and outdoor tourism

Food Safety Criteria for specific foods

Higher criteria for baby foods Salmonella: for meat and ready- to-eat products e.g. cheese, butter, milk powder, egg products, sprouted seeds, Listeria monocytogenes: Ready-to-eat foods Staphyloccocal enterotoxins: Cheese. Enterobacter sakazaki: Dry infant formulae E. coli: live bivalve mollusks Histamine: Fish

Traditional Speciality Guaranteed - TSG

Highlights traditional character, either in the composition or means of production Traditional farm fresh turkey (TSG) > Dry plucked and left for 14 days before eviscerated Traditionally farmed Gloucestershire old spots pork (TSG)

Machine Damage or Processing Problems

Highly automated process Extensive damage to carcase > Usually plucking machine Needs differentiating from pre-slaughter injury > Pre-slaughter - broken bones with no haemorrhage Other problems > Poorly plucked birds > Failure of evisceration

The role of vets in UK bee health

Historically, most EFB cases treated with oxytetracycline (OTC, Terramycin) But in 2004, shook swarm technique (SS) started to be used > Husbandry method > Take bees and put them in fresh box, burn frames and clean kit Other method of treatment is burning the whole hive (destruction) If colonies were treated with OTC, 22% of colonies had recurrence of disease within a year 4% recurred with shook swarm, and 0% after destruction OTC is issued through veterinary prescriptions > Any honey must be stored for 6 months after treatment, before it is consumed Other countries use different antibiotics: > Lincomycin (Lincomix®) > Tylosin (Tylan®) OTC is now being phased out In the US, vets are involved in issuing antibiotics for treatment of foulbrood

Honey

Honey offers only a low risk as a carrier of food-borne disease. Non-food associated disease issues: > Varroa > EU and US Foulbrood Physical features that render honey resistant to vegetative bacterial of fungal proliferation: > Low pH. > Low available water (aw) > High osmotic pressure. > Absence of amino acids. Most samples of honey will contain bacterial (Bacillus spp., occasionally Clostridium spp.) and / or fungal spores but these do not vegetate under normal conditions of storage temperature and humidity (for the reasons given above). > Clostridium spp. (rare) > Bacillus spp. (15% of samples) > Fungal spores (most?) Infant botulism > The infant (under 12 months old) gut supports the proliferation of vegetative C. botulinum from spores resulting in progressive onset flaccid paralysis. > The Food Standards Agency recommends against feeding honey to infants for this reason. Chemical contamination of Chinese imports of honey with banned chloramphenicol. Honey producers must operate under the Food Safety Act (1990) and meet specifications for labelling and HMF (hydroxymethylfurfural - a sugar breakdown product used as an indicator of fermentation / deterioration) according to the Honey (England) Regulations 2015.

Asian hornet

Hornets feed on a mixture of invertebrates; but mostly bees (40%) > Capture bees on the wing, eat fly muscles Colony loss in France estimated 5-50% depending on pressure Invasive species Nests are large and stings can kill

Prescriptions for horses

Horses and other equidae are considered by law to be food-producing species in the European Union. All horses, ponies and donkeys must have a horse passport. The passport should detail whether the horse is or is not intended for human consumption. Once a horse has been signed out of the food-chain, this is irreversible. A duplicate passport will automatically classify the horse as not being intended for human consumption. You must check the passport before you administer, prescribe or dispense any medicine. If the passport is not available, the declaration in the passport is not signed or you are not satisfied that the passport relates to the horse in question, you must treat the horse as if it's intended for human consumption. For food-producing horses: > Any product that is authorised for use in food producing horses and has a withdrawal period for horses can be used/prescribed.

Dynamics of zoonotic disease

Host - immune status Pathogen - pathogenicity, infective dose, carrier state Environment - route of infection > Ingestion, inhalation, across mucous membranes, via cuts/abrasions, (injection/transplantation)

Disease Profile & Pathway Model

Host Infectivity > Species: domestic/wildlife/multiple > Infected vs infectious: maintenance/incidental spill-over/amplifier/ dead end Host Contact Rate > Amount: intra or inter species behaviour & movement; husbandry factors > Type: direct physical contact or discharge; or indirect via intermediate vector, or via environmental contamination (feed, bedding, fomites) Relative Herd immunity > Proportion infected/susceptible/immune Critical control points > Test & cull individual infected suspects, herd test & slaughter, herd movement restrictions, biosecurity, carcase management, vaccination

Effect of post-slaughter factors on meat quality

Hot shortening - pH of <6 when temperature is >35°C Cold shortening (more dramatic) - pH of >6 when the temperature is <12°C High voltage electrical stimulation - passing current just behind shoulders, up to hind legs > Muscle contraction uses up energy in muscle, preventing cold shortening > But if dropping pH too fast, can cause hot shortening

Role of veterinarians in preparedness for bio-terrorism

Human and animal disease surveillance and response: > DEFRA surveillance team > EU: Commission Task Force on Bioterrorism. > In US: active sampling and syndromic surveillance. Veterinary diagnostic laboratories - linked to public health laboratories Communicating risk Decontamination/environmental clean-up Applied research

Animal allergies

Human disease: > Cough, wheeze, conjunctivitis, rhinitis. Allergens: > Dander, saliva, hair, urine, other secretions. Species in order: > Cat, guinea-pigs, rabbit, horse, dog, birds. Prevention: > Avoidance of exposure: - Reduce allergen load in environment. - PPE > Prophylactic anti-inflammatory > Medical advice

Contact zoonoses: skin - Ectoparasites

Human disease: > Short term transfer from infected dogs and cats. > Lesions in axillae, wrists, groin (mites). > Bites around ankles and lower legs. Typical parasites: > Sarcoptes scabei: > Cheyletiella spp > Fleas Prevention / control: > Preventive ectoparasiticide programs > Regular grooming

Captive-bolt equipment

Humane stunners not humane killers (must be backed up by destruction of brain stem (pithing) or bleeding). > Usually, animals are bled for human consumption Restraint desirable, sometimes necessary. Potential problems with aged animals, especially pigs and heavily-horned breeds of sheep. > Especially in the field Routine maintenance essential. > To consistently give sufficient blow to be used ethically No longer classed as firearms (since February 1998). > Do not require firearm certificate > Require slaughter certificate/ certificate of competence

E. Coli O157:H7

Humans (diarrhoea) > In 2017 in UK, 775 cases (decreased compared to 2016) > Incubation 3-4 days duration, faecal shedding for weeks post infection, human to humans, summer > Severe forms: - Haemorrhagic colitis (40% of cases) - Haemolytic uraemic syndrome (HUS) (5% cases) >> 20% of hospitalised cases >> 9% develop CKD - half of these die - Thrombotic thrombocytopaenic purpura (TTP) - Significant mortality in immune compromised Animals (asymptomatic) > Cattle are the primary source - 39% herd prevalence - 4.2% individual prevalence - Calves 1-6 months > Also sheep (1.7% prevalence), pigs (0.3% prevalence), goats, horses, birds, wildlife, rabbits > Shed in faeces (SUPERSHEDDERS)

Weil's Disease (Leptospira icterohaemorrhagiae)

Humans: > 92 cases in 2017. > Incubation 5-14 days. > Sudden onset severe headache, myalgia, fever, conjunctivitis. > Jaundice (liver failure), renal failure, ecchymoses, myocarditis. > Diagnosis by Ag and Ab detection. > Treatment: Penicillin-based compounds. > Recovery takes 6 weeks - 6 months. Rats: > 14% of UK rats positive. > Persistent shedding in urine with contamination of watercourses. Prevention: > Rodent control > Lifestyle (white-water rafting) > Pets: Dog disease; vaccination, cats may bring rats home.

Legislative background to hygienic slaughter

Hygiene Package Regulations (H1/ H2/ and H3) In addition, in the Meat Industry Guide, a number of Chapters (not only one) suggest as what constitute hygienic & unhygienic dressing. Further details on enforcement can be found at FSA Manual for Official Controls.

Why is enforcing compliance with hygiene difficult?

Hygiene is subjective Regardless of this subjectivity the objective of " safe food production" is to do everything possible to either Prevent, Eliminate or Reduce the presence of biological, chemical and physical hazards to acceptable level i.e. being present in the final product - in this case the final product is "fresh meat". What is stated here is basically the HACCP terminology

Receiving Animals and Lairage

Hygienic procedures! Risk of contamination with pathogens Stress increases pathogen shedding Clean livestock policy Washing animals Subsequent processing Clean unloading areas and pens

Labelling at the time of supply

Ideally VMPs should be supplied within the authorised packaging, with the authorised leaflet However, in some instances, authorised packages may be larger than is required for the course of treatment and will be re-packaged Labels in all instances must contain essential information for the safe and effective use of the medicine (for both the user and animal)

Preliminary risk management tasks

Identify and describe the food safety issue Develop the risk profile Establish the goals of risk management Decide on the need for risk assessment (formal?) Establish the risk assessment policy Commission a risk assessment if necessary Consider the results of risk assessment Rank the risks if necessary

Identification and selection of risk management options

Identify the possible options Evaluate the options Select the preferred option(s)

Emergency Slaughter: on lorry / lairage

If animals found to be injured or unfit and cannot be unloaded Must be humanely slaughtered on the vehicle OV collects evidence and reports to TSO/ APHA

Casual hypothesis testing

If field observations suggest that certain factors may be causally associated with a disease, then the association must be assessed by formulating a causal hypothesis.

When should you suspect a notifiable disease (and call APHA)?

If high mortality and/or high morbidity with/without any of some of the following signs: > Haemorrhagic > Vesicular > Multiple swellings > Neurological

Factors affecting meat spoilage - relative humidity

If lower, then some food may start spoiling from inside, because outside dry but inside still contains a lot of water, or vice versa - water is essential for growth

Seafood associated Botulism

Illness > Usually caused by pre-formed toxin > Fatigue, weakness and vertigo > Usually followed by blurred vision, dry mouth and difficulty in swallowing and speaking > May be followed by progressive paralysis > Fatality rate 5-10% Botulism can result from the consumption of seafood in which toxin production has occurred > Improperly bottled or canned seafood (spores in low oxygen environment) > Fermented whole fish (if NaCl concentration too low) Type E Clostridium botulinum usually implicated in illness associated with seafood Serotyping determined by anti-sera against neurotoxins Large proportion (79%) of botulism outbreaks associated with home produced products, and 13% of outbreaks associated with fish consumption

Summary on seafood and VPH

Illness resulting from bacterial contamination can arise from finfish- and crustacean-associated consumption > Scombrotoxin poisoning is the most common fish-associated illness > Proper application of normal hygiene controls effective for these seafoods Bacterial pathogens are a minor cause of bivalve mollusc-associated outbreaks in most temperate developed countries > Norovirus and hepatitis A virus are the main pathogens > Additional control measures needed to address these Vibrio infections are a significant problem in some parts of the world > May be an increasing problem in Europe with warmer seas

Potentially serious chemical hazard incidents

Immediate and widespread risk to the food chain Milking dairy animals Commercial poultry producing eggs Meat animals close to slaughter More than one farm affected (lack of containment) Farm-gate sales or sales of branded products > Products going to small number of consumers - concentration effect Media/press interest

Who is at most risk of Toxoplasmosis?

Immunocompromiserd: HIV/AIDS > Cause of death in 30% of AIDS patients in EU Transplant recipients > Immunosuppression > Transfer with organ Pregnant women (if naïve; first exposure) > 50% chance of passing to foetus > 90% will be asymptomatic > 10% develop "Toxoplasma Triad" of chorioretinitis, hydrocephalus, intracranial calcification > 327 human cases in 2012

Open farms and farm open days

Immunologically naïve Vulnerable age groups Can cause severe disease in immunosuppressed people Unprepared/unaware No formal registration, licence requirement Large numbers of visitors Zoonoses through direct/indirect contact Risk management - WASH HANDS Farm outbreaks caused by: > E. coli O157, VT+ve > Cryptosporidium parvum

Zoonoses of dogs and cats

Immunosuppressed dogs/cats: > Increased shedding, young, old, diseased, cancer etc. Both dogs and cats human risk from: > Enteric (food-borne) pathogens: Salmonella, Campylobacter, Cryptosporidium Parasites > Toxocara (round worm), Echinococcus (tapeworm), mange mites and fleas > CATS - Toxoplasma, mites (Cheyletiella) Other > Bite injury and infection (don't forget RABIES); leptospirosis, ringworm > CATS - cowpox etc.

WHO Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality (2017)

Implemented through the Water Supply (Water Quality) Regulations 2010 (amended) under the Water Act 2003. > Details what samples to be taken > Frequency of samples: post-treatment, reservoirs, taps > Analyses to be performed > Microbiological, physicochemical, aesthetics > Microbiological (at tap): - Total coliforms (0/100ml) - E coli (0/100ml) - Faecal Streptococci (0/100ml) - Clostridia including spores (0/100ml) - Cryptosporidium (<1/10 L): risk assessment based on water origin (ground vs. surface) > Chemical: - Inorganic: Nitrates, heavy metals (cadmium, lead, arsenic, silver) - Organic: pesticides, persistent organic pollutants > Aesthetic: - Colour, turbidity, taste, odour, temperature

Summary of influences on the sensory qualities of meat

Importance of sensory qualities - visual appeal, tenderness, flavour Post-slaughter factors most important for tenderness Animal handling affects muscle quality - DFD, PSE, water holding capacity (and toughness) On-farm factors important for flavour, especially diet Best practice specifications are effective

Cattle TB Vaccination - not the whole solution

Important potential tool in TB Control Not available yet: significant £ invested to produce one BCG (attenuated M. bovis strain) best candidate so far, although problems; > ?Efficacy in herds; decreases severity of infection & infectiousness in pre-exposure vaccinated cases (up to 60% reduction in disease process in some cattle, but no effect in post exposure cases-small scale trials only been done). - Will need annual booster as immunity wanes, so ££ > Interferes with skin test results, so cannot yet detect & remove significantly infected cattle in vaccinated herds. - DIVA test being developed over uncertain timescale Mid-term (10 years plus) improvement in BCG performance linked to human TB vaccination research

Local government - role in food safety

Important to know because in real life, veterinarians (practitioners and OVs) collaborate / work officially / formally with these professions in some areas e.g. welfare, animal ID, labelling etc. Environmental health departments - Environmental Health Officers - EHOs (now called Practitioners, but old term still in use) and Trading Standards Departments (Trading Standards Officers - TSOs) > Tasks carried out on behalf of Defra or FSA: some carry out auditing of some (stand alone) meat approved establishments and all registered (food premises) establishments ( e.g. butcher shops etc), investigation of reports of food poisoning, inspection of food premises, riding establishments, pet shops, dog breeding establishments.

Rabies legislation in UK

Impose 6-months quarantine in imported dogs in 1901 > Britain rabies free soon after > Re-introduction by returning soldiers in 1918 1922 - rabies freedom gained again > Stray dog legislation and muzzling Rabies then only diagnosed in quarantined dogs > 27 cases (25 dogs) from 1922 - 1967 One case outside quarantine in Surrey in 1969 Vaccination added to quarantine requirement in 1971 > Occasional case in quarantine still (2008) Risks reviewed carefully in 1998 PETS Scheme introduced to allow freer movement of animals from low risk countries in 2000 > Only after vaccination and seroconversion detected > North America included from 2002 > Animals also meant to be treated for ticks and other disease - But free movement of horses and their ticks allowed > Need to demonstrate seroconversion was dropped, but may return post-Brexit > Brexit will mean that current EU pet passports are obsolete for UK travel UK quarantine law continues for exotic species and animals that do not qualify for international animal movement schemes After 31.12.2020, travel of pets within Europe will be much harder

UK/FSA approach to modernisation of meat inspection

In 2014 EU legislation on Visual Inspection Procedures (VIP) for Pigs was introduced in the EU and UK > The procedure allows for the visual inspection of pigs unless conditions are highlighted by food chain information or during ante-mortem or post mortem which indicate that palpitation and or cutting will be required to determine whether the animals comply with EU meat hygiene requirements. Limited implementation in the UK i.e. not many pig plants apply routinely VIP because of the concerns regarding the third country import requirements and the concerns of Meat Hygiene Inspectors' missing visible defects.

Public health controls on bivalve molluscan shellfish

In EU, responsibility of production of safe food is with FBO Production area assessment, monitoring and controls are best performed by competent authority Authorities need to perform verification checks on the effectiveness of food safety measures taken by FBOs Location of classified bivalve production areas in England and Wales > Most near shore, in coastal areas or estuaries > Most classified production areas are in proximity of large populations, therefore at high risk of sewage pollution

Q fever in humans

In UK, 21 cases in 2015 and 24 in 2017 Asymptomatic (50%) Acute > Flu-like, self-limiting > Atypical pneumonia (30-50%) > Hepatitis > Skin rash (10%) > Other signs (< 1%) - Myocarditis, pericarditis, meningoencephalitis > Death: 1-2% Chronic > Endocarditis > Osteomyelitis > Granulomatous hepatitis > Cirrhosis

Rapid Alert system for Food and Feed (RASFF)

In UK, FSA deals with food and feed incidents RASFF - key tool to ensure the flow of information to enabling swift reaction when risks to public health are detected in the food chain > Enables information to be shared efficiently between its members (EU Member State national food safety authorities, Commission, EFSA, ESA, Norway, Liechtenstein, Iceland and Switzerland) and provides a round-the-clock service to ensure that urgent notifications are sent, received and responded to collectively and efficiently. If an incident is suspected/ confirmed, then the Risk Assessment (RA) is conducted Based on the RA, the Risk Management (RM) then can be instigated for example a number of legal options related to feed/ feed that Food/ Feed Business Operators must act upon e.g. > Withdrawal of food & feed e.g. not to place on the market > Recall of food & feed e.g. tell consumers through media that certain batches of food & feed not to be used and returned Transparent Communication (unless the details of possible criminal investigations) at all levels /stages are essential to be conducted. Traceability is IMPORTANT to know what to do with which batches *The 'batches' are not legally defined*

Types of seafood (excludes marine mammals, marine reptiles and algae)

In UK, mainly eat fish and crustacea (with some bivalves and gastropods) In Asia, whole range of seafood is included in diet Fish - sardines to sharks Crustacea - crabs, lobsters, nephrops, prawns, shrimps Cephalopods - octopus, squid Bivalves - scallops, oysters, dams, mussels Gastropods - whelks, winkles, abalone Echinoderms - sea urchins, sea cucumbers Tunicates - sea squirts Cnidaria - jellyfish

Inspection of the Spleen

In all species > Visual inspection > Palpation if necessary Most common pathology > Enlargement of the spleen

Inspection of the Gastro-Intestinal Tract

In all species > Visual inspection of the GI tract > Palpation and incision (if necessary) of gastric and mesenteric lymph nodes

Inspection of the Kidneys

In all species Visual inspection of the kidney Incision of the kidney and renal lymph nodes if necessary

Hepatitis in poultry

In hepatitis, the liver has: > Enlarged has round edges and a smooth surface > Often with necrotic foci or a reticular pattern In the acute phase, liver tends to be cherry red, Chronic - the liver becomes pale brown, bronze or green High levels in a flock may indicate: > Feed related problems > Proliferation of enteric bacteria - Clostridium perfringens - Camplylobacter spp. - Sallmonella spp. > Viral infections (adenovirus)

EU - role in food safety

In line with WHO and OIE to tackle all food contaminants (Campylobacter and Salmonella Food Poisoning) "from farm to fork"

Epidemic occurrence

In modern epidemiology, an epidemic is an occurrence of an infectious or non-infectious disease to a level in excess of the expected (i.e. endemic) level. An epidemic need not involve a large number of individuals if the endemic level is low or nil. When an epidemic occurs, the population must have been subjected to one or more factors that were not present previously.

Bat rabies

In old bats, seroprevalence may be >60% > Big brown bats in Colorado with bat rabies > Eidolon helvum and Rousettus aegyptiacus in Africa with Lagos bat virus - In other species, case fatality may be much higher Clear evidence that rabies infection does not always kill you (more likely that death only follows clinical illness/encephalitis). Also: > Common finding of seropositive unvaccinated dogs in endemic areas > Sheep recover from clinical EBLV2 infection Lots of contact between bats and humans in many parts of the world Ongoing investigations in Ghana > Repeated sampling from captive colony > Repeated sampling from wild roost > Infection does not persist in captive colony - Able to eliminate Lagos bat virus (genotype 2 lyssavirus) in small population (120-150) of fruit bats, despite the fact that many were Ab+ on introduction - When virus enters CNS, kills the bats as quickly as it would a non-endemic species - However, many bats have low virus inoculation - does not progress to fatal encephalitis

Hygienic Slaughter of Pigs

In pigs skin remains on, considered as edible tissue (although they can be skinned) Procedures to ensure skin surface is as hygienic as carcase of skinned animals Procedures > Scalding to loosen hairs (61°C) > Dehairing > Singeing > Polishing

Pasteurisation of egg

In the UK, all liquid egg is pasteurised at 64.4°C for 2.5min. Albumen is less heat stable but Salmonellae can be eliminated by a milder heat treatment because of the lower pH (57.2°C for 2.5min). An effective alternative for pan-dried albumen is to hold the dry product at 55°C for 2-3 weeks. Pasteurisation efficacy is evaluated using microbiological assessment or assay of alpha-amylase activity.

WATOK - Article 19

In the case of emergency killing, the keeper of the animals concerned shall take all the necessary measures to kill the animal as soon as possible. 'Emergency killing'...killing of animals which are injured or which have a disease associated with severe pain or suffering and where there is no other practical possibility to alleviate this pain or suffering

Food Safety Act 1990 - definition of food

In this Act "food" includes > drink; > articles and substances of no nutritional value which are used for human consumption; > chewing gum and other products of a like nature and use; and > articles and substances used as ingredients in the preparation of food or anything falling within this subsection.

Canine rabies vaccine

Inactivated tissue culture vaccines Initial vaccine at 3 months then booster at 2-3 year intervals depending on brand; IM or SQ - not ID Under field conditions vaccinate all pups, including <3 months of age Several vaccines on market, quite similar constituents

Outbreak investigation - Steps

Incident Management Team Risk Assessment > Descriptive Epidemiology > Identify Source > Case Finding Agree Actions Communications - proactive press statements

Inspection of heads - pigs

Incision of submaxillary lymph nodes UNLESS VISUAL INSPECTION PROCEDURE

Simple fat depth measurement

Incision/ruler Works well in pigs, as dominant fat deposition in subcutaneous

HACCP

Including microbiological criteria, residues contaminants and prohibited substances and physical hazards. Operators procedures for guaranteeing freedom from faecal contamination and SRM.

Zoonotic potential of young owls

Increased shedding of potential zoonotic pathogens due to stress, e.g. at rescue and rehabilitation. Routes of human contamination: > At handling / treatment > Food surfaces > Garden vegetables and salads Examples (gut associated): > Salmonella > Campylobacter > Yersinia > M. avium > Clostridia > Listeria > Staphylococci > Chlamydophila > Spirochaetes

Endemic Disease control

Increasing incidence + prevalence: control & contain, e.g. TB Low incidence + high prevalence: reduce by mitigation measures > NCP Salmonella in Poultry statutory flock testing, restrictions on positive flocks +biosecurity assessments voluntary slaughter, enhanced follow-on testing. > Difficult to eradicate due to environmental contamination/survival Low incidence + low or increasing prevalence: eradication may be feasible- if epidemiology is well understood, accurate diagnostic tests & disease-free replacements are available+ sufficient incentives for industry to co-operate -Brucellosis & Aujeszky's

Tick-borne disease

Increasing issue: > Encroachment > Increased leisure > Intensification of farming EU significant diseases: > Lyme disease - Borreliosis - B. burgdorferi (UK), B. afzelli (EU), B. garinii (EU) - Most mammals and birds > Ehrlichiosis - Tick borne fever - Anaplasma phagocytophila (UK) - Rodents, ruminants > Tick-borne encephalitis - Louping ill virus (UK) - Sheep, grouse. > Tularaemia - Francisella tularensis (EU) - Rodents and hares > Crimean Congo Haemorrhagic Fever Importance of minimising introduction of new vectors to UK. > Babesiosis - B. divergens (UK), B. microti (UK), Babesia canis (Essex 2016) - Ruminants, rodents

Giant millipedes - risks

Increasingly popular as pets When threatened, release toxic secretion: > Erythema, blistering, 'burn'-like lesion. > Hydrocyanic acid, benzoquinones. Confusion with intentional injury of children by social workers

Botulism

Incubation 12 to 36 hours (up to 8 days) depends on amount of toxin ingested Toxin pre-formed in food > Attaches to NMJs > Prevents release of ACh > Loss of motor function > Musculoskeletal paralysis > Respiratory failure - up to 60% mortality Growth in food necessary Anaerobic conditions

Symptoms of rabies

Incubation period 20-60 days > Occasionally 5-6 days (e.g. head wounds) > 1-3% > 6months > Reportedly up to 6 years (but unexplained) Acute fatal encephalitis > Paralytic (Dumb) and Furious - Furious form - greater roaming in dogs, attacking anything that moves > Accompanied by non-specific febrile illness Humans - anxiety, confusion, agitation, delirium, hallucinations, abnormal behaviour, insomnia, seizures, loss of consciousness > Death 1-5 days > Dysphagia caused by paralysis of oesophagus (very common) > Dysphonia - change in voice due to change in tone of vocal cords > Hydrophobia and aerophobia (true symptoms of rabies) found in around 1/3rd of all human cases Disease always referred to as rabies even if caused by non-rabies lyssavirus

Clinical signs of rabies in dogs

Incubation period 7 days to several months (similar to humans) > 50% within one month and 80% within 4 months > i.e. exceptionally long and highly variable Prodromal stage > Behavioural change, pyrexia, dilated pupils, nictitating membrane across eye, salivation (dysphagia means they cannot swallow saliva) Two end-stages: > Dumb rabies: (80% dogs) incoordination, "dropped jaw", "bone in throat", paralysis, death > Furious rabies: agitated, aggressive, phonation, salivation, dysphagia, seizures, incoordination, paralysis, death

Human injuries from wildlife

Indirect: Car accidents (deer, badgers, foxes) Direct: > Trampling / antler injury: deer, wild boar. > Scratches, pecks. > Wing-flap injury > Bites: all species from shrews and badgers to bats

Confirmed exotic disease

Infected premises legal status: valuation (alive), slaughter, disposal, cleansing & disinfection (approved), restrict access. > Compensation only for uninfected animals to encourage farmers to report early TCZ converted to: > Inner Protection Zone (movement restrictions) > Outer Surveillance Zone (herd test before any licensed move) > Enhanced biosecurity continues "blue box" Patrol to identify any unknown premises within PZ Restocking and sentinel retest after specified period from final approved disinfection (premises, equipment & vehicles) Disposal of wash water, used litter & manure: specified treatments (APHA & EA approved)

Carcass lesions - caseous lymphadenitis

Infection of sheep/goats by Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis Lymph nodes become: > Enlarged > Greenish non-odorous pus > May become caseous and form laminar concentric rings - Appear like an onion when cut > Abscesses can spread to internal organs Judgement > If generalised - total rejection > Otherwise - reject the affected parts only > Zoonosis

Umbilical Pyaemia: Navel Ill

Infection of umbilicus in young animals Can become thicken and full of pus Extension to the liver Judgement: > If evidence of pyraemic spread total rejection > If localised rejection of infected parts only

Joint lesions in poultry

Infections > Mycoplasma synoviae > Reovirus > Opportunistic bacteria Trauma Angular limb deformities > Growth plate trauma > Nutritional imbalances > Slipped tendon

Pathogenesis of Listeriosis

Infective dose unknown > Fewer than 1,000 organisms may cause disease Organism penetrates GI epithelium > Enters host monocytes, macrophages, PMN > Blood-borne (septicaemia) Presence intra-cellularly in phagocytic cells > Permits access to brain, transplacentally

Salpingitis

Inflammation and impaction of the oviducts Often with purulent material present Various infections causes: > Mycoplasma > E. coli > Salmonella Infections may spread: > Infected abdominal air sacs > Ascending from cloaca There may be distension of the abdomen present

Enteritis

Inflammation of gastro-intestinal tract Either acute or chronic Due to infection, parasites or toxic agents Judgement: > Acute enteritis - reject entire carcase and offal > Chronic enteritis - if no systemic involvement, reject affected parts only

Dermatitis in poultry

Inflammation of skin Usually 2° infected > Staphylococci, streptococci, clostridia, erysipelas Commonly presents as > Breast burns > Blisters > Hock burns > Pododermatitis > Scabby hip dermatitis > Gangrenous dermatitis (Clostridium septicum infection) Caused by contact with irritants > Wet litter > Scratches from toes of other birds High incidence associated with poor management on farm

Airsacculitis

Inflammation of the airsacs > Usually accompanying lesions in the bronchi and lungs Acute cases (less common) > Small haemorrhages > Serosanguinous exudate Chronic lesions > Airsacs are thicker and opaque > Containing caseous material or mucopurulent exudate > Adhesions and fibrosis Caused by many agents > Mycoplasma spp., E. coli, aspergillosis and avian cholera (Pasteurella multocida) Environmental conditions predispose > Ammonia levels, poor ventilation, excessive stocking density, poor hygiene A high flock incidence may be indicative of suboptimal health and welfare on the farm

Intrascope (optical probe)

Inserted into carcase at designated point - P2 position - 6.5cm from midline at head of last rib In past P1 (4.5cm) and P3 (8cm) positions widely used, but less so now as pigs have become leaner > Fat depth of pig carcases has fallen dramatically since early 90s then stabilised, but average weights have gone up Aim to measure over thickest part of eye muscle, or Longissimus dorsi (loin)

Bacterial contamination of milk (pathogenic and spoilage organisms):

Interior of udder: Zoonoses (above), mastitis (Staph. aureus, coliforms, Clostridium perfringens, Streptococcus spp.), background flora (Micrococci, Streptococcus spp., Corynebacterium spp.). Exterior surfaces of animal: Clostridia, coliforms, Bacillus spp. Milk handling equipment: Responsible for most organisms in raw milk. > Streptococcus spp., coliforms, Listeria spp., Acinetobacter spp., Flavobacterium spp., other gram - rods. Miscellaneous sources (personnel, air, rodents, foreign bodies): Staph. aureus, micrococci, coliforms.

Coenurosis (Gid, Sturdy) in the carcass

Intermediate stage of the canine tapeworm Taenia multiceps Forming cysts in the brain of sheep Judgement: > Reject head of affected sheep > Heads (skull) of sheep over 1 year are SRM

Cysticercus tenuicollis in the carcase

Intermediate stage of the dog tapeworm Taenia hydatigena Most common in sheep Cysts form in the abdominal cavity After passing through the liver > Serpentine tracts > Causing parasitic hepatitis Judgement > Areas with attached cysts - Rejected as unfit > If serpentine tracts are evident - Liver rejected

Cysticercus ovis in the carcass

Intermediate stage of the dog tapeworm Taenia ovis Oval cysts (3-8mm) found in muscles with good blood supply > Heart > Diaphragm > Tongue > Cheek muscles Judgement: > If localised, affected area rejected > If cysts generalised, entire carcase and offal are rejected Not zoonotic

Cysticercus bovis in the carcass

Intermediate stage of the human tapeworm Taenia saginata Greyish-white fluid filled round cysts Up to 1cm in diameter Aged cysts become caseous and completely calcified (non-viable) The predilection sites are muscles with good blood supply > Heart, masseter, tongue, diaphragm Judgement: > In generalised infections - Entire carcase and offal are rejected > If one viable or caseous cyst - Affected part is rejected - Remaining carcase undergoes cold treatment Zoonotic

Cysticercus cellulosae in the carcase

Intermediate stage of the human tapeworm Taenia solium Cysts are greyish-white ovoid up to 1.5cm in length Causes neurocysticercosis in humans The predilection sites > Heart, cheek muscles, tongue and diaphragm Viable cysts are transparent > Become caseous and calcified over time Judgement: > Rejected as unfit (category 2) - whole carcase

What does traceability really mean in practice?

Internal - complex issue (not always legal requirement) > Needs to be considered in the context of type and the nature of the business (beef different) and other labelling requirements e.g. marketing and quality standards for certain products > EC Guidance state that FBO should be encouraged, but level of internal traceability is left to them to decide e.g. batching External - serves to determine the location of items to be recalled and to coordinate recall actions. Not for final consumers

Legislation on HACCP

Internationally agreed (Codex Alimentarius Commission) and accepted food safety standards, being transposed into relevant national legislation (in this case EU), Regulation (EC) No 852 /2004 Food Safety being the primary responsibility of Food producers Official Controllers (e.g. Official veterinarians) responsible for auditing There are a number of references one could list on HACCP > The most important in terms of responsibilities are in Hygiene 1: Regulation in Article 5, of Regulation 852/ 2004 and Regulation 853/200 > An excellent source (essential to read and refer to) with regards to the links with other Regs, terminology used/ flexibility etc is EC Notice 2016 Other useful sources on HACCP are on the FSA website https://www.food.gov.uk e.g. in Meat Industry Guide (MIG), Manual for Official Controls (MOC), Flexibility guide etc.

Bivalve-associated illness - size of the problem

Internationally many published reports of large outbreaks (and continuing) In England and Wales bivalve molluscs associated with a low proportion of reported foodborne outbreaks But infectious intestinal disease (IID) studies show large underreporting for norovirus Local authorities may not investigate or pass information on to national level Customers may complain to restaurant, who do not report Appropriate stool samples may not be taken A proper food consumption history may not be taken from patient For every 1 norovirus case reported, 288 norovirus cases exist (4.7 for salmonella) International data sets have additional biases (e.g. trade/tourism concerns)

Internet/postal supply

Internet / postal supply allowed, provided the supplier applies statutory controls, such as: > A prescription is available where necessary (e.g. POM-V products) > Advice is provided on safe administration (e.g. warnings or contra-indications, as necessary) > The supplier is satisfied that the person is competent to use the product safely and intends to use it for its authorised use > Supplier keeps adequate records of supply Some sites breach the Veterinary Medicines Regulations by selling veterinary medicines: > Without the advice of a veterinary surgeon, pharmacist or Suitably Qualified Person > That are not authorised for use in animals in the UK The Accredited Internet Retailer Scheme (AIRS) > The VMD launched an Accredited Internet Retailer Scheme on 25 May 2012 > There are specified criteria covering supply procedures, information for customers and advertising of VMPs > It is voluntary - accredited internet retailers receive a VMD logo to display on their websites - links to the VMD's website (not all accredited retailers will have logo but all are listed on VMD website) > It helps on-line buyers of veterinary medicines safely

Factors affecting meat spoilage

Intrinsic - aw, nutrients/ structure, pH, redox, antimicrobials Extrinsic - Relative humidity, temperature, atmosphere

Environmental Health Officer (EHO)

Involved in petting farms and zoos Inspecting businesses, e.g. food hygiene rating

Controlling a New Emerging Animal Disease (BSE, Schmallenberg)

Is Statutory intervention needed & how are controls to be implemented? Prioritise what level of control is your strategy aim (what achievement are you intending: protect public, eliminate, reduction, contain, timescale) > Establish a disease profile & pathway model & investigate cases to capture evidence; assess & evaluate, knowledge gaps - commission research Plan what interim control tactics (how) > Implementation: critical control points & methods, competence, capability, capacity, consistency, cost, concise & clear instructions, impact on stakeholders & time scale to manage expectations > Legislation (vs code of practice) national & EU: definitions & interpretation > Co-operation, consultation, tolerance: all stakeholders & operational partners; inspection & enforcement + audit process. > Monitor & Review effectiveness & perception -Key Performance Indicators > Quality assurance & continuous improvement: capture feedback & adapt

Assessing an emergency slaughter candidate

Is it likely to be fit for human consumption? > Disease transmissible to humans/animals? > VMP withdrawals? > Clean livestrock policy IF NO: > Treat and hold for withdrawal period > OR cull and dispose IF YES: Fit to travel? > Yes - Send for slaughter with farmer's declaration > No - Consider on-farm slaughter with joint farmer/vet declaration

'Processing aid' means any substance which:

Is not consumed as a food by itself; Is intentionally used in the processing of raw materials, foods or their ingredients, to fulfil a certain technological purpose during treatment or processing; and May result in the unintentional but technically unavoidable presence in the final product of residues of the substance or its derivatives provided they do not present any health risks and do not have any technological effect on the final product.

Oregon disease

Ischaemia of muscles Not zoonotic But unpalatable Not easily discovered at PMI Some breasts may be concave, but not always

Role of vets in managing Veterinary Medicinal Products

Issues arising from misuse: > Banned substances > Illicit products > Antimicrobial resistance > Human allergies > Broken needle in meat Farm medicine records (retain for 5 years): > At purchase: - Name of product - Date of purchase - Quantity - Withdrawal period - Supplier > At administration: - Name of product - Quantity - Identification of animals treated - Date of disposal of unused drug

Why do we want to trace back the final product (final product could be fresh meat, meat products etc.) back to the farm and feed?

It provides a commercial advantage and legal 'safety' cushion to be able to claim, and if necessary, to blame someone else when something goes wrong (feed and food are 'perishable' goods and there is always a possibility that something can go wrong) Incentives for internal traceability > Depend on the type of business (slaughterhouse/cutting plant/cold store, distribution centre, supermarket etc.) > Customers, Third party accreditation ISO, Free range etc.; self-regulatory in reality > Management tool - not food safety, but contributes to food safety e.g. when something is not right and there is a need to withdraw/recall the product FBO's "to know" what to withdraw/recall from the market as obliged by the law otherwise all food may be withdrawn/recalled and Rapid Alert System for Food and Feed (RASFF) raised

Why should you follow the cascade?

Just because products contain the same active substance and amount does not mean they will behave identically in the animal. Factors that influence behaviour include: > Other ingredients (may increase/decrease bioavailability of active substance, change safety profile) > Method of manufacture (alter physiochemical properties of active substance, effect efficacy/safety) Veterinary generics have been compared with veterinary pioneer (leading) products Human generics have not been compared with veterinary pioneer products

Biosecurity means:

Keeping animals healthy and high level of welfare e.g. feeding, prompt diagnosis, treatment, preventing diseases by vaccination Controlling e.g. movement of people and animals, pests (rats/ flies), keeping records Cleaning and disinfection e.g. proper cleaning and disinfection of building, equipment and people, transport vehicles etc... BE AWARE/KNOW DEFRA APPROVED DISINFECTANTS -FOR NOTIFIABLE DISAESES EDUCATION/ TRAINING OF ALL

December 2014: Changes to EU Pet travel scheme

Key changes: a new pet passport (old remain valid) Must wait for 21 days from your primary rabies vaccination New minimum age (12 weeks) before you get it vaccinated New rules for those travelling with 5 pets i.e. travelling from registered premises, using authorised transporter, registering at TRACES system Clearer definition of cat, dog, ferret ALL FILLED IN RIGHT ORDER e.g. Microchipping first then vaccination IF PEOPLE BRING ANIMALS FOR SALE/REHOMING then the PETS CANNOT travel under the Pet Travel scheme

Reproduction Ratio

Key parameter in infection dynamics R = 1 - Each infection leads to a new infection R < 1 - Each infection leads to less than one new infection. > Disease level decreases R > 1 - Each infection leads to more than one new infection. > Exponential growth of disease R0 = Number of new infections resulting from a single infected individual in a fully susceptible population

Inspection vs. audit

Key word is verification - no guarantee Both contribute to safe production of food minimising risk to public/animal health and welfare of animals Inspection ensures that abnormal meat is removed, but does not control common pathogens. FBO may control non-visible pathogens through an effective application of GHP and HACCP which are audited by an OV

Bleeding (exsanguination)

Kills the animal by causing hypoxia (lack of oxygen in the brain), leading to anoxia (absence of oxygen in the brain). > Also voids carcase of blood for meat quality purposes Effected by severing the major blood vessels in the neck (carotid arteries), or the vessels from which they arise (brachiocephalic trunk). Timeliness of bleeding ('sticking') is of paramount importance. Must be carried out without delay after simple stunning - within 15 seconds. Animals killed by stun/kill methods but intended for human or animal consumption must be bled, although timeliness is not as important from a welfare point-of-view. Delayed sticking will result in a poorer bled-out and compromise meat quality Implications for animal welfare > Bleeding deprives the brain of oxygen and the animal dies from anoxia. > Timely bleeding leads to death before stunned animals enter recovery. > A DEAD ANIMAL IS NOT A WELFARE PROBLEM

Preventative Measures

Know where animals are; define the herd: registration of livestock premises linked to specific herd mark identification, movement recording (electronic data protection). > Retrospective constraints. Know the type & health status of herd: approved health status of pig breeding pyramid premises + designated poultry premises- linked to biosecurity requirements > Responsibility to notify updates Livestock transport cleansing & disinfection after use (biosecurity) Herd standstill triggered by movements on, except direct to slaughter (+ exempt pig moves from higher to lower health status approved premises) Animal gathering & market licenced conditions reduce cross contamination Control of animal by products- approved disposal methods & premises No live animal movements off slaughterhouse (exceptional APHA licences) Targeted Surveillance + passive slaughterhouse (ante + post-mortem)

Why do we need surveillance?

Knowledge of endemic disease facilitates: > Early detection of new and re-emerging threats in animals: - Animal and public health, welfare, livestock production, wider society > Advice to inform industry and government policy > International trade - Confirm effectiveness of statutory control plans and assurance of disease freedom - e.g. Every bovine and ovine abortion gets Brucella tested

Animal Carcase Risk

Known hazard: > Wildlife access leading to local spread (CSF, AI) > Recycling in animal food chain; waste food restrictions (BSE, Salmonella, FMD, SVD, CSF) > Environmental contamination (anthrax spores soil persistence, FMD virus airborne spread: pigs vs cattle) Categorise risk: > High: Notifiable Disease restricted carcases (known infection) > Medium: Died on farm (could be infected) > Low: Slaughtered healthy fit for human consumption (unlikely to be infected)

Functional ingredients - acidifiers

Lactic acid, citric acid (and others - acetic, adipic acids etc.) Imparting tangy flavour, extending shelf life. Timing of when to add these ingredients is important

Sheep Nasal Bot: Oestrus Ovis

Larval stage of fly in nasal passage of sheep Judgement: > Affected area rejected as unfit > Head of sheep over 1 year are SRM

Ante/Post-Mortem Inspections requirements/ procedures for All SPECIES can be found in the above Regulation EU 2019/627

Law 'requires' OVs to declare fresh meat unfit for human consumption if: > No AMI/PMI > Dead before slaughter (except wild) > Stillborn, unborn or <7 days old, meat from sticking point > Affected by animal diseases for which animal health rules are laid down in the Union legislation listed in Annex I to Directive 2002/99/EC - e.g. CSF, ASF, FMD > Infectious disease (EU Directives) and Notifiable diseases > Generalised disease: Sepsis, pyaemia, toxaemia, viraemia > Not in conformity with food safety criteria > Containing residues of banned/unauthorised substances > Pathophysiological or organoleptic abnormalities: (pronounced sexual) odour, insufficient bleeding, oedema > Emaciation > Shows soiling or faecal or other contamination or contains SRM > Other animal or health risk in OV opinion > Specific hazards (see Articles from 29 - 36 listing some other diseases e.g. Tb, Brucella, etc. > Has been treated illegally with decontaminating substances; > Has been treated illegally with ionising radiation, including UV-radiation; > Contains foreign bodies, except, in the case of wild game, material used to hunt the animal; > Exceeds maximum permitted radioactivity levels laid down under Union legislation or, in the absence of Union legislation, under national rules; > Exhibits parasitic infestation, unless otherwise provided for in the requirements on the official controls for cysticercosis provided for in Article 30;

Legislation regarding Veterinary Medicines

Laws define the controls for Veterinary Medicines > Defines a Veterinary Medicinal Product (VMP) > Controls on production, marketing, distribution, pharmacovigilance, and use.... > Data requirements for marketing authorisation (MA) application European Directive 2001/82/EC as amended by 2004/28/EC > UK Veterinary Medicines Regulations (VMR) > Veterinary Medicines Guidance (essentially the VMR in an easier to understand format) Existing EU Legislation to be replaced > EU Regulation 2019/6/EU in force in EU from 28th Jan 2022 > Revision to the VMR 2013 is underway The Transition Period > The UK has now left the EU > There is now a transition period until the end of 2020 while the UK and EU negotiate future relationship > Current rules on trade, travel, and business for the UK and EU will continue to apply during the transition period > New rules will take effect on 1 January 2021

Composition of typical pig carcase

Lean - 58% Subcutaneous fat - 13% Intermuscular fat - 4% Bone - 8% Head - 8%

Traceability - responsibilities of FBOs

Legal > FBOs are ultimately legally responsible for (external) traceability of food and feed > Required to keep records of where food comes from and who it is sold to > Not required to keep records of consumers who buy the food > Plus sector specific rules, e.g. beef labelling - The British Cattle Movement Service (BCMS) an Agency of DEFRA, runs the mandatory cattle identification and registration scheme in the UK. >> All cattle must be registered and those born after 1 January 1998 have their movements traced from birth to death. - The Compulsory Beef Labelling Scheme (CBLS) came into operation in the UK on 1 September 2000. >> Mandatory labelling requirements at the point of sale require the identification of both the slaughterhouse and cutting plant(s) for fresh and frozen beef, including mince and uncooked beef burger patty with no added ingredients. - Legally required to record FCI, slaughterhouse number, kill number, etc. - Final labelling indicates that meat is born/slaughtered/cut in UK - However, minced beef can be from a number of animals/sources Commercial > Internal traceability is favoured by customers and final consumers Internal/external traceability may also be required for third party accreditation (ISO, etc.)

Summary of Product Characteristics (SPC)

Legal document (as per EU Directive for VMPs) based on assessment of that product Agreed and updated as a result of each (post-authorisation) assessment carried out by the VMD Different to data sheet (e.g. includes pharmacology) What does the SPC contain? Information about the medicine > Specific to use of that formulation in the named target species > Presented in a standardised format > Updated when new indications, target species or withdrawal periods agreed > Updated on the basis of pharmacovigilance (adverse events) reports (hence, reporting important!) Where do I find the SPC? > Publicly available in the Product Information Database on the VMD website (GOV.UK)

Exotic disease suspect investigation

Legal duty to report suspicion of specified diseases (Animal Health Act 1981)- any person in charge of animal (including vets): clinical signs (ante & post-mortem); lab test results. > Separate consultation procedures (samples to exclude low risk differential diagnosis: AI & West Nile Virus only) Official Vet Enquiry- powers of entry, & to restrain, inspect, mark animals & take diagnostic samples. > Herd restrictions & strict biosecurity until lab results available- variable timescale to negate or CVO confirmation Temporary Control Zone (TCZ) around suspect premises: enhanced biosecurity & movement restrictions (extent & conditions dependent on disease). Gather information to identify; Source and Spread tracings (2x incubation period). > Establish cause & specific risk factors associated with outbreak Restrict dangerous contacts - close observation or pre-emptive or contiguous cull. > Subjective judgement & controversial

Microbiology (sampling/ testing/interpreting)

Legal requirement for microbiological sampling of animal derived foods. > Specifics in Regulation (EC) 2073/2005 > Required under Regulation 852/2004 i.e. being a part of HACCP > Controlled under Official Controls Regulation - One of the audit and inspection roles of all official controllers e.g. OV at abattoirs and other establishments and Environmental Health Practitioners (EHP)

Legionnaires disease - Water cooling systems/ showers

Legionella pneumophila serotypes Disease: > Mild: Lochgoilhead disease - Scotland. Pontiac fever. > Severe: Legionnaires disease, pneumonia, mortality 10-25%. > 400-500 cases/yr in UK: Associated with air conditioning systems, spas, ingestion. Biofilms and environment. Optimum growth range - 37-41C - cooling towers Legionella active in 20-40C range - spray humidifiers, showers (41-45 - spas) Legionella dormant in 0-20C range - tap water, cooling coils, evaporative coolers

Milk and milk products

Legislation: The public health aspects of milk production and processing are governed by EU Food Hygiene Regulations 852/2004 (H1), 853/2004 (H2) and the New EU Official Controls Regulations ( OCR) , implemented in England by The Food Hygiene (England) Regulations 2013 under the Food Safety Act of 1990. UK official controls: Since 2012, Food Standards Agency Operations Groups Dairy Hygiene Inspectors have been responsible for Inspection and enforcement at the farm level. > Please note there are some regional variations with regard to the actual enforcement. > The frequency of visits/inspection depends on many factors: type of milk (raw milk sale for drinking), assured or not assured dairy farms, results of previous inspections etc. and may vary from 6 months to 10 years. > Local Authority Environmental Health Practitioners are responsible for enforcement of approved and registered cheese producers.

Leptospirosis

Leptospira spp. > Usually host specific (Carrier animals) Widespread problem (shed in urine) > Cattle, pigs, sheep and goats Reproductive problems in cattle and pigs > Abortion and/or weak offspring > Infertility Infections usually asymptomatic Occasionally disease > Cows - fever, depression, anorexia > Calves - jaundice, diarrhoea, ill thrift Leptospirosis in Humans > in UK, 68 cases in 2015 and 92 in 2017 > Ingestion (oral), Inhalation (aerosol), Direct contact > Symptoms: Flu-like signs, fever, body aches, headache weakness, vomiting, mental confusion, jaundice, stiff neck, liver, kidney or central nervous system damage

Contact zoonotic infections - urinary

Leptospira spp. Brucella canis (not UK until 2017)

Causes of enlargement of the spleen - LAST RASH

Leukaemia Anthrax Septicaemia Torsion Redwater fever Abscesses Slaughter spleen Haematoma

Veterinary Medicines Directorate (VMD)

Licensing and approval of pharmaceuticals and biologicals for use in animals. Investigation of adverse drug reactions, and failures in efficacy. Surveillance for drug residues in meat and other animal derived foods. Agency of Defra UK National Competent Authority that is responsible for the regulation of veterinary medicinal products (VMPs) > Implementation of EU VMP legislation > Data assessment and authorisation of VMPs > Inspection of manufacturers of VMPs > Post-authorisation monitoring Aims to protect human health, animal health and the environment

Vaccination in the face of an outbreak

Limited value ("use under review"). Problems due to: > Logistic challenges for timely implementation > May limit spread of disease but hides infection (DIVA test?) leading to uncertainty in: a) what to do with vaccinated animals; b) when to stop vaccinating Loss of commercial value of vaccinated animals Blue Tongue disease profile & dynamics are such that vaccination is effective control method & similarly for sylvatic rabies outbreaks (pre-exposure).

Farm Quality Assurance schemes - Poultry: Layers

Lion Quality Code of Practice British Egg Industry Council: > Biosecurity to exclude infection > Salmonella monitoring > Hygienic practices Lion Quality Mark: British Egg Industry Code of Practice, 2000

Spoilage of egg products

Liquid egg is highly supportive of microbial growth. Pasteurisation reduces the microbial load by 90%, leaving primarily gram positive heat resistant organisms (Enterococci, Corynebacteria, Micrococci, Bacilli). However, after chill storage, spoilage is usually due to gram-negative bacteria (Pseudomonas, Acinetobacter, cold tolerant coliforms). Above 20°C, spoilage is usually due to contaminating Enterobacteraciae.

Seafood related Listeriosis

Listeriosis mainly due to Listeria monocytogenes Can grow below 5°C Rare infection in humans Illness > Healthy adults: flu-like symptoms or gastroenteritis > Pregnant women: miscarriage, premature delivery or severe illness in the newborn child > Elderly and people with weakened immune systems: septicaemia or meningitis Most seafood associated outbreaks associated with processed products, and some associated with smoked products Testing for listeria is costly for producers If listeria establishes itself in a production environment, difficult to eradicate.

Biosecurity in poultry processing

Live bird containers Live bird lorries Ineffective C& D poses a serious risk i.e. transfer of pathogens back to the farms Security - biosecurity, personnel, product

Localised versus generalised conditions

Localised condition > Lesion restricted to a certain area or organ > Systemic changes may also occur Generalised condition > Spread of disease process by way of the circulatory or lymphatic systems > Lymph nodes of the carcase should be examined > Generalised lesions usually require more severe judgement than localised lesions

Contact zoonoses: skin - Dermatophytes

Localised ulcerating skin lesion in cats. > Feline leprosy > Cutaneous TB > Lesions may be enteric / systemic Isolation of saprophytic Mycobacteria, M. lepraemurium (rat associated, non-zoonotic), but also M. tuberculosis, M. avium, M. bovis. Zoonotic potential

Environmental determinants

Location Climate (macro e.g. rainfall, micro e.g. calf house) Husbandry - housing, diet, management Stress

Biosafety in research: High containment animal facilities

Location Perimeter Buildings Supplies (air, water, waste, equipment) People

Diagnosis of rabies in resource poor settings

Long period between dog bites and clinical onset > Dog bites often not recalled by parents Many human cases never fully diagnosed > First line treatments usually provided by traditional healers (across Africa and India/ Sri Lanka) - 50% of dog bites never result in rabies (misplaced trust in ineffective treatment from 'healers') > Symptoms are often atypical and diagnosed as malaria when presented at hospital - 11% encephalitis cases in Malawi caused by rabies Estimation of global burden derived indirectly (but validated) from dog bite burden in rabies endemic regions

Spoilage of un-eviscerated poultry and game birds

Longer storage life than eviscerated due to dry integral skin (dry plucking). Spoilage slower and starts internally: > H2S (and other metabolites) from gut bacteria diffuses into muscle. > Combination of H2S, myoglobin, and oxygen causes greening ('greenstrike').

Importance of international trade

Lots of food comes from outside UK (only 53% produced in UK) Movement of horses, pets, zoo animals Vets safeguard > Animal health > Animal welfare > Veterinary Public Health

Effect of Stunning on Carcase and Meat Quality

Low frequency stunning associated with > Poor bleeding > Broken bones > Exploded / damaged viscera > Bruised wing joints > Red wing tips > Haemorrhages on breast meat > Split wishbones > Separation of shoulder muscle tendons

Electrical stunning equipment

Low voltage (up to 150 volts output): > Head-only tongs (pigs and sheep). High voltage (200+ volts output): > Head-only tongs (pigs and sheep) > Head-to-body stun/kill (pigs and sheep) > Fully automatic (pigs and cattle) - Stun/kill - Cattle - 3 phase system; stunned by current from nose to neck, killed by current through heart to cause cardiac arrest Sign of effective stun is also sign of grand mal epileptic seizure The lower the voltage, the longer duration required before epilepsy is induced > Old fashioned low voltage equipment results in longer period (1-3s) of painful paralysis before unconsciousness > Higher voltage - shorter duration of application - Want to induce epilepsy in 0.15s - time taken for pain stimulus to be detected by brain > Old fashioned equipment was constant voltage - amount of current the animal received was dependence on resistance of head > Modern equipment is constant current - delivers minimum current (1A for sheep, 1.3A for pigs); senses resistance of head and adjusts voltage accordingly CURRENT INDUCES INSENSIBILITY

Pathogenesis of rabies

Lyssaviruses spread almost entirely by bite wounds Injects infected saliva into muscle, especially neuromuscular junctions Rabies is neurotropic - enters peripheral nervous system via NMJ Virus will travel via PNS to spinal cord then brain - takes some time > Before it gets to brain, travels down PNS to salivary glands (and taste buds) à excretion in saliva, therefore bite wounds are high dangerous In brain, rabies virus causes encephalitis - in vast majority of species, leads to illness, comatose, death In dogs, can cause rabid, aggressive behaviour before comatose stage

The Welfare of Farmed Animals (England) Regulations 2007

Made under the Animal Welfare Act 2006 Applies to farmed animals only, i.e. an animal bred or kept for the production of food, wool or skin or other farming purposes but not fish, reptile, amphibian; laboratory animal; animal living in the wild; or an animal in a competition, show, cultural or sporting activity. Requires the carers of livestock to have access to the Welfare Codes Standards for keepers of all animals (Schedule 1) Additional requirements for keepers of poultry, calves, cattle, pigs, rabbits (Schedules 2-5, 6,7,8,9 respectively)

Detection methods - Trichinella

Magnetic stirrer method for pooled sample digestion is recommended Mechanically assisted pooled sample digestion method/sedimentation technique - acceptable equivalent methods Trichinoscopic examination used in exceptional circumstances however the method should be replaced by more reliable method Serological tests can be useful for monitoring purposes once the test can be validated by a Community reference laboratory - not suitable for detecting Trichinella in individual animals

Bacillus cereus - source of infection

Mainly rice dishes, occassionally pasta, meat or vegetable dishes, dairy, soup sauces, sweet pastry products

Zoonotic potential of Herring gulls

Major scavengers at landfill sites. Roost on reservoirs and grassland. Large volumes of fluid faeces. Primarily gut associated zoonoses: > Salmonellae > Campylobacters > Cryptosporidia > Verotoxigenic E coli > Avian influenza

FSA Strategy 2015-2020

Making sure food is safe and that people are not exposed to unacceptable risk. Making sure food is what it says it is. Gathering and using science, evidence and information, getting better at horizon scanning and anticipating risks. Making a significant change to what consumers know about the food system, and empowering them to use that knowledge. Using a range of new and existing legislative and non-legislative tools to influence businesses to do better for consumers. Making sure that all of us have the right skills, knowledge and behaviours and are supported by the right systems, tools and ways of working to make our best contributions.

Control of Salmonella in breeding flocks

Mandatory testing of UK breeding flocks (suppliers of replacement layer hens), with culling of contaminated populations (Control of Salmonella in Poultry Order 2007; UK Zoonosis Order 1989). This aims to supply Salmonella-free birds as replacement layers and the current target is less than 1% prevalence of Salmonella in breeding flocks by 2009. Slaughter if positive for S. Enteritidis or S. Typhimurium. Vaccines have been highly effective. > Salenvac, Intervet UK; against S. Enteritidis > TAD Salmonella vac E/T (Lohmann Animal Health)

Poultry depopulation

Manual or mechanical catching of birds Issues: Physical damage > End of lay hens (brittle weak bones) > Broilers e.g. hip and wing dislocation > Turkeys (heavy)

Evisceration of poultry

Manual vs. mechanical Attached vs. detached OFFAL CORRELATED TO CARCASES AND PRESENTED FOR POSTMORTEM INSPECTION) Cross contamination risk > POULTRY PRODUCTION IS HIGHLY AUTOMATED > WATER SPRAYS POSITIONED STRATEGICALLY TO WASH OFF/ MINIMISE CROSS CONTAMINATION

Bivalve Molluscan Shellfish and Faecal Pollution

Many (most) of the estuaries and inlets used for shellfish cultivation and harvesting are also used for sewage or animal waste disposal > Both human and animal faeces can contain pathogens that can be transmitted to humans > Human sewage is considered a higher risk than animal waste Bivalve shellfish are efficient sieves - oysters can filter 10-24 litres per hour > As a result, pathogens derived from faecal contamination are concentrated and retained Bivalves are eaten raw or lightly cooked Outbreaks of illness can occur

FSA campaigns on Campylobacter

Many cases not reported Raw poultry meat is the most significant source of Campylobacter for human infections FSA and EFSA surveys show high UK prevalence (65% - 86% - 6th highest prevalence) Options > Feed additive to prevent adhesion (in lab trials indicated a three log reduction) > Water - electrolysed water with high O2 content > Avoid thinning (partial harvesting of flock) > Managed depletion trials to assess impact of reducing the number of days between 1st depletion and clearance on colonisation at farm and > Indirect heating (biomass) > Cameras > Whole gene sequencing (pre-thin, clear, finished product) - analysis of Campylobacter population > Shed design Rapid surface chilling > Birds passed through liquid nitrogen vapour > Reduces bacterial contamination of surface > Freezing whole carcass - labelling requirement, cannot sell meat as fresh and different pricing Steam and ultrasound > Disintegrates bacteria adhesion Electrolysed water > Produced by electrolysis of ordinary tap water containing dissolved NaCl > A hydroxide compound is produced which acts as a disinfectant to kill bacteria. > Very low levels of free available chlorine > Novel, non-tainting formulation - precursors are two approved food additives (listed in annex EU 1129/2011) > Applied as a spray or dip to carcass post evisceration carcass wash Consumers > Do not wash raw chicken > Roast in bag PHE - In 2017, Campylobacter at lowest level since 2008

Dehydration

Many dairy products are spray dried—that is, atomized into a fine mist that is brought into contact with hot air, causing an almost instant removal of moisture content

Cryptosporidium in animals

Many species of Cryptosporidium > C. parvum is zoonotic, C. hominis in humans only > V. common on UK farms > Enteric infection Clinical disease - diarrhoea in young (10-20d) Subclinical carriage > 25% of calves, 10% of lambs Also goats, pigs, alpaca, deer, etc. Control > Classic infectious disease > Medications ineffective > Stocking density/condition of bedding > Very resistant oocysts: many disinfectants ineffective, use steam cleaning. > Sub-clinical excretion common > Feed lambs through a fence

Marek's disease

Marek's disease can present in four forms: > Ocular form - pearl eye > Neural form - enlargement of peripheral nerves causing paralysis > Skin form - lymphomas of feather follicles and skin > Visceral form - organ enlargement and soft grey lymphomas Affects birds from 6 weeks > Caused by a herpes virus > Preference for peripheral nerves > Virus replicates in feather follicles cells

Conditions identifiable at AMI that may require FIPs

Mastitis Moribund, recumbent Orchitis - consider Brucella Slaughtered in lairage Emaciation, poor condition Suspect fever

Environmental contamination

May arise directly from animals (animal by- products), products of animal origin and clinical waste. With impact on humans/ animals/environment

Foodborne zoonoses - viruses

May be environmental contamination, but shellfish are occasionally involved, other food Caliciviruses: > Norwalk-like viruses (NLV), Saporo-like viruses (SLV), small-round-structured-viruses (SRSV) > Global distribution in estuaries / shellfish (wastewater outflow) > Not excluded by freezing or steaming > Usually mild gastroenteritis > Also droplet spread human-human in hospitals, cruise ships etc. > Role of cattle strains? Hepatitis A virus: 300,000 cases in Chinese outbreak in 1988, from sewage polluted clams Hepatitis E Enteroviruses, astroviruses

Traceability of processed meat?

May be linked to a day of production and time, but not really to animal/s Final product required to be labelled, also use by date. Also ID mark.

Orthozoonoses

May be perpetuated in nature by single vertebrate species e.g. rabies

Non-compliance

Means non-compliance with food or feed law, and with the rules for the protection of animal health and welfare;

AutoFom

Measure along length of carcase U shaped cradle with 16 ultrasound transducers positioned in a frame Measure fat and muscle depth of un-eviscerated carcase

How can Meat Hygiene Inspectors help with ante mortem inspections?

Meat Hygiene Inspectors in the UK (sometimes called Official Auxiliaries (OAs)) may help OVs for example: checking the documentation (ID/ FCI) screening, marking and separating abnormal animals for veterinary ante mortem (either routine, clinical inspection or full examination)

The role of diet in meat quality

Meat from animals fed concentrate diets is higher in polyunsaturated fatty acids than from those fed forage-based diets However, concentrate diets result in lower n-3 (omega-3) fatty acids which are considered deficient in the human diet Flavour is stronger in forage based diets (silage/pasture) and UK consumers prefer this, as shown by the higher abnormal flavour scores given to meat from concentrate-fed animals. But this is also mirrored by higher livery flavour in meat from forage fed animals, which for UK consumers, at low levels, is part of a normal beef flavour, but for those consumers used to grain-finished animals (e.g. North Americans) this is considered abnormal.

Modified Atmospehere Packing

Meat is packed under modified atmospheres (MA) that contain higher levels of oxygen and carbon dioxide Microbial deterioration is retarded The uPVC or expanded polystyrene packs are formed to produce trays from a web of plastic The pack has its air evacuated, flushed with the higher gassed atmosphere and then the meat is sealed therein under a top web of laminated, low permeable barrier film At these higher oxygen concentrations (60-80%), oxygen is able to penetrate almost twice as far into the meat giving a deeper layer of the bright redness The carbon dioxide presence (at 20-40%) prevents pseudomonads from spoiling the meat. Ensure pads are used in each tray as these absorb any released drip 'The colder, the better' (less than 2°C) - once packed, further cooling is difficult Good production standards should provide a colour shelf life of about one week at 1°C Ensure your supplier checks for seal integrity and gas compositions using a gas analyser Be aware of... > Shallow trays - the meat should not come into contact with the lid > Meat that has been stored for long periods as it discolours more rapidly than fresh meat

Define fresh meat

Meat that has not undergone any preserving process other than chilling, freezing or quick-freezing, including meat that is vacuum-wrapped or wrapped in a controlled atmosphere. Poultry Meat Marketing Regulations does not classify frozen meat as fresh meat

Salmonella - contamination

Meat: faecal contamination at slaughter Eggs: trans-ovarian and trans-shell Any food: cross contamination at handling Survive (but not grow) in relatively dry conditions

E. Coli O157:H7 - contamination

Meat: faecal contamination at slaughter Milk and cheese: non-pasteurized Any foods / water at risk of faecal contamination: Reported in apple cider (US), potatoes, salads, bean-sprouts, fruit etc Low infectious dose: 10-100 organisms

10 conditons of head (MAX FACTOR)

Melanosis Actinobacillosis/Actinomycosis Xanthosis FMD Abscess Cysticercus bovis Tumours Orf/Osteohaemochromatosis Ringworm

Factors affecting meat spoilage - temperature

Mesophiles (5-45°C) - majority of pathogens Psychrophiles (colder) - substantial number of spoilage bacteria; all usual + yeasts and moulds Thermophiles - grow at higher temperatures e.g., Bacillus, Clostridium Freezing slows or deep freezing stops some multiplication

Lungworms

Metastrongylus apri Muellerius capillaris Dictyocaulus spp.

Contaminats of water

Microbial > Bacteria: - Campylobacter, E. coli, Mycobacteria avium complex, Salmonella, Vibrio sp, Leptospira sv, Pseudomonas, Francisella tularensis, Aeromonas sp, Helicobacter sp > Parasites: - Entamoeba, Cryptosporidium, Cyclospora, Giardia, Microsporidia, Schistosoma, Blastocystis, Fasciola, Toxocara, Toxoplasma, Balantidium, Isospora, Taenia, Strongyloides > Viruses: - Hepatitis E, SARS, Caliciviruses Chemical > Inorganic including radio-nuclides > Organic > Disinfectants

Factors involved in emergence of infectious diseases

Microbial adaptation and change > Antibiotic resistant bacteria > RNA viruses in emerging disease - Primitive RNA viruses: >> Ineffective 'proof-reading' at replication >> Changes introduced quickly >> Occasionally, a more transmissible variant will arise and will be transmitted rapidly - Persistent infection: >> Increased opportunity for viral mutation - Relative resistance to environmental degradation - Failure to generate long-term cross-protective immunity Human susceptibility to infection Climate and weather > Often quoted as major factor > Not necessarily true except for vector-transmitted infectious (virus, protozoa, bacteria) > Malaria may be massively impacted by climate change > Some areas may actually have decreased risk Changing ecosystems > Air pollution may increase severity of respiratory disease Human demographics and behaviour > Economic development and land use > International travel and commerce - Diseases must be diagnosed - More likely when the disease is being spread widely > Technology and industry > Poverty and social inequality > War and famine - Breakdown of public health measures > Lack of political will > Intent to harm / bioterrorism

Illness associated with bivalve molluscan shellfish

Microbiological > Bacteria, Viruses, (Protozoa) Biotoxins > Mainly produced by some species of green algae, called dinoflagellates, or marine diatoms, can contaminate bivalve molluscs - Can produce illness or even death above a certain concentration - Pets, farm animals, wild animals and birds can also be affected by some of these biotoxins > Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning > Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisoning > Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning > Others (Chemical contaminants) > Little evidence for acute effects > Does not rule out effects of chronic exposure Allergies > Reaction can be severe or life threatening

Erysipeloid - human disease

Mild cutaneous form Generalised skin form > Multiple skin lesions > Fever, joint pain, recurrence Septicaemic form > Endocarditis > Thrombocytopaenic purpura Occupational risk Prevention / Treatment > Penicillin > Covering abrasions > Vaccination of pigs to reduce load

Hard cheese manufacture

Milk + lactic acid bacteria Rennet added - semisolid mass Curds cut, stirred and heated Whey drained off Curds shaped into wheels Wheels cured

Other products of animal origin (OPOAO)

Milk and milk products (cheese, yoghurt...), egg and egg products, collagen and gelatine, sausage casings, honey etc.

Sticking

Minimize contamination of carcase during cut Smallest possible cut to accomplish bleeding Two knife system > The first to open the skin and the second to sever the blood vessels Clean hands between sticking each carcase

When prescribing under the cascade for food producing species, apply appropriate withdrawal periods:

Minimum 7 days for eggs and milk; Minimum 28 days for meat from poultry and mammals; Minimum 500 degree days (number of days multiplied by temperature of water) for meat from fish Remember - these are minimum values! > Ideally look at pharmacokinetic data Record medicine use and retain the records for five years

Hanging (Shackling birds)

Mishandling / rough handling results in > Compromise to bird welfare > Downgrading of carcase - Bruised legs - Increased wing damage due to flapping Likely cause of wing flapping at hang on > Pain by pressure of legs > Inversion increases stress levels > Rough shackling > Lighting levels > Noise in shackling bay Calming effect after shackling Run hands down legs and body Keep hold of legs for 1 to 2 seconds o Breast comforting aprons

Gelatine - definition

Mixture of polypeptides made from partial hydrolysis of collagen from bones and hides (irreversibly hydrolysed form of collagen).

HSA - developments

Mobile slaughter unit Cash Poultry Killer Fish stunning machine > Water not removed until end; electrical current stuns them > Part of production standards, e.g. RSPCA assured Argon machine for day-old chicks > Non-aversive inert gas > Advantage over maceration - better aesthetically, day old chicks can be sold to zoos, pet shops

Functional ingredients - seasonings

Modifying the flavour of food products and some to meat Colour, spices herbs, aromatic leaves etc. Essential oils

Quantitative investigations - monitoring and surveillance

Monitoring is the making of routine observations on health, productivity and environmental factors and the recording and transmission of these observations (e.g. milk yields, meat inspection findings). > The identity of individual diseased animals is not usually recorded. Surveillance is a more intensive form of data recording than monitoring. > Involves the collation and interpretation of data collected during monitoring programmes, usually with the recording of the identity of diseased individuals, with a view to detecting changes in a population's health. > It is normally part of control programmes for specific diseases. > The recording of tuberculosis lesions at an abattoir, followed by tracing of infected animals from the abattoir back to their farms of origin, is an example of surveillance. Monitoring or surveillance may use all of the national herd or a few 'sentinel' farms, abattoirs, veterinary practices or laboratories may be selected.

Monitoring and review

Monitoring outcomes of control(s) Review control(s) where indicated

HAACP 4. Establishing and implementing effective monitoring procedures at critical control points;

Monitoring procedures not performed > Ignorance, lack of knowledge > If HACCP plan too complicated, then it is impossible to monitor it Too much meaningless monitoring > Monitoring everything - mixing with quality control. > If there are a few CCP - it should not be a problem

Food contamination

Most foods initially contaminated (bacteria, moulds, yeasts, viruses, parasites) Only a few types of bacteria predominate at spoilage. Some types can cause food poisoning > Infections (e.g. Enterobacteriaceae) > Intoxications (e.g. Clostridium, Bacillus) Sources > Environment (airborne, soil: fruit/veg/crops, water: filter-feeders including rodents and birds) > Host animal (meat, dairy) > Preparation (human handlers, utensils, water)

Bivalve-related RASFF

Most reports due to microbiological causes, with biotoxins being the next most common E. coli most common microbiological cause, followed by Salmonella > Presence of E.coli and Salmonella usually due to failure of regulatory standards Some alerts were due to product-related outbreaks, and some due to presence of microbiological contaminants in a product Currently no regulatory standard for viruses in bivalves

Carcass emaciation

Muscle wastage Sparse jelly-like fat Carcases do not set and become wetter if detained overnight Judgement: > Unfit for human consumption > Decision may need to be delayed > Usually category 2 - may be transmissible disease involved

Enhancing tenderness by hip suspension

Muscles of leg and loin are stretched, producing tenderness Compared to New Zealand lamb Achilles suspension for 4d maturation - NZ lamb has higher acceptability But with aitch (hip)-bone hang or 10d maturation, can improve acceptability With both, can produce a product with higher acceptability than NZ lamb Aitch bone hanging increases tenderness and makes it less variable, compared to Achilles hang In pork, aitch bone hanging not so beneficial in the loin but in the leg, has dramatic effect Maturation doesn't have much effect in leg, but does in loin -> Should mature loin, and if meat is used for fresh consumption, hip suspension will improve leg But lots of pork leg is used for ham, so tenderness less relevant

Carcase and environmental sampling documentation

Must be available to OV: > Most recent 13 weeks of data > Records must fully identify the samples, dates, time, personnel, lab, analysis etc. > Records to be maintained for 18 months

HAACP prerequisites

Must be in place and fully operational before the HACCP study is developed Underpin HACCP and enables it to function effectively Allow the HACCP plan to be more focussed and compact Examples: > The use of approved suppliers > Integrated pest management > Good design of equipment and premises > Labelling and traceability

Carcase sampling: interpretation

Must chart at least 13 weeks of data 6 consecutive satisfactory results: > Can move to fortnightly testing Results outside of critical limits: > Must implement and document corrective procedures and return to weekly sampling. Results do not indicate safety/fitness of the carcase but indicate general hygiene of slaughter and dressing.

Timing of Ante-Mortem Inspection

Must take place within 24 hours of animal's arrival at the slaughterhouse Must occur less than 24 hours before slaughter May need to repeated if animals not slaughtered in time

Infections of animals that can be transmitted to man through milk:

Mycobacterium bovis, (M. paratuberculosis?), brucellosis, Campylobacter, Salmonella, Yersinia, Listeria, streptococcal infections, staphylococcal infections, E coli O157, Coxiella burnetii (Q fever), leptospirosis, anthrax. All, except B. anthracis spores and M. paratuberculosis, are susceptible to standard pasteurisation.

Seal finger

Mycoplasma phococerebrale > URT commensal / opportunistic pathogen of seals Human infection: > Handling; scratches and bites. > Painful orf-like lesion: > Progressive (amputation) > Responsive to tetracyclines.

Meat colour

Myoglobin in meat unexposed to air (dark purple) Myoglobin exchangeable to oxymyoglobin when exposed to oxygen - bright red At low levels of oxygen, myoglobin loses an electron to become metmyoglobin (brown colour in discoloured meat) Within a cut of meat - deep purple colour in centre, red colour on surface and brown layer as interface between the two > With further oxidation, brown layer moves towards the surface and becomes visible Modified atmospheric packaging - lots of oxygen, red meat Vacuum skin packaging - myoglobin, purply meat > Some odour when you open the packaging, which you should let dissipate before cooking (result of lactic acid bacteria)

TSE/BSE testing in cattle

NO TESTING since 1st March 2013 of healthy cattle over 72 months (O72M) TESTING for all cattle at risk O48 months e.g., emergency slaughter and any other suspect at AMI Must test all cattle from Romania/Bulgaria and non-EU countries e.g. healthy cattle FBO+ FSA required to agree Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) > Identification of cattle > Lairage facilities > Sampling technique > Sampling equipment > Traceability of sample with carcase, offal and hide Sample of brain stem 'obex' sent to laboratory > Correlated with carcase Results available over night Positive result: > Triggers investigation on farm > DNA sample taken from carcase > One before, and one after on the slaughter line > Carcase and all body parts of positive cattle disposed of as Category 1 ABP - The carcase and all body parts of the one before and two after on the slaughter line disposed of as Category 1 ABP as well (1B2A rule)

Farm Quality Assurance schemes - Milk production

National Dairy Farm Assured Scheme > Hygiene and Food Safety > Housing and Facilities > Plant and Equipment > Feedingstuffs and Water > Herd Health > Stockmanship and Training > Contingency Procedures

Toxicology of Milk and Milk Products

National Surveillance Scheme (NSS) coordinated by Veterinary Medicines Directorate. > Antibiotics: Impacts on fermentation potential; antimicrobial resistance; consumer hypersensitivity. > Pesticides: Care if cattle treated while lactating. > Radionuclides: 190Bc, 137Cs, 90Sr, 89Sr - via soil-plant-animal-human chain. > Mycotoxins: via raw materials in feed or due to improper storage. > Disinfectants: careless cleaning and rinsing. > Adulterants: water (also formaldehyde and hydrogen peroxide as preservatives). Heavy metals, contaminated water

Natural sausage casings

Natural and manufactured - both collagen-based, also some alginate, cellulosae and plastic casings (peelable) Processing > Rough washed/ cleaned > Removing mucosa and muscularis/ serosa layers (some differences) with knives/ rollers > Salting (minimum 30 days) kills all pathogens > Calibration/ packing/ storing up to 4 years etc. Some SRM rules apply

Bacillus subtilis

Nausea/ vomiting 10min/14h incubation period Maily meat or vegetable with pastry products, cooked meats, poultry products, occasionally by bakery products, crumpets, sandwiches, ethnic meat, seafood dishes

Calf Diphtheria

Necrosis of buccal cavity, larynx and pharynx Caused by Fusobacterium necrophorum Judgement: > Reject affected parts > Total rejection if carcase emaciated or associated with bronchopneumonia

Risk terminology

Negligible - So rare that it does not merit to be considered Very low - Very rare but cannot be excluded Low - Rare but does occur Medium - Occurs regularly High - Occurs very often Very high - Events occur almost certainly

Identification of Sheep and Goats

New guidance since June 2014 based on Regulation EC 21/2004 Animals must be identified > Before 9 months old (or 6 months if housed) > Before they leave their birth holding Lost or illegible tags must be replaced within 28 days Options: > Double tags (>12m) > Single slaughter lamb tag - electronic > Single slaughter lamb tag - non-electronic

E+V Video Image Analysis (VIA) Technology

New technology for objective assessment of meat composition in ruminants Two cameras looking at carcass Assessing composition and predicting yield from different parts of the carcase

Functional ingredients - antimicrobials

Nisin - bacteriocin used into casings or packaging material; helps control pathogens

Preventing spoilage - adding preservatives

Nisin added to cheese from lactic acid bacteria, effective against Gram +ves and spore formers Nitrates/nitrites added to cured meats - inhibits bacteria Smoking fish and meat - releases antibacterial phenolics Pickling food (acetic acid)

Functional ingredients - nitrate and nitrite

Nitrite: Inhibiting spore-forming bacteria e.g. Cl. botulinum. Pigment stabilisation e.g. heat stable pink colour. Influences flavour too. Nitrite may be toxic - form nitrosamines e.g. when frying (bad for health). Nitrate - less used in long drying products

Would the extinction of bees threaten human survival?

No 90% of calorie intake from crops that don't require insect pollination - banana, barley, cassava, coconut, corn, millet, potato, rye, rice, sorgham, sweet potato, wheat However, nutritional security of food would be threatened > Lots of micronutrients that come from a range of different crops would disappear > Already 2 billion micronutrient deficient people in the world Crops that have essential need for bee pollination: > Almond, apple, brazil nut, cashew, cocoa, macadamia, passion fruit, gourds, melons, pumpkins, vanilla, watermelon Crops that have important need for bee pollination: > Apricot, avocado, broad beans, coffee, cherry, coconut, cotton, cucumber, mango, peach, plum, soybean, starfruit, strawberry, sunflower

Is humane slaughter possible?

No (minimal) avoidable distress in the immediate period preceding slaughter. > The best place to slaughter an animal is in familiar surroundings, by someone who is familiar with it > But in order for meat to be sold, it must be inspected in a licensed premises > Transporting between a farm and slaughter - key time when welfare is important No perception of impending death. > Evidence suggests animals do not sense impending death Painless. > Achievable by using correct equipment, properly Instantaneous (within 0.15s, before animal can feel pain): > Unconsciousness persisting until death (e.g. bleeding); or > Death (stun/kill)

Fitness for transport

No animal shall be transported unless it is fit for the intended journey Means of transport i.e. "they are designed, constructed, maintained and operated so as avoid injury and suffering and ensure safety of animals" Article 3 All animals shall be transported in conditions guaranteed not to cause them injury or unnecessary suffering Welfare of Animals During Transport - applies to all vertebrate animals transported for commercial reasons European Regulation (EC) 1/2005 on the protection of animals during transport and related operations Welfare of Animals (Transport) Order 2006 (WATO) (and equivalents in SWANI) GENERALLY, for ALL transport: fit animals, competent people, minimum times, vehicles designed, constructed and maintained to avoid injury (floors & height) > Water, feed and rest are given if needed

Outbreak Exit Strategy to Regain Disease Free Status

No further confirmed cases (& all suspect Vet enquiries completed) Clear Surveillance testing programme completed Final Cleansing & Disinfection carried out satisfactorily on all Infected Premises- this is usually the rate determining factor for regaining national disease freedom (owner responsible for costs) A specified time period elapse since final C&D or last confirmed case

UK position on Trichinella

No human cases from meat produced in UK since 1969. Last human cases from imported/smuggled meat from Serbia (2000) Testing adult sows/boars, farmed/wild boar, horses, and those pigs exported to some third countries Testing foxes (indicator animals) - 2 positive NI Defining controlled housing conditions?

Criteria/Basic guiding principles of new regulations re: inspection procedures

No increased risk to public/animal health and welfare, minimal handling Take into consideration that each slaughterhouse is different e.g. layout, ante/post-mortem arrangements, marking live pigs/carcases (traceability) up to post-mortem inspection point OV responsible for ante mortem inspection personally. > Both OV/MHI responsible for post-mortem inspection (usual vigilance to be given to Notifiable diseases and to satisfy export requirements) Criteria (over prescription!) - not appropriate, not possible to encounter every condition Instead, based on the current Collection and Communication of Inspection Results (CCIR) list, to help; > OVs/MHIs to exercise their professional judgement > FBOs to fulfil their responsibilities e.g. an important role of FCI, segregation of live pigs, marking carcases etc. Minimise inconsistencies by agreeing the majority of common abnormalities which may require FIPs Set up criteria > To support OV's judgement at ante mortem inspection > To help OVs to decide whether to carry out VIPs or FIPs

Why is clean water important

No safe drinking water - almost 1 billion people lack access to an improved supply Diarrhoeal disease - 2 million annual deaths attributable to unsafe water, sanitation and hygiene Cholera - more than 50 countries still report cholera to WHO Cancer and tooth/skeletal damage - millions exposed to unsafe levels of naturally-occurring arsenic and fluoride Schistosomiasis - an estimated 260 million infected Emerging challenges - increasing use of wastewater in agriculture important for livelihood opportunities, but also associated with serious public health risks

Terminology used in slaughter legislation

No slaughter licences - these are now called the Certificate of Competences (CoCs), which are also required for other associated activities e.g. handling, restraint etc. > CoCs are no longer issued by the Meat Hygiene Service (MHS) > MHS does not exist as an organisation since 2010 - it has been replaced by the Food Standards Agency Operations Group (FSAOG). Official Veterinarians (OVs) work in abattoirs on behalf of Defra, as the UK Central Competent Authority (CCA) for welfare, enforce compliance with welfare rules and regulations. Also, in the new welfare legislation the Business Operator (BO) term is used. > On the other hand, for the purpose of the Hygiene Regulations the Food Business Operator (FBO) term is used.

Avian tuberculosis

Nodules can be found in all organs mainly in: > Lungs > Liver > Spleen Caused by Mycobacterium avium Chronic infection affecting older birds Usually in contact with wild birds

bTB infection levels in Reactor Herds varies:

Non infection Low or early infection-undetected Culture positive- confirmed Visible Lesions-confirmed Age of Reactor animal Reactor herd= OTFS; Officially TB Free status Confirmed herd= OTFW; Withdrawal of OTFS

The Welfare of Farmed Animals (England) Regulations 2007 - Poultry (Schedules 2 - 5)

Non-cage systems, laying hens (2); Cage systems; > enriched (4) > un-enriched (conventional, (3) > UN-ENRICHED CAGE SYSTEMS banned from 1/1/ 2012 Detailed requirements where applicable inc; > Drinking trough length > Feed trough length > Space allowance e.g. 750cm² per hen in enriched cages > Floor specifications > Claw shortening devices > Nest numbers > Perches > Run size and pop-holes > Stocking density (5) applies to all methods of keeping laying hens

Preventing spoilage - irradiation

Non-ionizing (UV): > Surfaces only > Directly bacteriostatic, plus ozone effect. Ionizing > Source: gamma rays from cobalt-60, requires water - peroxides - oxidation > Can be used on chilled or frozen products > Can be used on pre-packaged product (penetrates <1m) > Leaves no toxic residues, but changes nutrients? > Licences permitted for herbs/spices, fruit/veg, cereals, poultry and seafood

Safe food/ feed

Not defined as such, however the same law requires that both food and feed 'shall not be placed on the market" if unsafe: Food shall be deemed to be unsafe if it is considered to be: > injurious to health; > unfit for human consumption. > contaminated Feed shall be deemed to be unsafe for its intended use if it is considered to: > have an adverse effect on human or animal health; > make the food derived from food-producing animals unsafe for human consumption.

Glanders/ Farcy

Not in UK since 1928 Burkholderia mallei, a gram negative bacillus Disease in Equine (Notifiable) Acute Form (Donkeys, mules) > Fever, cough, dyspnoea, thick nasal discharge, ulcers death Chronic Form (Horses) > Coughing, malaise, weight loss, nasal discharge, ulcers, skin nodules Human Disease > Localised cutaneous lesions, pulmonary, septicaemia, fever, malaise, muscle aches, chest pains > Case fatality: 95% (Untreated)

Why are ingredients added to meat?

Not only because of cost Non-meat ingredients may be added for reasons, e.g. increasing shelf life, reduced fluid, improved flavour and juiciness, improved colour For final consumers, the food (not only meat) must be labelled accurately

Hennessy grading probe for lambs

Not widely used (more abdominal and intermuscular fat, rather than subcutaneous fat)

Bovine Tuberculosis

Notifiable (endemic) Disease in cattle (and others) > Pneumonia with later generalised infection > Increase in cases during 1990s: cattle movements, management, badger dynamics? Meat borne - significance? Mainly milk borne: Pasteurisation of milk important Can also be spread to humans by: abattoir aerosols, human-human, cow-pet-human Disease in humans: > Cervical scrofula, pneumonia, bone, other > 1935: 2500 deaths/year > 2007: 26 cases treated > 2017: 40 UK cases Slaughter of cattle reacting to the TB test Requirements set out in EC 854/2004 (H3) Slaughter: > Slaughter separately > Avoid contamination of other carcases, the line, and staff (PPE) Inspection: > Localised lesions in a number of areas or organs requires total rejection of carcase and offal. > A lesion in only one organ and lymph node requires only local rejection

Zoonoses - classification

Notifiable (in animals) > Anthrax, tuberculosis, Brucella, rabies Reportable > Salmonella > Non-statutory/'orphan' zoonoses - any zoonoses for which no specific animal-health derived legislation exists (not Salmonella) - Q-fever, orf, Leptospira, erysipelas, VTEC O157, Cryptosporidium

Carcass lesions - Enzootic Bovine Leukosis (EBL)

Notifiable Disease of cattle Retrovirus causing > Leukaemia > Multiple lymphosarcomas - Mainly in the lymph nodes Any tumour in cattle are suspicious except:- > Papillomas (warts) > Haemangiomas Judgement: > Carcase and offal rejected > Contact APHA of suspicion < Not a zoonosis

Bacillus anthracis

Notifiable disease Not a food problem in UK Risk e.g. imported drums

American Foulbrood

Notifiable disease - Government responsible for control Caused by Paenibacillus larvae Gram positive spore former Infects young larvae 1-3 days > Disease symptoms mainly pupal (or just as they are transitioning from larva to pupa) > AFB - After capping Global distribution Dip stick in cell - characteristic roping Sunken cappings, discoloured, pepper pot brood patterns Scale from dead larvae Transmission > Robbing (bees that are invading another hive and stealing the stored honey) > Drifting > Swarming > Honey (survives in honey for decades) > Equipment (and bees) - Can be spread by beekeepers) If you find a case of AFB, inform a bee inspector and they will burn the colony - effective treatment

European Foulbrood

Notifiable disease - Government responsible for control Disease affects 4-5 day old honey bee larva (EFB - Early) Larvae twists, loses segmentation, melts down and produces a rubbery scale Caused by Melissococcus plutonius Gram positive, non-spore forming anaerobe > Takes over gut Global distribution Transmission - same as for AFD Only under control recently

Aujeszky's Disease Surveillance: Pigs

Notifiable disease of pigs Herpes virus UK currently free of disease MOC Instructions > Aujeszky's disease: National Serum Survey > Purpose: To demonstrate continuing freedom from Aujeszky's disease, a serum sample must be submitted for serological examination from every slaughtered breeding boar. > Who collects samples: The OV is responsible for collecting samples, or delegating the task to a suitably trained MHI.

History of BSE Control

November 1986 - BSE identified in UK July 1988 - Ruminant feed ban GB -key animal health protection Nov 1989 - Specified bovine offal banned in food - key human health protection March -BSE Crisis August 1996 - Reinforced feed ban January 2001 - EU Total feed ban May 2006 - EU Export ban on UK lifted May 2008 - OIE Controlled risk status

Outbreaks of vibrio infections

Number of recorded outbreaks is starting to increase Records of wound infections from contaminated seawater in Baltic area, particularly when seawater temperature was unusually high Possible spread of pathogenic vibrio strains by ocean currents, especially across Pacific ocean down Pacific coast of South America

Flexibility to ante-mortem inspection by OV at slaughterhouse

OV or Approved veterinarian carry out AMI on farm (poultry, pigs) and FCI received. > Not carried out in the UK except Emergency slaughter Meat Hygiene Inspector satisfied that > FCI does not point to possible problems for food safety > Checks indicate animal welfare not compromised > Satisfactory health certificate

Official Veterinarians (OVs) enforcement tasks in food producing establishments

OVs are authorised to enforce compliance with... OVs reject unfit meat (the courts condemn) OVs can detain, seize and recommend for condemnation (meat and animals) OVs take (can take) the evidence e.g. photo, video, documents etc. OVs recommend for prosecution (The Courts prosecute) OVs formal enforcement always begin with verbal approach and if not successful, then to continue with letters/official notices as appropriate, e.g. Remedial Action Notices, Hygiene Improvement Notices Avoid to use the terms, the OVs are here 'to ensure' or 'to make sure'. It is more accurate to say that: > OVs are personally responsible for the outcome of Ante and Post-mortem Inspection and; > OVs are responsible for the verification of Good Hygiene Practices (GHP) and HACCP based principles, but they are not responsible for HACCP and GHP > OVs don't have an overall responsibility for welfare/ hygiene > OVs are responsible to audit/verify the compliance with welfare and hygiene laws. OV's role under Hygiene Regulations > Inspection tasks - to detect abnormalities (visible/not visible) that are relevant to public health, animal health, animal welfare > Auditing tasks - GHP and HAACP procedures, e.g. structure, equipment, records, cleaning, dressing etc. - To verify that FBOs apply procedures continuously and properly

Traceability - responsibilities of Officials

OVs responsible for the Health Marks application and for Identification mark application > At time of post-mortem inspection, decision is made on whether meat is unfit/fit for human consumption > With red meat, applied directly to carcase in ink Same number can be used for cut meat in cutting plants (under veterinary supervision) > In this case, veterinarians only responsible to verify the system of application of the identification marks Policy issues: Risk assessment, policy development, legislation Rapid Alert System for Food and Feed (RASFF) > Withdraw - taking food off shelves > Recall - telling final consumers that food should be returned

Overwrapping or Modified Atmosphere Packing

OW equipment and materials are cheaper OW requires in-store butchery, MAP allows centralised packing MAP has longer shelf life (<7 days) c.f. OW (1-2 days) MAP does not leak, c.f. OW

Movement recording/documents

Obligatory model documents provided by each country Contains all the information required in Art 6./ Annex C Can use to record welfare and food chain information Enables individual reporting for: > animals born after 31 December 2009 from 1 January 2011 > animals born before 31 December 2009 and > not moving to slaughter from 31 December 2011 Batch information for slaughter lambs Electronic production of the movement records permitted Retained for 3 years

Brucellosis - routes for human exposure

Occupational: > Ingestion, inhalation (pressure washers), inoculation > Farmer, veterinarian, abattoir worker Food-borne: > Raw milk & unpasteurized cheese > Uncooked meat from infected animals Survival for prolonged periods in environment (>8 months in manure and soil) especially at 15°C or below Avoid non-pasteurized milk and milk-products in at-risk areas

Focal Interstitial Nephritis

Occurs exclusively in young calves Involves one or both kidneys Small, variable sized, pale circular nodules in cortex ? E. coli infection Judgement: > Affected kidneys are rejected

Degenerative Necrotic Myositis

Occurs in cattle Gelatinous fluid and greenish necrotic material in the muscle > Can be sequel to injection injury Frequently occurs in: > Shoulder muscle of adults > Rear leg muscle of calves Judgement: > Affected area rejected as unfit > Consider testing carcase for residues of veterinary medicines

Pre-Stunning Shocks

Occurs when bird makes contact with 'live' waterbath before stunning Factors predisposing > Entry ramp is wet and in physical contact with 'live' waterbath > Slow line speeds > Poorly designed entry ramps > Dipped shackle line - Especially turkeys - wings hang lower than head

OiE, Paris

Office International des Epizooties = World Organisation for Animal Health Intergovernmental organisation responsible for improving animal health worldwide. It is recognised as a reference organisation by the World Trade Organization (WTO) and in 2013 had a total of 178 Member Countries. The OIE maintains permanent relations with 45 other international and regional organisations and has Regional and sub-regional Offices on every continent.

LAIRAGE: Different Regulations

Official Controls New Regulations 625/2017 giving powers to approve > Structural (part of approval): adequate, sufficient etc. lairage, facilities related to throughput etc. > Design, construction, maintenance, operations, capable of watering and feeding animals (if necessary) C&D, and pens for sick animals (some exceptions) etc. Regulation 1099/2009 on the protection of animals at the time of killing Article 3 (1) > "animals shall be spared any avoidable pain, distress or suffering during their killing and related operations" > Animal Welfare Officers (AWOs) > Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) for each killing and related operations > Certificate of Competence (COC) and/or slaughterman licence

Badger to Cattle Control Measures

On Farm Biosecurity (contact rate) > prevent badger access to stored feed or housed cattle > prevent cattle access to high risk pasture areas/latrines > Only likely to reduce not eliminate Badger Vaccination (% badger susceptible) > ? short fall in uptake/delivery rate required to give threshold herd immunity. Oral form is needed > ? efficacy > ? cost vs. benefit timescales & funding source Regulated Badger Cull (% badger infected) > Outcome influenced by: safe(licensed), humane (competency) & efficient (area, stock density timescale; coordinated, sustained, perturbation & reproductive rate, private funds; cost short cuts?

Role of APHA in farm animal welfare

On the farm During transport and prior to export (covered elsewhere) At markets At slaughter (covered elsewhere, not included in this talk). > The Welfare of Animals at the Time of Killing (England) Regulations 2015. > We get involved with seasonal slaughter (turkeys, ducks, geese around Christmas)

Taenia solium

Oncospheres develop into cystercerci in muscle Scolex attaches to intestine Adults in small intestine Not in UK Humans ingesting undercooked pork (infested with cysts) develop Tapeworm Humans ingesting proglottids may also develop neurocysticercosis (epileptic signs), significant problem in developing countries Control: ABP safe disposal, hygiene when living close to pigs, sewage, water, education etc.

Taenia saginata - post mortem findings

One cyst - localised - viable/ non-viable (caseous/calcified) > Reject the affected organ or carcase part > Require cold storage for remainder More than one cyst - localised - viable/non-viable > As above More than one cyst - generalised - VIABLE > Reject the carcase and offal - NON-VIABLE > Reject the affected organ(s) or carcase(s) part > Require cold storage for remainder Legally speaking, category 2 but often rejected as category 1

Actual approvals

One or more visits making an assessment of: > Structure/ equipment - in accordance with the actual or intended use > Documents (Good Hygiene Practices (GHP) and procedures based on Hazard Analysis and Critical Controls Point System (HACCP) principles in accordance with the actual or intended use) - Do not make it too bureaucratic! > Working practices - verifying the reality e.g. hygiene, welfare

Live animals (transport/lairaging - moving to slaughter)

Only healthy clean animals may go for slaughter. Must be accompanied by Food Chain Information and, other animal health movement documents see Livestock vehicles after delivering animals may or may not be C&D at the abattoir (a commercial decision) Potential hygiene issues with live animals: > Not careful handling as stressed animals more likely to shed pathogens into environment. > Not having procedures to deal with dirty animals which is a commercial decision e.g. clipping, clean straw and/or slowing down the line speed (part of HACCP) for red meat (cattle & sheep) > Dirty vehicles transferring pathogens back to farm e.g. Campylobacter in poultry

Inspection of heads - sheep and goats

Only necessary when head for human consumption (CAN be scalded - subject to SRM) Visual inspection of throat, mouth, tongue, retropharyngeal and parotid lymph nodes

Inspection of heads - bovines < 6 weeks

Only retropharyngeal lymph nodes incised No incision of masseters

European or Western honeybee (Apis mellifera)

Only species of honeybee in Europe Apis mellifera has 24 recognised subspecies and three major lineages This species has been exported around the world

Carbon dioxide anaesthesia

Only used for pigs (and poultry). > Used in poultry as a gas mixture CO2 concentration above 70% (90%+ in practice). > Pigs tolerate CO2 differently 15 seconds to become unconscious (induction period) > CO2 is aversive in concentrations above 30% > Will produce carbonic acid by mixing with moisture in membranes of nose and mouth Excitation period. > Results in paddling of feet > Occur after unconsciousness is induced - loss of suppression of brainstem reflexes > Distressing to watch Relaxed carcase. > Easy to handle Meat quality advantages. > Electrical stunning causes muscles to tear and broken bones > Do not get the same degree of haemorrhage using CO2 High capital investment > Expensive equipment > Usually found in high throughput, single species pig abattoirs

Pithing

Only used to kill cattle, sheep and goats NOT destined for human or animal consumption Used to be routine in cattle slaughter in slaughterhouses prior to 2001 - now not allowed due to TSE regulations > Was performed due to welfare of slaughter men > Exhausts brainstem reflexes, suppresses reflexes - which are dangerous > Foreleg clamps facilitate safer bleeding in the absence of pithing Laceration/ destruction of the hind-brain, brainstem and upper spinal cord. Achieved by inserting a flexible rod, cane or other (wire coat hanger, screwdriver) through the bolthole, pushing it down through the foramen magnum, and thrusting it back and forth a number of times. Effective, but aesthetically very unpleasant! Implications for animal welfare > Pithing destroys the brain stem (medulla oblongata), effectively killing the animal > A DEAD ANIMAL IS NOT A WELFARE PROBLEM

Salmonella - ideal growth conditions

Optimum growth at 37°C (range 7-45°C) pH range for growth: 6.6-8.2

Chronic bee paralysis

Originally two types: > Type 1: trembling; flightless - often crawling in grass; displaced (top bars) > Type 2: "black robbers", "mal noir", hairless, black, shiny/greasy, nibbled wings Becoming more of a problem recently Symptoms: Die after 5-7 days of shaking Causative agent: > CBPV > Anisometric (asymmetrical) > Particles, 30-60 nm x 20 nm > Very interesting RNA virus > Multiple transmission routes - Injection - Mechanical/ topical/ cuticular - Faecal/oral - Some evidence of transovarial - Not transmitted by Varroa

Contact zoonoses: skin - Cowpox

Orthopoxvirus with a rodent host (Microtus bank voles). Acute disease in cats: > Initial abscess at point of infection. > Pyrexia and disseminated ulcerating / crusting lesions on skin. > Spontaneous recovery. Human disease: > Localised orf-like lesion on finger, arm or face. > Resolves in 4-5 weeks > Cat is the usual contact species.

Salmonella

Over 2600 serovars Gram negative rods Strains identified by serotype, phage type, DNA type Human adapted serotypes rare in UK: S. Typhi and S. Paratyphi Non-adapted serotypes are associated with food borne disease: > Typically subclinical infection in livestock: S. Typhimurium, S. Enteritidis Animal adapted serotypes are of variable human pathogenicity: S. Dublin, S. Abortus-ovis, S. Cholerae-suis

Do I need a transporter authorisation?

Over 65km > Established in GB? - Under 8 hours - apply for Type 1 short journey transporter authorisation + Certificate of competence - Over 8 hours - apply for Type 2 long journey transporter authorisation + Certificate of competence + Generic contigency plan + Vehicle and containers inspected and approved (some exceptions in UK for <12h journey, e.g. poultry requires no vehicle inspection) > Established in another EU member state - Apply to relevant authority in EU member state Under 65km > You do not require transporter authorisation

How does contamination occur?

Over-dosage of substance in feed and/or misuse of a medicinal product Environmental contamination Ingestion of excessive quantities of substances normally found in the environment

The Home Office - Veterinary Inspectorate:

Oversight and implantation of the Animals (Scientific Procedures) Act 1986. Review of the ethics, cost-benefit, design and execution of research using live vertebrate animals

Failure of antimicrobials not always associated with resistance

Owner does not comply with prescription. Incorrectly stored / out of date preparations. Inappropriate antibiotic prescribed Insufficient dose or duration. Cannot reach the infected site. Poor host response due to systemic disease. Inactivation of antibiotic by feed ingredients, mineral salts in water.

EU two-year norovirus surveillance study

Oysters sampled from production areas and dispatch centres in Member States producing oysters (plus Norway) Sampling plan based on production data Limit of detection/ quantification vary widely between laboratories, and differences between norovirus genogroups Percentage of samples positive for norovirus and the mean number of copies per gram increase from production areas classified as A -> B -> C Higher prevalence of norovirus in winter months For samples taken at dispatch areas (ready for consumption after required treatment): higher number of samples positive for norovirus if the oysters were originally from class B rather than class A production areas Levels also fluctuate widely within single site

Pig identification

PRIMO - Pigs (Records, Identification and Movement) Order 2011) Permanent herdmark > All pigs going to slaughter > Pigs over 1 year old Temporary mark > Pigs under 1 year old moving to another holding Methods of identification (AB1234) > Slap mark on each shoulder > Ear tags - Must be capable of surviving carcass processing > Ear Tattoo > Temporary paint marks - Must last until reaches destination

Why has steak tenderness improved in recent years?

Packaging and adoption of best practice improved tenderness, so best retailer in 2011 matched worst retailer in 2015

Zoonotic Pox Viruses in Farm Animals

Parapoxviruses Cattle > Bovine Papular Stomatitis > Pseudocowpox Sheep > Orf

After research and development, companies submit a dossier to the VMD:

Part I is administrative Quality (Part II) of the final form (purity, isomerism, stability and manufacturing quality) > Might dictate shelf life and storage conditions for the product Safety (Part III) for the end user (person administering/applying product), consumer (products for food-producing species) and the environment Efficacy (Part IV) and safety in the target species as well as pharmacology, resistance etc.

Codes of Practice related to animal welfare

Part of the 1968 Act empowered Ministers to issue Codes of Practice and this went on to be incorporated into the Animal Welfare Act 2006 Codes of Recommendations for the Welfare of Livestock - most livestock types Expand on provisions within legislation giving further guidance Codes aim to encourage keepers to follow the highest standard of husbandry. In particular recognising crucial role of the stockperson. Failure to comply with a Code is not an offence but may be used as evidence in a prosecution. NO CODES for ratites (emu, ostrich, rhea)

Combustion toxicology

Particulate matter (PM2.5, PM10) Asphyxiant gases: CO, CO2, HCN Organic irritants: formaldehyde, acrolein Complex molecules: PAH (polyaromatic hydrocarbons - liver disease), dioxins & furans, isocyanates Heavy metals & contaminants in ash

Implementing wildlife surveillance in UK

Passive > Submissions to APHA Active > Avian influenza (APHA) > West Nile Fever (APHA) > Bat Lyssa viruses (APHA) > Cetacian Strandings Investigation Program (CISP) (DEFRA) > Garden Bird Health Initiative (Universities Federation for Animal Welfare - UFAW) > Amphibian Disease and Mortality Project (IoZ)

Ventilation of Vehicles

Passive ventilation > Unless vehicle is moving there is little ventilation Air movement > Same direction as vehicle is travelling > Exits at the sides and the front > Air flow in opposite direction in trailer

Contact zoonotic infections - bite/scratch associated

Pasteurella multocida Capnocytophagia canimorsus Rabies virus Bartonella henselae

Heat treatment of milk

Pasteurisation (15 sec at 72°C; meeting microbiological specs, alkaline phosphatase negative, immediate cooling and packing) (CCP). Ultraheat treatment (1 sec at 135°C; meeting microbiological specs, immediate sterile packing) Sterilisation (above 100°C; complying with microbiological specs and turbidity test). Avoidance of recontamination from environment or unpasteurised product. Appropriate storage temperature (less than 6°C).

Wildlife: bite associated infection

Penetrating wounds from most species: > Pasteurella multocida. > Aeromonas spp (e.g. Pike). Rat bite fever: > Spirillum minus, Streptobacillus moniliformis (see above). Bat bites: > EBL2 Snake bite envenomation Tick bite associated infections.

Sources of water contamination

People and Animals Municipal: > Landfill > Sewage > Waste water treatment facilities > Homes and gardens Industry: > Discharges from industrial processes Agricultural: > Farms and farmland

Exposure of people to zoonotic hazards

People are not significantly exposed to environmental zoonoses in everyday life (Indirect) foodborne exposures are relatively common Small risks from pets and countryside/ leisure pursuits Occupational - farms, abattoirs BUT it all changes when people are invited onto farms

Anthrax in ruminants

Peracute infection Rapid onset Sudden death Bloody discharge from body orifices Incomplete rigor mortis Rapidly bloat

Peritonitis & Perihepatitis in poultry

Peritonitis > Inflammation of the membranes lining the abdominal cavity and organs Perihepatitis > Inflammation of the liver capsule Often dry caseous or mucopurulent exudates in the abdominal cavity May be 2° to previous conditions > Trauma, Salpingitis, Enteritis, Hepatitis Commonly isolated bacteria: E. coli, Salmonella, Pasteurella Possible causes: > Immunosuppression caused by IBD > Marek's disease > Respiratory disease > Poor farm hygiene

8 signs of swine fever - PURE SINS

Petechia in kidneys Ulcers in ileo-caecal valve Rash Evidence of pneumonia Strawberry coloured lymph nodes Infarcts in spleen Necrotic patches on skin Stick marks/ tattoos appear black

7 signs of swine erysipelas (PIE CARS)

Petechial haemorrhage in kidneys Infarcts in kidneys Endocarditis (vegetative) Congestion of lymph nodes Arthritis Rash Splenic enlargement

Pharmaceutical contaminants

Pharmaceuticals, personal care products, endocrine disruptors, illicit drugs. Surveyed in 2 Welsh rivers > Anti-bacterials, anti-inflammatories, antiepileptic drugs. > Low concentrations but little legislation on limits. Need for ongoing research to understand impacts on biodiversity and antimicrobial resistance.

Post-authorisation surveillance

Pharmacovigilance > Suspected adverse event reporting > EU wide database > Trend analysis Inspections and Investigations / Enforcement > Inspection of manufacturing sites, veterinary practices, wholesale dealers, SQP premises > Enforcement team can take appropriate action if necessary Antimicrobial use and resistance Residues testing > Monitoring for drug residues in UK products from 'food-producing animals' (meat, dairy products, fish, game and honey) > Imported products from non-EU countries

Trichinella in the carcase

Pigs (outdoor pigs and feral wild boars) and horses are tested routinely Difficult (not possible) to detect with the naked eye Cysts are found in skeletal muscle > 0.5 to 0.2mm > Oval greyish white structures Judgement: > Affected carcase and offal are rejected

Time to loss of brain function following various sticking methods

Pigs - chest stick - 18s Sheep - chest stick = 4.5s, both carotid arteries and both jugular veins (full cut) = 14s, one carotid artery and one jugular vein (half cut) = 70s Cattle - full cut - 55s Calves - chest stick = 5s, full cut = 17s Pigs - only use chest/thoracic stick due to amount of flesh around neck Sheep - most common method is full cut > Half cut results in much longer time for death > Current legislation requires full cut, whereas previous legislation required only half cut Cattle - longer time for death from severing carotid arteries compared to pigs/sheep, because they receive 20% of blood supply to brain from vertebral artery (circle of Willis)

Highlights on welfare in transport

Pigs and Poultry in particular (and others) - increased defecation and increased shedding of food borne pathogens (e.g. Campylobacter, E.coli) > Stress; Mixing before, longer journey time, temperature, stocking density (usually less space than during the rest of their lives), unsuitable vehicles, inappropriate handling... Other issues / consequences of poor welfare and stress (poultry): > Increased cortisol production and prostaglandin (protective) in guts reduced- so reduced cell function, consequently -> bacterial invasion > Bone breakage, skin lacerations, skin and feather contamination Design/structural provisions for all means of transport and minimum space allowances (based on weight) are laid down; > Vehicles must have a non-slip floor > Lighting sufficient for inspection > Protection from inclement weather > Constructed to prevent the animals escaping or falling out > Adequately ventilated > Carry suitable equipment for loading and unloading > Container should be kept upright > Vehicle must be capable of being cleansed and disinfected > Space allowance: Detailed minimum space allowances are laid down based on the weight of the animal and it's mode of travel For example:- - Poultry each weighing between 3kg and 5kg, travelling by road in containers should be given a floor area of 115cm2 per bird - For a pig weighing 100kg travelling by sea the space allowance is 0.85m2

Post-mortem Inspection

Plant inspection assistants (PIAs) and Meat Hygiene Inspectors (MHIs) (OV responsible) Offal & Cavity (where possible / necessary) > Diseased > Damaged > Contaminated > Not eviscerated > Missing viscera

Welfare of Animals at Markets Order 1990 (WAMO) (as amended)

Please note there is a separate legislation on horses Local Authority role, not APHA. 'Animal' means cattle, sheep, goats, other ruminants, pigs, rabbits and poultry Offence to permit an unfit (includes infirm, diseased, ill, injured and fatigued) animal to be exposed for sale in a market. No person shall permit an animal to be exposed for sale in a market if it is likely to give birth while it is there. Offence to cause or permit any injury or unnecessary suffering to an animal at a market. The Order outlines how animals at markets are; > Handled e.g. not lifted dragged or suspended by their legs, head, ears, neck, feet, horns, fleece, tail or wings > Controlled e.g. not use excessive force to control an animal > Accommodated e.g. types of animal penned together; provision of bedding for calves; pen size; floors > Fed and watered > Treated by a veterinary inspector to protect the animal from suffering. - APHA may serve notices to retain/and or treat animals at market Lambs & goat kids with unhealed navels: > Must not be presented for sale in this condition. Protection of lambs & goat kids: > Under 4 weeks of age must be removed from the market within 4 hours and kept in solid sided, draught free pens

Types of epidemic curves

Point - e.g. food poisoning after catered event - curve reflects range of date of onset Continuous - e.g. influenza in flu season Propagated - incubation period causes gaps Intermittent - multiple small outbreaks

How are poisons acquired?

Poisons are usually acquired from the environment, diet, water supply, ambient air or as a result of medicine overdose. Cattle seem to be the species most frequently affected probably because they are inquisitive and ingest materials they encounter, especially if these are palatable. Most poisoning incidents occur as a result of ingested substances but some can be absorbed through the skin or inhaled, as seen with toxic gases accumulating in buildings, slurry pits and silos. Environmental contamination is never homogeneous whilst feed contamination is only homogeneous if the poison has been incorporated into a mixed feed. Nutritional deficiencies can cause pica, which increases the risk of ingesting poisons, as may Inadequate or incorrect environmental stimulus leading to abnormal behaviours. Malicious poisoning of farm animal species is unusual but livestock can pick up baits laid for other species.

Responsibilities for water supply

Policy with Drinking Water Inspectorate (DEFRA) Policing of industry, and enforcing legislation. > Collation / publication of industry sampling data. > Own spot check sampling > Consumer feedback. Water sampling: > During treatment, storage, at consumer taps > Frequency depending on sample point and test.

Summary of bees and VPH

Pollination services are immensely valuable Honeybee is an important food producing animal Global trade in products is big business Honeybees suffer from range of range of pests diseases Vets can > Dispense treatments for statutory (OTC) and non-statutory diseases/pests > Carry our 'veterinary checks' for imported honey

Define pollution

Pollution - 'The release into any environmental medium of substances which are capable of causing harm to man or any living organism supported by the environment' > Harm includes interference - with ecological systems - harm to property, and; - offence to any of the senses.

Congenital abnormalities in poultry

Polydactylia > Extra digits or limbs are common in poultry > Usually associated with mutation of the vents Can cause problems with automated evisceration machines

Symptoms of vitamin D toxicity in pigs

Polydipsia Renal pathology > Swollen cortices > Thickened medulla > Nephropathy Van Kossa stain for calcium > Lots of calcium deposits > Toxic for vitamin D analysis

New and emerging infections

Poorly defined, unclear epidemiology, zoonotic potential unclear. 60% of known human pathogens are zoonotic 75% of emerging infectious diseases have roots in zoonotic pathogens e.g., H1N1 (2009) pandemic swine influenza

Risk Factors and management options for Campylobacter

Positive associations: > Cooking / handling raw poultry > Eating chicken > Eating chicken at fried chicken takeaways > Eating under-cooked pork > Drinking undisinfected water (bottled water?) Management options > Farm > Slaughter > Kitchen

Uncut or badly bled poultry

Possible welfare implication in stun only systems > Potential of live bird entering the scald tank alive Can be due to: > Flocks of uneven size > Poorly adjusted and maintained equipment > Failure of back-up slaughterman > Bleeding times insufficient

Potable/wholesome/clean water

Potable - Fit to drink. Clean - Terms used in EC legislation > To wash fish, vegetables Wholesome - Term used in UK legislation

Over-scald

Poultry immersed in scald tank for prolonged periods > Usually due to line breakdown Surface of carcase has a cooked appearance Judgement depends on the depth and species (commercial) e.g. turkeys > Can be trimmed

Transport of poultry

Poultry transported in crates and modules Environmental control difficult Most vehicles ventilation is passive Wide temperature variation through load Potential for cross contamination Solid floors > Faeces do not fall onto other birds > Poor ventilation > Birds sit in their own faeces Perforated floors > Improved ventilation > Dropping faeces

Salmonella - national programmes

Poultry: layers, breeding & fattening flocks; Targets set up in Regulation (EC) No 1168/2006 Pigs/Other species: no legislation/ targets as for poultry although monitored All species: controls are combination of management, biosecurity, vaccination (poultry) surveillance, hygiene at abattoir (and kitchen)

Control of Yersinia

Pre-harvest: > Risk factors for high Yersinia prevalence - Purchase of weaners from multiple sites. - Larger herd size and dogs/cats. > Protective factors for low prevalence: - Farrow-finish systems, early weaning, AIAO with C&D. Processing: consider specific HACCP points: > Avoid faecal contamination at evisceration > Avoid contamination at removal of pluck / tongue > Avoid prolonged chilled storage (no hanging) since psychotropic > Strict environmental hygiene (biofilms) Milk: > Important outbreaks in US - cross-over of clean and dirty in pasteurised milk supply chain Consumer awareness: > Hygienic handling and adequate cooking

DNA fingerprint

Preliminary animal cultures performed at APHA labs Selected isolates forwarded to Centre for Infections, Colindale (PHE lab) VTEC: Phage typing (PT21/28, PT8, PT34) Molecular work: Whole Genome Sequencing (WGS) Linking outbreaks to sources when human and animal isolates are "indistinguishable"

Waste water treatment

Preliminary treatment: Screening large solids Primary treatment: Settlement Secondary treatment: Biological filtration, Activated sludge Tertiary treatment and release: Ion exchange (PO4 etc)

UK Legal Distribution Categories for VMPs

Prescription-only: > Prescription Only Medicine (POM-V) > Prescription Only Medicine - Veterinarian, Pharmacist, Suitably Qualified Person (SQP) (POM-VPS) Non-prescription: > Non-food animal - Veterinarian, Pharmacist, Suitably Qualified Person (SQP) (NFA-VPS) > Authorised Veterinary Medicine - General Sales List (AVM-GSL) > Schedule 6 exemption products

Considerations for microbial contamination of meat (PIGS)

Presence, Introduction, Growth, Survival

Hantavirus

Present in many small rodents Major spread in US national park residencies > Many visitors at risk Transmission in UK from pet rats to breeder > Recent outbreak in 2013 > Unclear how widespread the virus was - lack of sampling in UK rats Haemorrhagic fever/renal disease Flu-like symptoms Linked to exposure to "fancy" rats or rats bred for reptile food Occupational risk group

Functional ingredients - salt

Preservation, flavour, microbial inhibition, extended shelf life - usually 1-2, 5%, with over 5% shelf stable because of water reduced activities

Shiga toxin-producing E. Coli O157

Prevalence (animals/farms - up to 18%) Super shedders Cross contamination Highly pathogenic in people (diarrhoea/HUS) No symptoms in animals

The relationship between prevalence and incidence

Prevalence, P, depends on the duration, D, and incidence, I, of a disease: (P ∝ I X D) This means that a change in prevalence can be due to: > a change in incidence; > a change in the average duration of the disease; > a change in both incidence and duration. The prevalence of a stable endemic disease equals the product of incidence and duration: P = I X D

Yersinia - prevalence and ecology

Prevalent in most pig herds: > Serotypes O:3, O:5, O:8, O:9 are zoonotic > Pigs likely infected from sows > Prolonged shedding Most human disease associated with handling / eating poorly cooked pork: > Chitterlings, pigs tongues > High infectious dose (109 cfu) Psychotrophic (growth at 4°C) The changes in Procedure of Incisions of the Submaxillary Lymph Nodes (EU Commission) > Because it contains Yersinia bacteria in about 15% of all slaughter pigs > Visual Inspection Procedures (VIP)

Head removal

Prevent contamination with digestive tract contents, SRM (stunning hole plugged) Wash head inside surface before outside

VPH strategies

Prevent introduction Live with disease(s), but keep level at the "acceptable" level Eradicate/ Eliminate Although One world/One health priorities may be different in developing and developed world.

Exotic disease control

Prevent: "peace-time" disease risk reduction measures Investigate: report suspicions immediately (initial incursion vs continued outbreak new case) Eliminate: if disease is confirmed Restocking & check test: approved procedures "Exit strategy" to regain disease freedom status

Functional ingredients - antioxidants

Preventing lipid oxidation e.g. citric acids, polyphopshates and EDTA (ethylenediaminetetra-acetic acids) and some natural ingredients from rosemary

Biosecurity examples (food- borne)

Prevention of entry of food-borne zoonoses e.g.: > Salmonella in broiler and layer flocks > TB in cattle > Taenia saginata in cattle Prevention of transfer and amplification within an infected unit: > Salmonella in pigs

Erysipelas in poultry

Primarily a disease of turkeys Affected birds listless > Rarely with swelling of the snood Typical signs: > Septicaemia > Liver becoming: - Enlarged - Congested - Friable > Intestines congested - Catarrhal enteritis > Valvular endocarditis - Present in chronic cases

Foodborne vibrio infections

Primarily associated with consumption of raw bivalves May also be associated with consumption of undercooked or re-contaminated bivalves A proportion of cases also associated with consumption of crustacea (shrimps, crab, crayfish) or finfish Only group of foodborne pathogens that have shown increasing trend in USA

Yersinia enterocolitica

Primarily food borne pathogen - enteritis in humans and dogs. A few reports of zoonosis from puppies. <30% dogs may be asymptomatic carriers.

HAACP · 3. Establishing critical limits at critical control points which separate acceptability from unacceptability for the PERA of identified hazards

Problems: not clear - no need to be numerical (can be visual) Hygiene controls set as Critical limits > There is a difference between CCP and GHP (cleaning and disinfection). > GHP should be established as a prerequisite.

Rendering

Process for heat treating ABP to dehydrate, 'sterilise' and separate solid & liquids (@>60oC)

Define meat product

Processed products resulting from the processing of meat or from the further processing of such processed products, so that the cut surface shows that the product no longer has the characteristics of fresh meat Relevant treatments include: Heating, Marinating, Salting, Smoking, Curing, Drying and a combination of the above processes) Examples of meat products: BACON AND HAM; other examples are all cooked meats , black pudding, haggis, cured products, pate

Definition of cream

Product obtained from milk in the form of an emulsion of the oil-in-water type with a milk fat content of at least 10%.

Definition of butter

Product with a milk fat content of not less than 80% but less than 90%, a maximum water content of 16% and a maximum dry non-fat milk material content (e.g. milk proteins, of 2%).

Definition of milk products

Products derived exclusively from milk, on the understanding that substances necessary for their manufacture may be added provided that those substances are not used for the purpose of replacing, in whole or in part, any milk constituent. Equivalent to dairy products/dairy

Intended for human consumption

Products of animal origin (POAO) e.g. meat, milk etc. after being subjected to satisfactory ante/ post-mortem inspection, and audit processing procedures and subject to animal health rules

Derived products

Products produced from approved ABP processing methods (ABPR)

Functional ingredients - Erythorbic or Ascorbic acids

Promotes nitric oxide i.e. less nitrosamines Shelf life - preserving quality and taste

Enforcement concordat

Proportionality, progressiveness and consistency; risk based, reasonable, balanced etc.

What should enforcement be?

Proportionate, balanced, reasonable, risk-based Can only enforce compliance by law if you are authorised enforcement officers, under Domestic Regulations (UK legislation, not EU) Powers to enter an establishment at normal working hours, inspect, detain, seize (animals/meat), put for condemnation, recommend for prosecution etc. > OV's do not have the power to condemn meat - only the court can do this

Risks of trade

Protect our biosecurity: Sanitary and Phytosanitary (SPS) Measures > Right to protect human, animal and plant health vs. avoiding unnecessary barriers to trade > SPS measures must be: - Transparent - Non-discriminatory - Science based - Proportional to risk - Take into account criteria/guidelines from relevant international organisations i.e. "three sisters" > Protect our economy/domestic market from competition with imports: Tariffs (custom) - Tariffs = tax on imports

Is water hygiene is a veterinary issue?

Protecting animals (and people), food/ feed and from water-borne hazards: > Water-borne disease of animals (and humans). > Food hygiene (microbiological / chemical) > Cleaning, disinfection. Protecting the environment from water-borne, animal or veterinary-derived hazards: > Contaminated water discharge from practice > Discharges from abattoirs > Discharges from farms > Impacts on wildlife health

Post-mortem changes

Proteins degrade to amino acids > No negative sensory quality > Free amino acids degrade to ammonia, H2S, amines (putrefactive spoilage) > Myoglobin becomes grey/green on oxidation Carbohydrates oxidize to acids (souring) Fats oxidize to aldehydes and ketones (rancidity).

Cryptosporidium

Protozoan C. parvum, hominis, felis, canis, meleagridis, muris, suis Scours in calves and lambs: less than 3 weeks old Can be infected without signs of illness Estimated up to 50% of dairy calves and lambs shed "crypto" Mainly water and unprocessed foods (e.g. raw milk - not common) Subclinical shedding in puppies (C. parvus, C. canis, C. felis) Low infective dose Profuse watery diarrhoea with abdominal pain, with or without vomiting (young, old, immunocompromised), a few days - may last longer. > Usually self-limiting Under reported in EU, In England higher Destroyed by pasteurisation, resistant to Chlorine, freezing will also destroy Ingestion (oral) Rare cases of respiratory disease by inhalation reported (HIV/AIDS associated) Diagnosis: > MZN or ELISA or IFA on faeces. > PCR on faeces > Histopathology of ileum.

Chilled meat spoilage: Aerobic storage

Pseudomonas spp: > Obligate aerobe, gram negative rod. > Especially at T <5°C > Generates a lower pH > Especially beef Brochothrix thermosphaticum: > Facultative anaerobe, gram positive rod. > Dominant at T >5°C > Pork and lamb > pH 5-9. Signs: > Malodour - 107 cfu/g (glucose depleted and metabolising amino acids): sweet smell becoming putrid with generation of amines and H2S. > Slime - 108 cfu/g Comminuted/minced meats: > Microbial status poorer: - Higher initial contamination - Spread of surface contamination > Bacterial growth rate greater: - Large surface area - Positive redox potential > Organisms: - Pseudomonas spp - Enterobacteriaceae - Brochothrix thermosphaticum

Zoonotic outbreak investigation

Public Health England protect the public's health from infectious diseases and other public health hazards, by working with key partners including NHS, local government and APHA Consultant in Health Protection (CHP) works within a Health Protection Team and leads outbreak investigations Veterinarian's play an important role when investigating zoonotic outbreaks including advice on husbandry/hygiene aspects, collection of animal/environmental samples and identifying animal sources of human infection.

Eggs and legislation

Public health issues are addressed by Regulations and Orders under the Food Safety Act 1990, The Food Hygiene (England) Regulations 2013 and equivalents in Scotland, Northern Ireland and Wales (these Regulations enact the EU Food Hygiene Regulations 852/2004 (H1), 853/2004 (H2), and New Official Controls Regulations (OCR), and the Animal Health Act 1981 (e.g. Salmonella is reportable under the Zoonosis Order 1989). Laying birds (flocks of greater than 350 birds) and breeding flocks are required to operate under the National Control Plans (as required by the Zoonosis Regulation (EC) 2160/2003) implemented through National Legislation.

Controls on BSE in the EU

Public health protected through the removal of the Specified Risk Materials (ABP Cat 1). > SRM controls remove almost all BSE infectivity from the carcase. > Cattle-human oral species barrier estimated to be high. Animal health protected through the ban on the use of proteins of animal origin in feed. > Infective dose for cattle low. Monitoring of BSE is an epidemiological tool - declining trend of BSE.

Role of HSA in education and training

Publications - guidance notes, technical notes, videos HSA Awards - Poultry Catching Award, Market Award, Humane Slaughter Award Forums and conferences - Symposium Yearly seminar Some joint events with UFAW Specialist training for vets, farmers, plant managers, animal handlers, lairage managers, armed forces, RSPCA inspectors, police

Bivalve purification (depuration)

Purification is the placing of bivalves in clean seawater under the right conditions and for sufficient time so that their natural pumping action purges them of contamination Tank is filled with clean seawater and trays of bivalves are added Trays must allow water to flow through and sediment to pass to bottom of the tank Water is circulated round by pump UV lamp inactivates any microbes that are released into suspension by bivalves Bivalves open, start pumping, and contents of digestive system is expelled (settle to bottom of tank) After purification period (48h), pump is stopped and water is drained from the system Bivalves then close, and outside of shells are sprayed with clean water - do not re-immerse and this stage as they may take up contamination Effects: > E. coli; removal to undetected levels after 3 days > Norovirus; no change after 15 days > FRNA bacteriophage (viral indicator); intermediate level of removal Purification efficiency increases at higher temperature, within the range suitable for each bivalve species Relaying in a cleaner area for few weeks followed by purification reduces concentration of norovirus by more than 1 log

Food Standards Agency - purpose, responsibilities, values

Purpose - To protect consumers by improving the safety of food and by giving honest, clear information. Responsibilities - Food and feed safety; risk assessment, management and communication Values - consumer first/ open and transparent/ science & evidence based

Low Atmospheric Pressure Stunning (LAPS)

Put animals in chamber and lower pressure Used in some chicken factories - modules are pushed into the chamber, ends are sealed and atmospheric is gradually reduced > Rate of reduction of atmospheric pressure critical in determining whether process is painful or not Vacuum pump gradually reduces atmospheric O2 tension over 3.5 mins to cause progressive anoxia. > Maintains final pressure (up to 80% reduction cf. ambient pressure) for 1 min further Within 10 sec, EEG (activity of brain) displays increased deltawave activity, peaking at 30s when it resembles that of birds in surgical plane of anaesthesia EEG activity of higher amplitude & lower frequency and increased total power and reduced F50; EEG suppressed by 60s. During LAPS, heart rate never increased during periods of potential consciousness. > Rather, it consistently decreased; pronounced bradyarrhythmia after 30s Body movements (ataxia) after 39s (69s latest) and convulsions after 128s (96s earliest) - after anaesthesia Insensibility may occur after 40s Slow-wave brain activity immediately before ataxia, suppressed EEG during flapping and isoelectric EEG after flapping all suggest insensibility is achieved before convulsive body movements. Research is ongoing, but potentially exciting if technology can be transferred to red meat species - initially pigs using adapted CO2 equipment > This technique is used in USA - more lax laws > Must be approved by EFSA to be used EU - Must be at least as good as existing methods - Has been approved for use in broiler chickens > Must be commercially viable

Grading, packing

Quality Customer specifications Wrapped & packed with an identification mark etc.

Types of establishment/premises possessing and selling food

REGISTERED: All food producing premises that sell food directly to final consumers e.g. butcher shops, restaurants, other shops, markets > Environmental Health Departments register, audit and inspect APPROVED (STAND ALONE): Wholesaling products e.g. minced meat and meat preparations, mechanically separated meat (MSM), meat products, cheese, fish , cold stores, egg products > Environmental Health Departments register, audit and inspect APPROVED: All meat producing animals producing meats e.g. slaughterhouses, cutting plants, game handling establishments, wild game, and also premises that are co-located such as minced meat and meat preparations, MSM, meat products, cold stores > FSA approves, audits and inspects

Rabies - summary

Rabies is a neglected tropical disease > Substantial impact in poor > ~59,000 deaths annually > 99% from dog bites > Mostly in children Major and feared zoonosis Entirely preventable > Requires one health approach > Especially in relation to health economics Continued threat from wildlife rabies

Lyssaviruses

Rabies viruses affect wide range of different species - dogs, bats > Many genotypes of lyssaviruses; not all prevented by vaccination > Lyssaviruses have similarities in epidemiology European Bat Lyssaviruses 1 and 2 (EBLV-1/2) are present endemically (particularly EBLV-2) in British bat species > Can cause rabies if infected bats bite humans Vast majority of genotypes of lyssavirus infect bats, except MOKV (very little known about it - reservoir species may be shrew) Most relatively closely related, apart from WCBV and IKOV that are more diverged Part of rhabdovirus family - affect wide range of different species Been around for thousands of years

TB - Local Control Measures

Radial testing of contiguous herds, on farm badger biosecurity, badger vaccination, approved badger culls, restrictions on herds linked to TB in other species.

TSE testing in Small Ruminants

Random selection of sheep > Over 18 months (dentition checked at PM) > For human consumption > 1% of eligible throughput Participating slaughterhouses only Dead on arrival (in lairage) > Head removed and sent to APHA Brain stem and cerebellum Negative result - Carcase and offal released Positive test - All parts of carcase and body parts disposed of as Category 1 SRM No test - Sheep deselected from testing regime

Chlamydophila

Rarely human conjunctivitis acquired from feline disease

Milk product production

Raw milk and other raw materials must be of the highest hygienic quality. All apparatus must be cleaned and maintained in a hygienic condition. Staff training and awareness of routes of contamination. Distribution should be hygienically acceptable.

How to read EU legislation

Recitals (at the beginning) explain/prescribe what is all about and what could not be agreed/ put in the main body, e.g. who would carry official controls Chapters (Roman Numbers) and Articles (Arabic numbers) explain further the scope, responsibilities and definitions... ANNEXES, SECTIONS, CHAPTERS and Points are more specific ...some Regulations have TITLES with numbered Articles

Control and prevention of emerging zoonoses

Recognition > Precautionary principal > First suspicions: - Front-line veterinarians and veterinary diagnosticians - Health-care workers, aid workers Investigation and research > Risk assessment > Agencies involved in investigation: - UK: >> Animal and Plant Health Agency >> National surveillance programs (e.g. RADAR, DACTARI) >> Public Health England (PHE) - International: >> Centers for Disease Control (USA); online journal: 'Emerging Infectious Diseases' >> World Health Organisation (WHO) Surveillance systems Co-ordinated international and interdisciplinary intervention. > Risk management Education + communication > Risk communication > Communications media: ProMED

Government surveillance for AFB/EFB

Red > AFB or EFB found in an apiary owned by the same beekeeper in the last 3 seasons > The apiary was within 3 km of another diseased apiary. > The apiary was within 10 km of at least 1 exotic risk point Amber > More than 3 km or less than or equal to 10 km from another diseased apiary Green > None of the above apply Determines how they prioritise surveillance

Storing chilled raw meat

Red meat ≤ + 7 °C, White meat ≤ + 4 °C, Offal ≤ + 3 ° C

Factors affecting meat spoilage - redox potential:

Redox: the ease with which a substance gains (reduced) or loses electrons (oxidised). i.e. susceptibility to oxidation Complex relationship between redox potential and other factors i.e. chemical nature of the product, pH, availability of oxygen, physical state, packaging, microbial activity Aerobic organisms need positive Eh while anaerobic need negative Eh

Consequences of ageing on the egg

Reduction in bacteriostatic properties of the egg after 21 days. > Chilled storage is necessary to control microbial growth beyond this time. Albumen loses water to the yolk, resulting in shrinkage of albumen. > If the yolk drifts into contact with the shell then rapid bacterial proliferation will occur since the yolk is highly susceptible to microbial growth. Evaporation of water leads to increasing size of the air cell and weakening of the shell membranes.

Control points at milk distrubution

Refrigeration (less than 6°C). Best before date. Single use packaging (maintained integrity of package). Hygiene practices at retail premises. Hygiene at consumer level (advise on storage temperature). Sale of non-pasteurised milk is banned in Scotland but permitted in England and Wales. > In England and Wales, sale of non-pasteurised cow (goat and sheep) milk is allowed only from specific local retailers, with specified warning labels, following intensive hygiene review at farm. > Currently under review.

Animal ID in UK

Registration of County Parish Holding (CPH) - all species/registrations, cross compliance > You must have a CPH number if you keep livestock (kept as part of a business or as pets). Ear tags, where required - can be bought from a number of approved suppliers Records kept - from birth to death and movement records. Standstill period - 6 days or 20 days Be aware of regional differences with registration/enforcement

Legislation related to trichinellosis

Regulation (EC) 2075/2005 amended by Regulation (EC) 216/2014 Requires trichinosis examination in: swine (domestic, farmed game and wild game), solipeds (horses), other animals (bears, reptiles...) Notifications/ Contingency plans required Boars and sows - 2g sample size, from pillar of diaphragm at the transition to the sinewy part > Alternative: 4g to be taken from the rib part of the breastbone part of the diaphragm, from the jaw muscle, tongue or the abdominal muscles Horses - 10g from lingual or jaw muscle > Alternative: larger size specimen from the diaphragm pillar at the transition to the sinewy part Wild boar - 10g from foreleg, tongue or diaphragm The use of 'on or off' site labs (accredited or proficiency testing) > On-site labs are OV's responsibility Derogations (exemptions) from testing pigs > Freezing of pig meat > Official recognition of a holdings or a compartment as applying controlled housing conditions > Notification to the Commission required

Legislation on gelatine

Regulation (EC) No 853/2004. Annex I: > Definition of gelatine: natural, soluble protein, gelling or non-gelling, obtained by partial hydrolysis of collagen produced by bones, hides and skins, tendons and sinews of animals. > Definition of collagen: protein-based product derived from animal bones, hides, skins and tendons. Annex III (Section XIV). Requirements for raw materials, transport and storage for raw materials, requirements for the manufacture of gelatine (if bovine bones used from not BSE-free country 2 days acid, 20 days alkaline, additional acid, heat and pressure for at least 20 minutes of 133°C at more than 3 bars), residue limits (microbiological limits in Regulation (EC) No 2073/2005) and labelling. Imports of raw materials for food grade gelatine is regulated by: > The only Community requirement is that the exporting third country must be on the list of countries set out in Annex II to Council Decision 79/542/EEC (today replaced by Commission Regulation (EU) No 206/2010) > i.e. NO lists of establishments in third countries > And NO list of third countries.

Key TSE-Related Controls (EU)

Regulation (EC) No.999/2001: > Removal of SRM, Culling (classical scrapie, genetic selection), Feed Ban plus Surveillance (Passive & Active) Regulation (EC) No.1760/2000: > Cattle Identification and Traceability Regulation (EC) No.1069/2009: > Disposal of Animal By-Products Effective official controls

Binding legal instuments in EU legislation

Regulations Directives Decisions Delegated/Implementing acts since Lisbon Treaty

Mycotoxins: aflatoxin

Regulations have been set for human food and animal feed in many countries. The EC established maximum permissible limits for aflatoxins in a range of commodities, including aflatoxin M1 in milk and dairy products. These are metabolites of aflatoxins B1 and B2, produced by cows or other ruminants eating contaminated feed Regular surveillance (monitoring) shows that in the UK and elsewhere, regulation of aflatoxin B1 in animal feed has been effective in reducing aflatoxin M1 in milk. Aflatoxins common in pigs due to home-produced grain feed

E. coli O157:H7 - Control

Reilly Report 2001, Pennington Report 2009: > >100 recommendations > Abattoir and meat processing control > Waste disposal, water hygiene > On farm interventions (boot dips, overalls, dry bedding) > Better control of recreational use of agricultural land. > Consumer education PHE guidance for open farms FBOs responsible through HACCP that risk is either prevented, eliminated or reduced to acceptable level > CLEAN LIVESTOCK > HYGIENIC DRESSING Officials to verify Issues: cultural, traditional approach, raw milk, raw burgers etc., EDUCATION

EU Regulation 178/2002 on principles of food and feed law

Relates: > To the UK Agricultural Act 1970 for feed > To the Food Safety Act 1990 for food

Norovirus

Relatively 'mild' gastroenteritis, often including nausea, diarrhoea, vomiting, fever and abdominal pain Incubation period of 1 to 4 days, duration of about 2 days generally followed by complete recovery The most common cause of infectious intestinal disease in outbreaks and in the community

Whole bird inspection

Removal of obvious abnormalities > Undersized, damaged, septicaemic Detection of welfare concerns > Bruising > Fractures > Badly and un-bled

Dressing

Removing the bits which are either > Not edible (guts) > Edible but cannot stay in the carcass (gizzards) > Edible but not wanted/needed/of no value (feet) - ALTHOUGH FEET VERY VALUABLE (EXPORT)

REGULATION (EU) 2017/625

Replaced REGULATION (EC) No 854/2004 (laying down specific rules for the organisation of official controls on products of animal origin intended for human consumption) Takes effect on 14 December 2019. IMPORTANTLY, the implementing details of this EU New Regulation will depend on the UK EU exit negotiations. On official controls and other official activities performed to ensure the application of food and feed law, rules on animal health and welfare, plant health and plant protection products, In force since December 2019 A key word: 'Control verification procedures' - means the arrangements put in place and actions performed by the competent authorities for the purpose of ensuring that official controls and other official activities are consistent and effective;

The Welfare of Animals at the Time of Killing (England) Regulations 2015 (WATOK)

Replaced Welfare of Animals (Slaughter or Killing) Regulations 1995 (so-called WASK) This is the UK legislation based on (or enacting) EU legislation directly applicable in all EU member states including the UK. WATOK not as prescriptive as WASK. More flexibility: > Technical developments e.g. LAPS > Scientific research > Minority farmed species. Scope: - does not include reptiles and amphibians. > Does include fish, but only in limited way

Food Chain Information

Requirement of H2 Hygiene Regulation (EC) 853/2004 and Links with H1 and H3 FARM > Abattoir operators to 'request, receive, check and act upon' food chain information (FCI) for animals sent to the abattoir > Required to be submitted by the producer to the abattoir 24hrs before arrival of animals (some exceptions i.e. may accompany animals) Required for > Poultry (January 2006) > Pigs (January 2008) > Calves under 8 months (January 2009) > Cattle and sheep (January 2010) > Horses (February 2015) Information to be reviewed and assessed by the abattoir and taken as a part of inspection by OV Collection and Communication of Inspection Results at abattoirs (CCIR) going back to farm General identification: > Name and address, herd identification number > Type and number of animals in consignment Animal health control: > Official local and regional health status Zoonotic biological contamination: > Occurrence of diseases that might affect safety of meat > Other production data indicating food safety > Results of surveillance for zoonoses > Significant findings arising from ante- and post-mortem inspection in preceding 6 months Chemical contamination: > Record of VMPs used how long (policy issues), also other chemical contaminants (if) e.g. heavy metals, lead etc. > Identification, dates, withdrawal periods Identification of animals with abnormalities

Example - Dog export to United Arab Emirates

Requirements for dogs > Microchip > >15 weeks old at time of export > Not a "banned breed" - Banned breeds include staffies, rottweilers, dobermans and boxers - as well as their crosses > Vaccinations - see notes for guidance - Must have completed primary course/kept up to date. - Last vaccine must be within 12 months of export. - Primary rabies vaccination must given at least 21 days before export. - Expiry = shelf expiry date of vaccine used NOT expiry date of immunological protection according to data sheet > Flea/tick/tapeworm treatment <14 days before export > Pre-export check <24 hours prior to export > Export Health Certificate + import permit Why is the age of the dog important? > Min 12 weeks old + 21 day post rabies vaccination = 15 weeks - Min 12 weeks for immunological maturity - 21 day post rabies vaccination to mount protective immune response (e.g. protective antibody titre >0.5IU/ml) Pre-export appointment > Book for within 24 hours of export (21 March) > Clinical examination > Flea/tick/tapeworm treatment > Check vaccination records > Will need "618NDC" clearance form for Rabies > Complete, sign and stamp export certificate > Make two certified copies - retain one and return other to APHA Discuss with owner > Keeping pets healthy when abroad (change of climate, managing stress, access to vet care, disease control - e.g. rabies risk) > Planning to return to the UK? OVs are bound by RCVS agreed professional rules on Certification ESSENTIAL TO KNOW THE PRINCIPLES OF CERTIFICATION. PLEASE NOTE: > Since 2016, there are 10 PRINCIPLES OF CERTIFICATION (FORMERLY 12) and; > Since 2018, RCVS approved Certification Support Officers to assist OVs in certification

Quantitative risk assessment

Requires a lot more data but allows modelling / evaluation of effect of potential responses to a given risk

Cyclozoonoses

Requires at least two vertebrate species as definitive and intermediate hosts e.g. tapeworms

Legal aspects in rescue and rehabilitation of wildlife

Rescue: > Need permitted access to property > Ownership of wild animals: - No-one owns wildlife until taken into possession, except.... - Young wildlife belong to landowner until able to flee the nest. > Many species protected under the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 (WACA). Exemptions allow: - Taking and keeping for care / recovery. - Killing for welfare reasons. - Foxes, weasels, hedgehogs have no protection under Act. - (taking of quarry species in season). Rehabilitation: > Keep records of circumstances of rescue and ownership to prove legality. > A license is required from DEFRA in the following situations: - For birds listed in Schedule 4 of the Act (6 week period of grace). - For rehab centres open to public (Zoo Act). - Dangerous Wild Animals Act (adders, wildcats). - Destructive Animals Act (Grey squirrels, mink, non-European rabbits). Release: > Release as soon as fit enough (WACA). > Release must not compromise welfare (Abandonment of Animals Act 1961): - Continued captivity may be justified under WACA. > Release of pest species: - Grey squirrels, rats, mice: requires DEFRA licence.

Role of Humane Slaughter Association

Research. Development. Education and training. Information and advice.

Non-binding instruments in EU legislation

Resolutions, opinions, recommendations Other instruments - EU Action programmes

Highlights on welfare enforcement responsibilities for animals in transport/ lairage

Responsibilities for Official Controls; > Defra - the Central Competent Authority > Local Authorities - practical enforcement Trading Standard Officers (TSOs) are authorized to enforce in England. OV at abattoirs collect the evidence at the time of unloading live animals or in the lairage suspected that have occurred during transport and pass to the TSOs for further investigation and possible recommendation for prosecution. However, if welfare breaches have occurred in the lairage e.g. after transport then the FSA Official veterinarian (OV), on behalf of DEFRA , is authorized to enforce e.g. recommend for prosecution under the UK The Welfare of Animals at the time of killing legislation (WATOK). This legislation implements in UK EU COUNCIL REGULATION (EC) No 1099/2009 of 24 September 2009 on the protection of animals at the time of killing

Role of APHA in animal welfare

Responsible for implementation of agreed policies. Actual responsibility for enforcement is delegated to the Local Authority Trading Standards Officers (TSOs). In reality this is a collaborative work for example TSOs write enforcement notices whilst Veterinarians support the enforcement with expert witness statements.

Chilled meat spoilage: Raw meat in a vacuum

Restricted growth of aerobes (i.e. Pseudomonas). Growth of lactate fermenters on low pH meat: > Leuconostoc spp., > Carnobacterium spp Cheesy odour Growth of Brochothrix spp. on high pH meat.

Risk analysis

Risk analysis consists of three Interconnected Components: Risk Assessment, Risk Management and Risk Communication. Risk analysis can be and it is generally applicable to analyse the risks to public/ animal health and welfare.

Food safety risk analysis

Risk assessment > Hazard identification & characterisation (dose-response) - Risk factors - immunosuppression, age > Source release and exposure assessment - Which population will be exposed? > = Risk characterisation > Source-pathway-receptor - Source: Chemical of concern (hazard identification & characterisation) - Pathway: The way the chemical comes into contact with the animal, population, air, land, water, food (exposure assessment) - Receptor: The animal, person or population (necessary for risk characterisation) Risk communication > Interactive exchange of information & opinion > ProMED Risk management > Assess control options, select and implement appropriate options > (Cost-benefit)

Listeria - human-human spread

Risk factors: > Immunosuppression (age) > Risk foods 153 cases in UK (2017)

Risk assessment may not always be needed/possible

Risk is well defined by definitive data Safety issue is relatively simple Safety issue is not of regulatory concern or subject to regulatory mandate Urgent regulatory response is required > "When an activity raises threats of harm to human health or the environment, precautionary measures should be taken even if some cause and effect relationships are not fully established scientifically." > So called Precautionary principle > "Better safe than sorry" principle

Toxoplasmosis

Risks to humans: (pregnancy, immunocompromised) > Close contact with cats, lambing season (aborted ewes i.e. third most common diagnosis of abortion in sheep), undercooked meat Control: Avoid contact with cat litter, personal hygiene, avoid eating undercooked meat

Preharvest food safety

Role of veterinarian i.e. herd health plans, Animal identification (traceability), Animal health and biosecurity, Antimicrobials use, Food chain information, Animal welfare, Animal waste, Record keeping and centralised databases HACCP (Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point)? Good principle, not legally required at farm level > Principles to be applied as Codes for Good Hygienic (FARMING) Practices Farm Assurance Schemes: > Consumer perception versus reality

Wildlife as a source of human disease

Routes for transmission 1. Contact infections: > Urine & faeces in environment /during handling > From rearing/ medicating > Bite infections > At post-mortem > Via fomites or via domestic species 2. Food-borne 3. Injuries

Wildlife as a source of disease in domestic animals

Routes for transmission > Contamination of feed troughs and pasture. > Contamination of drinking water. > Scavenging of wild animal carcases.

Green Leg Disease (poultry)

Rupture of gastrocnemius tendon Green colouration > Resolving bruise Causes > Tenosynovitis > Viral or bacterial infection > Trauma > Genetic susceptibility

Equine zoonoses

Salmonella Ringworm Fistulous withers / poll evil (Brucellosis) Rhodococcus equi Glanders / Farcy (Burkholderia mallei) > Notifiable Equine encephalomyelitis > WEE, EEE, VEE, St. Louis

Contact zoonotic infections - Faecal organisms:

Salmonella spp, Campylobacter spp, Yersinia enterocolitica, Clostridium difficile, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Toxoplasma gondii Giardia spp, Toxocara canis Uncinaria spp Strongyloides stercoralis Echinococcus granulosus.

Correlation of E. coli and pathogens in bivalve

Salmonella testing is not routinely performed, so probability of salmonella infection levels based on E. coli infection levels > If E. coli concentration is <230/100g, Salmonella is less frequently detected than when it is >230/100g Positive relationship between norovirus and E. coli relationship if averaged by site from Oct-Mar (no relationship for individual samples)

Microbiological criteria for cheese

Salmonella, Listeria monocytogenes, Staphy enterotoxins See Food Safety Criteria Microbiological Regulation 2073/2005

Possibility for intervention/reduction of zoonotic agents in the meat chain

Salmonella: herd level+++, slaughter++, processing+, meat inspection- E. coli O157:H7: S++, P+, HL+?, MI- Yersinia enterocolitica: HL+++, S++, P+, MI- Campylobacter: HL+++, P++, MI-, S- Listeria monocytogenes: P++, HL-, MI-, S- Tapeworm cysts: HL++, MI++, P+, S- Trichinella: MI+++, P++, H(+), S-

Functional ingredients - tenderisers

Salt and other act as tenderisers; also some proteolytic enzymes

Preventing spoilage - salting, curing, smoking

Salt inhibits the growth of microorganisms by drawing water out of microbial cells through osmosis. Bacon, corned beef, dried and salted cod, jerky, ham Smoking, often used in the process of curing fish/meat, adds chemicals to the surface of meat that reduce the concentration of salt required.

Butter process

Salt, colourant, cream Churning, fat droplets coalesce, grains break away from liquid Wash butter grains Spreadable butter: add vegetable oils and whip Hard butter: press and mould

Environmental sampling e.g. at the abattoir

Sample sites: > Surfaces, utensils, machinery: > Knives, cutting surfaces, other contact areas. Visual cleanliness is prerequisite Bacteriological sampling: > 10 samples/2 weeks > Agar contact plates or peptone broth wetted swabs > Each sample must cover an area of 20cm sq. > Culture for TVC (Enterobact. if OV requires). Criteria: <100cfu/cm sq for TVC.

Scrapie

Scrapie is a fatal brain disease (TSE) of sheep and goats but is not known to pose a risk to human health. The agent causing the infection is thought to be an infectious protein called a prion. Classical/Atypical scrapie

UK Chemical hazard identification

Screening programmes > Targeted surveillance > Known hazards Emergency response events > Targeted surveillance > Predicted known hazards Animal disease outbreaks Scanning surveillance (PMs, clinical pathology samples) > Used to detect 'unexpected' & 'previously unknown' hazards

Illness associated with seafood

Seafood associated with 17% of outbreaks in 2018 > Of these, most (77%) due to fish and fishery products > Rest due to crustaceans, shellfish, molluscs and their products In 2002-2010, 12% of foodborne outbreaks due to seafood (7% due to crustaceans and shellfish, 5% due to finfish) > Over this period, the number of foodborne outbreaks decreased, and this was mainly as a result of a reduction in the number of Salmonella outbreaks > Most Salmonella outbreaks are associated with food other than seafood Most finfish associated outbreaks caused by Scombrotoxin > Some outbreaks due to salmonella, and some due to unknown causes Bivalve outbreaks due to enteric viruses such as norovirus, or unknown causes Crustacean outbreaks due to Salmonella, Cl. perfringens and norovirus Mixed seafood outbreaks have less well-defined causes

Vacuum packing

Seals cuts of meat in plastic bags from which air has been excluded Extremely hygienic - packs are leak proof and 'clean'. The bags minimise both gas and moisture permeability, thereby acting as a barrier preventing the meat surface coming into contact with external oxygen and the meat's moisture from reaching the outside world. Purple colour = myoglobin The lack of oxygen is enough to inhibit any Pseudomonads (bacteria which would cause the meat to deteriorate) Ensure that meat is packed ASAP after slaughter to maximise shelf life or as long as possible after slaughter if you prefer the meat to be dry aged. Understand the quality of the vacuum packs themselves. > Inferior quality materials can cause surface discolouration of the meat. Ensure a bone guard is used to prevent puncturing the membrane Be aware of... > Sour or cheesy odours - when objectionable spoilage takes over > Colour change of the meat to 'bright red' on opening the pack through oxidation > Meat sitting in an excessive pool of its blood Different quality may be required (low/high barrier/ non-permeable, with or without CO2 flushing), depending on length of storage

Separated populations

Separated populations occur as discrete, isolated units such as herds and flocks. They are particularly common in countries that practise intensive animal production, with many animals on one farm (e.g. many of the developed countries). Common for pig units A separated population can be closed, with no movement of animals into or out of the unit (except to slaughter) or open, with limited movement of individuals in and out. Separated populations, especially of the closed type, are less likely to be infected with agents from other areas than contiguous populations. However, if infection enters separated populations it may spread rapidly because the animal density frequently is high.

Head and Feet Removal

Should be the end of the 'dirty area' Ethnic market (heads attached) Manual vs. automatic Re-hung to 'clean' line

Collection and Communication of Inspection Results (CCIR)

Should benefit all: producer and producer's VS, FBO, public/animal health data collection Surveillance - in UK, current collection/ storage is being improved with the view that information is factual, meaningful, useful, understandable. Some issues Terminology used - diagnostic or lesions are indicative of a disease or condition? Localised/generalised and/or extent and degree of infection or infestation?

Pigs - enrichment material

Should fulfil their essential needs without compromising their health Edible Chewable Investigable Manipulable Sustainable interest Accessible for oral manipulation In sufficient quantity Clean and hygienic

Pseudomonas aeruginosa

Significant risk of respiratory infection to sufferers of cystic fibrosis

Effective & Ineffective stun

Signs of an effective stun > No rhythmic breathing (for at least 8 seconds) > Initially wings held close to body > Followed by movement Signs of an effective electrical kill > Relaxed carcase > No rhythmic breathing > No nictitating membrane reflex > Dilated pupil

Infant botulism

Similar neuromuscular symptoms to botulism > Constipation > Weak cry > Respiratory distress Usually mild Pathogenesis > Organism ingested > Proliferates in GI tract > Produces toxin

Soft cheese manufacture

Similar to hard Heating unlikely Curing usually starts on the surface Cures inwards to the centre Blue moulds added during preparation of curd > Penicillium roquefortii, P. glaucum Curds salted or brined for ripening Ripened at 10°C, 95% RH for 60 days

Semi-hard cheese manufacture

Similar to hard Not necessarily cut or heated

Mathematic modelling

Simple > Setting a budget based on predicted expenditure & income Complex > Modelling the weather > May consist of simpler subunits Used to > Predict events > Assess impact of control strategies > Aid decision making

Global importance of seafood

Since 1961 the annual global growth in seafood consumption has been twice as high as population growth Therefore, the fisheries and aquaculture sector is crucial in meeting FAO's goal of a world without hunger and malnutrition Global seafood production peaked at about 171 million tonnes in 2016, with aquaculture comprising 53 percent (if non-food uses are excluded) Capture seafood production has been relatively static since the late 1980s Aquaculture has been responsible for the continuing impressive growth in the supply of seafood for human consumption (rather than capture/wild harvest)

British Lion Quality

Since 1998 Compulsory vaccination of all pullets against Salmonella enteritidis Independent auditing and traceability Higher hygiene and welfare standards etc Nearly 90% of UK eggs now British Lion Quality marked

Hide or Fleece Removal

Skin significant source of contamination Hygienic procedures when handling (dirty hands) Remove visible contamination at cut line Prevent contamination of exposed carcase from hide, soiled knife or slaughterman

Slaughter methods

Slaughter is generally thought of as a two-stage process: stunning followed by killing. Three permitted methods of stunning: > mechanical (percussive) > electrical > exposure to gas mixtures. Stun/kill alternatives with all three permitted stunning methods. Bleeding still necessary if carcase is for consumption Council Regulation (EC) No 1099/2009 > 'Stunning' means any intentionally induced process which causes loss of consciousness and sensibility without pain, including any process resulting in instantaneous death > 'Simple stunning' - not resulting in instantaneous death (reversible).

National Surveillance Scheme

Slaughter population, randomly sampled for some contaminants, e.g. veterinary medicines, lead, cadmium Ruminant kidneys > 0.5 mg Pb /kg. This is outside the permitted level in EU law

Bovine TB testing

Slaughterhouse cases > Identified at slaughter Reactors, inconclusive reactors, dangerous contacts > Identified during TB testing Sampling required Lesions identified > All lesions from infected animals Lesions not identified > All bronchial and mediastinal lymph nodes > Paired retropharyngeal lymph nodes > Any other lymph nodes if enlarged, abnormal or haemorrhagic Animal health will generally co-ordinate things

Spoilage by bacteria - MACROSCOPIC SIGNS

Slime layer Abnormal colour Offensive odour Abnormal texture Occur on the surface and/or internally

Boar taint

Small number of pigs with very high levels Most under threshold of acceptability Older pigs likely to be tougher and have a higher risk of boar taint in entires Management practices can limit boar taint > Skatole - product of fermentation of tryptophan in hindgut > Preventing animal lying in or ingesting faeces reduces ingestion skatole that has already been produced and passed > Diet may have an influence

The main Acts and Regulations which govern Industrial Injuries Benefits are currently:

Social Security Act 1998 Social Security Contributions and Benefits Act 1992 Social Security Administration Act 1992 Social Security (Claims and Payments) Regulations 1987 This legislation identifies diseases that are prescribed as special risks of a given occupation. Sufferers entitled to claim disability benefits. Examples applicable to vets in Appendix 1: > Non-infectious: Occupational deafness (pig vets), Allergic dermatitis, Animal associated asthma > Infectious / zoonotic: Anthrax, Glanders (Burkholderia mallei), Leptospirosis, Ancylostomiasis, TB, Brucellosis, Strep. Suis, Chlamydiosis, Q fever, Orf, Hydatidosis

Diversity of diseases

Some have no symptoms in animals - E. coli O157, Campylobacter Direct and indirect contact with animals - E. coli O157 (also milk, meat, environment) Relatively mild in humans unless gets complicated - Campylobacter, Listeria (older and immunocompromised are vulnerable) Complex life cycles (cats, rats, farm animals, environment) - Toxoplasma gondii Fatal - Rabies virus

Acute vs. chronic poisoning

Some poisons are rapidly metabolised and / or excreted resulting in immediate (acute or sub-acute) effects following exposure. > Acute exposure poisoning is typically sudden in onset, contrasting with the bell-shaped epidemic curve typical of infectious disease. > Withdrawal from acute exposure may achieve equally sudden alleviation of symptoms. > However, the expression of immediate effects such as DNA disruption, are delayed and can lead to chronic disease such as cancer. Poisons which are slowly excreted tend to accumulate and exert adverse effects following persistent (chronic) exposure and accumulation. > Chronic or delayed poisoning incidents are unlikely to present abruptly or with simultaneous onset and recovery and are therefore harder to identify and investigate. > The dose of chemicals causing teratogenic effects may cause no other adverse effects in the dam so are not apparent until the offspring is born or aborted. > Chemical carcinogenesis could theoretically occur following a single exposure, but the effects are always delayed and pathogenesis usually involves additional risk factors.

Factors affecting meat spoilage - antimicrobials

Some produced from microbes (antagonism): antibiotics/acids/alcohols Some intrinsic in food e.g. not meat - lysozyme (egg white), lactoperoxidase system (milk), low molecular weight components (herbs and spices)

Avian Influenza

Some strains have zoonotic potential High and low pathogenic Avian influenza A (HPAI, LPAI): > Circulate in wild gulls & waterfowl > Spread to domestic fowl and outdoor aviary birds > LPAI may mutate to HPAI in wild or domestic fowl Clinical signs of HPAI in domestic birds: > Sudden dullness, cyanosis, diarrhoea, respiratory signs, death Control: > Notifiable disease > Killing all affected animals and those in contact/ safe disposal. > Farmers compensated for loss.

Sources of pollution and control

Sources: > Pollution may directly enter sea or estuaries (wastewater), or reach there via rivers > Rainfall (atmospheric pollution, e.g. combustion) > Run off from agricultural land > Boats, wildlife, birds may be intermittent sources of pollution Combating the problem > Control of sewage pollution (Water Framework Directive (2000/60/EC)) > Classification and monitoring of production (harvesting) areas > Commercial processing (depuration, relaying, cooking) > End-product controls (quality tests, traceability) > EU Food Hygiene Regulations

Other ingredients that may be added to meat:

Soy protein Milk ingredients Starch ingredients Gums and hydrocolloids Flavourings and seasonings Animal derived extenders, e.g. gelatine, blood serum proteins

The Welfare of Farmed Animals (England) Regulations 2007 - Pigs (Schedule 8)

Specific requirements inc: > Environmental enrichment > Minimum space allowances e.g. pigs over 110 Kg must have one square metre > Floors: all pig holdings from 1 January 2013 - Maximum slot widths and minimum slat widths for concrete slatted floors - For sows and gilts, minimum lengths specified for the sides of pens - For sows and gilts, minimum unobstructed floor area and dimensions for solid floors. > Water, e.g. pigs over 2 weeks old must have continuous supply > Weaning ages

The Welfare of Farmed Animals (England) Regulations 2007 - Calves confined for rearing and fattening (Schedule 6)

Specific requirements inc; > Accommodation - pen size - pens must have perforated sides to allow visual and tactile contact > Diet - sufficient digestible fibre to prevent impairment of rumen development (100gms at two weeks of age) - iron (blood haemoglobin level at least 4.5mmol/litre) - colostrum > Tethering restrictions

The Welfare of Farmed Animals (England) Regulations 2007 - Rabbits (Schedule 9)

Specific requirements inc; > Cage height to allow the rabbit to sit upright on all four feet without ears touching the top > Protection from adverse weather > Able to move without difficulty

Main differences between poultry and red meat processing

Specifically named (titled) differences in legislation Regulation 853 on processes, practices and structure etc. plus specific poultry orders e.g. on avian influenza Scale of production/ speed etc. - e.g. up to 13000 broilers/hour in modern, automated plants Different processing - although chickens can be skinned too Similar hazards although impact and importance different e.g. Campylobacter, Salmonella Slightly different practical ante and post-mortem inspection e.g. no routine incision and palpation during post-mortem inspection > Some plants have highly automated cameras, mirrors to hep inspectors detect defects (abnormalities) Small scale production and sale in the UK e.g. for less than 10.000 birds -premises are registered with LAs but no need to be approved (LA enforcement) > Not under supervision of OVs Poultry known to cause most food borne illnesses Slaughterhouse staff - so called Plant Inspection Assistant (PIAs) - as well as the Meat Hygiene Inspectors may carry out on line practical post mortem inspection under the direct responsibility and supervision of the OV

Skin tumours in poultry

Squamous Cell Carcinoma > Crater-like lesions coalesce to form large ulcerated areas > Uneven or localised thinning of skin - Often torn by pluckers Marek's disease (skin form) > Lymphomas of feather follicles and skin

The Welfare of Farmed Animals (England) Regulations 2007 - General Requirements (Schedule 1)

Staffing Inspection Record keeping (deaths, medicines) Freedom of movement Accommodation Automatic & mechanical equipment (e.g. alarms, maintenance) Feed, water Breeding procedures Electrical immobilisation AN ELECTRICAL CURRENT MUST NOT BE APPLIED TO AN ANIMAL FOR THE PURPOSE OF IMMOBILISATION, care new cattle immobiliser sold in UK

Stages of zoonotic diseases

Stage 1 infectious diseases - not zoonotic, only transmitted between animals Stage 2 - primary infections in humans almost always derived from infection in animals, e.g. rabies (99% from dog bites) Stage 3 - limited outbreak, e.g. Ebola > Vast majority of Ebola spill-over events appear to result in no diagnosis, probably because they are not associated with transmission between humans Stage 4 - transmit well between humans, but also ongoing animal transmission, e.g. Dengue virus, transmitted by mosquitoes but involving non-human primates in some parts of the world Stage 5 - derived from animal species but adapted to only transmit in humans, e.g. HIV-1

Control of FMD

Stamp it out/ eradicate/ eliminate and safe disposal. Cull, disposal, cleanse and disinfect premises - environmental impact > Burning of carcasses releases equivalent/less carbon than burial > Compensation available Farm livestock movement controls (time related); total ban -> restriction zones -> licensed under surveillance testing (slowing) Tracings investigation (source & destinations & dangerous contacts) Surveillance testing in local areas (premises patrols) Pre-emptive cull "firebreak" (susceptibles): controversial (resistance) Livestock welfare disposal scheme: logistics, priority and cost Controlled vaccination program (immunity) - will it ever be used? (DIVA cost, resource logistics, when to stop? International trade status impact) > Vaccinated animals have no value > Vaccinating animals is labour intensive

Two approaches to control notifiable diseases

Stamp out / Eradicate/ Eliminate disease e.g. Avian Influenza, Foot and Mouth Disease, Classical Swine Fever Control further spread, and in a long term eradicate e.g. Bovine Tb, or in case of Bluetongue monitor and keep the disease out by vaccination. In all cases depending on the disease and its dynamic, amongst the other measures, the cleaning and disinfection by using an approved disinfectant is important. Again, depending on a disease, the movement restriction with targeted and/or scanning surveillance may be required.

Most people agree that to be transported an unfit animal should:

Stand square on all four legs Be loaded/unloaded unassisted Not deteriorate during transport (wounds, protruding viscera etc.)

Main areas of difference between requirements of new and old legislation about slaughter

Standard operating procedures (SOPs) available for every procedure/operation carried out in slaughterhouse Certificates of competence (previously known as slaughter licences) for those carrying out slaughter AND animal handlers Appropriate monitoring procedures: > CCTV, regular/frequent visual scrutiny. > CCTV is a statutory requirement since 2018 to monitor all live animal operations in licensed slaughterhouses in ENGLAND, not Scotland and Wales Animal Welfare Officer (AWO): > Statutory requirement (previously only requirement of production standards) > Unless killing less than 1,000 units/year Scientific support: available via the internet from government departments Inside the abattoir: > Certificates of competence (CoC): - Requirement for all operations involving live animals, including lairage work - AWO must have CoCs for all operations which he/she oversees >> Previously, only required attendance of appropriate course - When legislation was brought in, those holding previous slaughter licence for more three years granted grandfather rights > Bleeding: - Requirement of severing of both carotid arteries or the vessels from which they arise. Outside the abattoir - changes in legislation > Neck dislocation of poultry: - Manual only on birds less than 3kg and limited to 70 birds/person/day - Mechanical only on birds less than 5kg - Above this - must use electrical stunning > Private domestic consumption: Articles 3(1), 4(1) & 7(1). > Emergency killing using blunt force trauma: Annex 1, Table 1, Nos. 2 & 6. - Should not be used for routine slaughter National rules > Provision to maintain current standards enforced by WASK by way of national rules > New national rules may be adopted to ensure better protection of animal welfare in three areas: - Killing outside of a slaughterhouse - Slaughtering of farmed game (inc. reindeer) - In relation to slaughter by religious methods

Soft mould-ripened cheese - manufacture

Standardisation of cheese milk Pasteurisation Addition of starter culture Renneting Whey removal Moulds (shaping of curd) Salting or brining Ripening, e.g. 12-15C, RH 90-95, 10-14 days Packed and stored at 4C

Cheddar cheese production hazards

Standardisation of cheese milk: raw milk may be contaminated with pathogens; check bacteriological quality of intake milk Pasteurisation: ineffective pasteurisation will enable survival of pathogens; record time/temp, phosphatase test Addition of starter culture: slow acid development may result in proliferation of bacteria, including pathogens; obtain from reliable source, rotate stock, check acid development Renneting Cutting Cooking (scalding) at 40C Whey drainage Cheddaring (pH 5.2-5.3) Milling and salting Pressing and wrapping > Hazard: recontamination > Action: check pH to ensure fermentation proceeding normally, adequate cleaning, monitor environment and product Ripening - outgrowth of contaminants

Modelling herd infection dynamics (SIR)

State transition models Animals fall into three states > Susceptible to infection (seronegative) > Infectious (shedding virus) > Resistant (seropositive) Where > S = number of susceptible animals > I = number of infectious animals > R = number of resistant animals > µ = rate of birth & death (stable population) > β = rate of contact x probability of infection > α = rate of moving from infectious to resistant Change of susceptibles with time = +µN - βSI - µS Change of infected with time = + βSI - αI - µI Change of resistant with time = + αI - µR

UK residue testing

Statutory veterinary medicines residue surveillance scheme Veterinary medicines directorate (VMD) responsible Organisation of testing: > Random sampling of tissues > Sampling of suspect animals Abattoirs receive requests for samples from all species Samples to collect: kidney, kidney fat, liver, muscle, urine, blood (serum or plasma) Packaged in tamper proof bags and dispatched to laboratory

Spoilage by yeasts and moulds

Stickiness Mycelia Musty flavour (meat) and/or Rancidity (fat) Can grow on frozen meats (where temp is >-10 C) Coloured spots > Penicillin: white or pale green > Mucor: whiskers > Cladosporium: black spots > Sporotrichum: white spots > Yeasts - Rhodotorula: pink colonies

9 conditions of kidney - SPIN PATCH

Stones Petechiae Infarcts Nephritis/Nephrosis Pyelonephritis Abscesses Tuberculosis/Tumours Congenital cysts Hydronephrosis

UK food safety legislation after the Exit of EU

Strategic objectives - food safety and trade perspectives UK Statutory Instruments (SIs) > SI's fixes the inoperability of retained contents of the hygienic legislation - General Food Law - Regulations 2019 (SI 2019 No 641) - General Food Hygiene - SI 2019 No 642) - Specific Food Hygiene - (SI 2019 No 640) - The Contaminants in Food (Amendment) (EU Exit) Regulations 2019 (SI 2019 No 639) and others SIs generally pass through the Commons under one of two procedures, affirmative or negative. > Negative procedure means that Parliament is not required to approve the statutory instrument for it to become law. > But either the House of Commons or the House of Lords can pass a motion within a specified period (usually 40 days) to annul the statutory instrument, which stops it having legal effect. Health and ID marks > From 1 January 2021, CAs and food businesses in the UK will not be able to apply the current 'EC' health and identification marks to certain POAO which have been produced in a UK-approved establishment. > FSA and DAERA staff will iapply the GB health mark, which is the official two-digit ISO code for the UK, so products can be placed on UK, EU and non-EU markets

Functional ingredients - flavourings

Strengthening specific flavours. Chemist usually share few of their secrets e.g. well known is Monosodium glutamate (enhances flavour of meat)

Rat bite fever

Streptobacillus moniliformis Transmission: > Bite (50% rats carry) > Water-borne (urine, faeces) Human disease: > Fever, symmetrical rash > Arthritis (may be septic) > Tx: Tetracycline, penicillin.

Streptococcal Meningitis

Streptococcus suis Common bacterial infection of pigs: > Meningitis / arthritis / respiratory disease in weaner pigs > Subclinical carriage in sows and growing pigs Disease in humans: > Usually Strep suis type 2 (also 14) > Typically 2-3 cases per year in UK > Meningitis, deafness, rarely fulminating sepsis > Occupational: farmers, vets, abattoir workers

It is an offence when handling animals to:

Strike or kick an animal Apply pressure to any part of the body to cause them unnecessary suffering Lift or drag an animal by the head, ears, horns, legs, tail or fleece Use prods or other implements with pointed ends > EXCEPTION: the use of electric goads should be avoided and then only used on the hindquarters of adult bovine animals and adult pigs

In terms of general responsibilities, FBOs producing OPOAO are required to have adequate

Structure and equipment (including water, pest control etc) Adequately trained and skilled people Adequate pre-operational, operational and post operational practices, traceability, cleaning, disinfection etc Or, in summary, Food Safety Management System (FSMS)

Wildlife as a source of emerging disease

Studied 355 newly emerged infectious diseases (EID) of humans 60% were zoonotic 72% of zoonotic EIDs were wildlife derived. - Nipah virus, SARS

Functional ingredients - sweeteners

Sucrose, dextrose and corn syrup (and others) for desired degree of sweetness. Surface browning, caramelisation. Corn syrup - water binding properties (adding weight)

Anthrax in pigs

Sudden death without symptoms Localized swelling of throat Death by asphyxiation Ingestion of spores > Anorexia, vomiting, enteritis

Schmallenberg infection

Summer 2011 - fever, poor condition, milk drop in dairy cows in Germany > Also reports of similar in the Netherlands December 2011 - congenital abnormalities lambs and calves Schmallenberg virus - identified by the Friederich-Loeffler Institute in Germany Enhanced surveillance in Veterinary Investigation Centres > August 2011 - requested reports of acute disease > December 2011 - enhanced surveillance for abortions/ stillbirths/ malformations January 2012 - 1st reports in the UK (seen in foetuses) With hindsight, there were reports of 'winter dysentery' (acute phase of Schmallenberg) as early as October Orthobunyavirus > Some of these do cause disease in people > Most closely related viruses produce a similar disease in cattle, but not in humans > No vector had been identified in early stages Enhanced (precautionary) surveillance > Farm workers, vets, fallen stock workers > Report symptoms of acute disease to HPU - Bloods samples to be tested for acute disease by PCR - No serological test HAIRS group risk assessment > Evolving situation - expertise and network allowed rapid assessment of zoonotic potential of this new animal virus à "UNLIKELY ZOONOSIS" > No reports of illness in UK workers > Exposed workers in Germany and the Netherlands did not show evidence of disease or infection

Purpose of Post-Mortem Inspection

Supplement ante-mortem inspection to detect > Diseases of public health significance i.e., zoonotic significance > Diseases of animal health significance i.e. FMD, CSF/AFS > Visible lesions relevant to animal welfare > Beating > Long standing untreated injuries > Residues or contaminants > Any other factors that may determine fitness & unfitness... Limitations > Some pathogens, e.g. Campylobacter and Salmonella, are not visible to the naked eye

Classical Swine Fever

Surprise Outbreak in 2000 > Report Case by company Vet > Background of other masking differential disease: PDNS, PMWS > 16 Infected Places, 20 plus Dangerous Contacts > August to December 2000 - slow moving > Spread identified as through pig movements (9); personnel/vehicles (2); local spread (5) > Many tracings and extensive surveillance > Pig Welfare Disposal Scheme -costly > Re-population ran into FMD 2001 > Half of SVS staff in Bury at peak Control: Killing all affected animals and those in contact/ Safe disposal. No vaccination. Farmers compensated for loss.

Control of brucellosis in animals

Surveillance of Official Freedom (OBF) status. Notifiable infections: Slaughter programs (Brucellosis Control Order (B abortus), Specified Diseases Order (B melitensis)) Slaughter reactors separately from clean cattle. Wear PPE Vaccination programmes > S19 or RB51(Brucella abortus) > Rev.1 (Brucella melitensis)

E. coli O157:H7 - Ecology

Survival for long periods (>40 days) in water Persistence in soil / faeces for <190 days

Susceptibility

Susceptibility to infection may be limited to a single species or group of species. For example, only equines are naturally susceptible to equine rhinopneumonitis virus infection. Alternatively, several widely different species may be susceptible to an infection, for example, all mammals are susceptible to rabies.

Giardia duodenalis:

Symptoms range from sub-clinical, acute, to chronic with weight loss. 7-50% prevalence in dogs (3-50% in cats). Increased shedding in pups. (subclinical) Zoonotic but other sources of infection (water, food, human-human). Diagnosis: Faecal sample (x3 samples), Coproantigen ELISA Treatment: Metronidazole, Benzimidazoles

Meat inspection with relevance for food safety

Systematic protocol for incision, palpation, visual inspection and applying expert knowledge to assess implication for animal/public health and welfare Very few elements that have implication for food safety > Incision into lymph nodes (in not Officially bovine TB free, OTbF), Inspection of the genitalia (if not Officially Brucellosis Free), Trichinella testing (if batch not Officially Trichinella Free) Surveillance of process hygiene criteria (Reg 2073/2005) Monitoring for residues of antimicrobials, prohibited substances Checks for absence of contaminations (primarily faecal contaminations) Audits of good hygiene practices Specific concerns: e.g. septicaemia, notifiable diseases, welfare conditions > E.g. African Swine Fever - highly contagious in pigs

Key Principles - PMI should:

Take into account Ante-mortem inspection results (including FCI) View (visually inspect) all external surfaces and as required some specific organs to be palpated/ incised Attention to detection of zoonotic and notifiable diseases Take place without delay after slaughter (with some exceptions e.g. cold inspection) Include carcase and accompanying offal being correlated Steps taken to reduce contamination (minimal handling) to carcase and offal

Increasing responsibility taken with every step of the cascade

Target species specific data has not been assessed to determine appropriate dose or margin of safety Environmental impact has not been considered Consumer safety for that product has not been assessed by the VMD; therefore, restrictions for prescribing under the cascade in food-producing species

Chilling

Temperature reduced to 4°C as soon as possible Air chill & Contra-flow immersion chilling > Water makes carcasses slightly heavier Weighed, graded and Packed Stored chilled for distribution/ further processing

Sensory properties of meat

Tenderness > Can be measured objectively > Shear force results Flavour Juiciness Colour - visual appearance at point of purpose Flavour, juiciness, colour based on sensory panelling Beef cuts - tenderness most important (vs. juciness, flavour) Lamb - flavour more important Pork - flavour important (boar taint) 80% of tenderness based on post-slaughter factors Flavour mostly related to diet of animal and resulting composition of meat

Official Veterinarians (OVs), on behalf of Defra, sign Export Health Certificates (EHC).

The Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA) provide instructions to OVs via the website and detailed Guidance notes for the completion of health certificates. OVs (in GB) are private vets (MRCVS) who hold relevant qualification to enable them to certify exports on behalf of the UK Competent Authority (i.e. Defra for animals/animal products) Certification underpins many types of trade. In veterinary context - Export Health Certificates commonly used Negotiated and agreed with the importing country Usually signed by an "official vet (OV)" working on behalf of the country's "Competent Authority" List of export health certificates for GB exports now available on GOV.UK along with notes for guidance for certifying vets Top tips > Read the certificate and notes for guidance carefully before meeting owner/exporter > Carefully follow all instructions and keep records > Think carefully before signing - Do I understand exactly what I'm being asked to sign? - Can I trust the information provided? - Do I have any conflicts of interest? Actual or perceived? > Follow RCVS principles of certification - APHA & RCVS - agreed guidance considered the following situations unacceptable: >> consignments owned by OVs / close relative / partner >> company with financial interest / employee. >> exporter responsible for significant % income of OV/OV practice. - If in any doubt - ask (e.g. experienced colleagues, APHA/DAERA and/or RCVS) > Cultivate good record keeping habits > Stay up to date with OV briefing notes and other information on APHA vet gateway

Preparations for approvals

The Central Competent Authority role Policy issues - some examples > Setting up standards - e.g. defining words (where possible) such as "adequate", "where necessary", " where appropriate" "sufficient" The term "unless competent authority satisfied" - e.g. in case of structure using some other materials, or CA authorises in time separations of some operations, required level of documentation - all cases-by-case basis meeting objectives.

The Control of Horses Act 2015

The Control of Horses Act 2015 has been passed by Parliament and came into force across England on May 2015 Fly-grazing is a major cause of horse welfare problems, and there was no effective legislation to deal with the issue. > Around 10 different laws were used to try to address the problem, but these invariably led to complex, costly, long-winded legal processes which were a barrier to taking action and impacted on horse welfare. > This Act, which updates the Animals Act 1971, makes small changes to the law to close these various loopholes. The Control of Horses Act allows both local authorities and private landowners to act more quickly and decisively when horses are fly-grazed on their land (placed onto their land without permission). > It also gives them a far wider range of options on what they then do with seized horses.

EU Commission

The EU Commission (based in Brussels) is divided into several departments and services. The departments are known as Directorates-General (DGs). Veterinary Public Health issues are dealt mainly with the Health and Consumers (DGs SANCO) working with others DGs, as appropriate for example, Agriculture, Environment etc. A branch of DG SANCO, is formerly known as the Food and Veterinary Office (FVO) based in Dublin now called DG Health and Food Audits which employs many veterinarians, responsible for global auditing

EU legislation about slaughter

The European Council Regulation (EC) No 1099/2009 on the protection of animals at the time of killing > Protection of animals at the time of killing. > Regulation, not a directive. - A directive sets a minimum standard, but individual member states are allowed to write their own legislation (can be higher standard) - Regulation should be implemented as written. > Acceptable across the EC (27 countries). > Provision for national rules. > Consultations before it was finalised, involving HSA

Who is the lead body for the Government response to incidents involving contamination of food and feed?

The Food Standards Agency Many other Agencies and Departments may also be involved or have a remit, e.g. APHA Food Safety Act 1990 - requires due diligence to protect the food chain, at every stage

Role of OiE in international trade

The OIE is the WTO reference organization for standards relating to animal health and zoonoses. The OIE publishes 2 codes (Terrestrial and Aquatic) and 2 manuals (Terrestrial and Aquatic) as the principle reference for WTO members. The Terrestrial Animal Health Code and Aquatic Animal Health Code respectively aim to assure the sanitary safety of international trade in terrestrial animals and aquatic animals, and their products.

Other laws affecting welfare

The Protection of Animals (Anaesthetic) Acts 1954, 1964 and Amendment Order 1982, 2003 Docking and Nicking of Horses Act 1949 The Animals (Scientific Procedures) Act 1986, Order 1996 Export of (Horses Protection) Order 1969 Export of Horses (Veterinary Examination) Order 1966

Microbiological criteria

The Regulation establishes two types of microbiological criteria and requires that food business operators take corrective action when the criteria are not met. > Food safety criteria should be used to assess the safety of a product or batch of foodstuffs > Process hygiene criteria should be used to ensure the production processes are operating properly.

Sampling milk ex-farm for total bacterial count (TBC) and somatic cell count (SCC):

The Regulations require a TBC of <100,000 cfu/ml at 30°C (although for practical purposes the UK is using Bactoscans, an (automated method) with the legal limit being <500,000 per ml of milk) and an SCC of <400,000/ml for raw milk destined for pasteurisation. Raw milk intended for sale in England or Wales without pasteurisation is subject to more stringent criteria (<20,000 cfu/ml total viable count; <100 cfu/ml coliforms; regular hygiene inspections etc) - see below. Criteria of Raw milk for other species > Plate count (TBC) (at 30ºC) per ml of <1,500,000 > Milk from other species processed not requiring heat treatment (certain cheeses) - plate count (at 30ºC) per ml of <500,000 Sampling milk ex-farm for antimicrobial residues (ELISA) Other testing of milk ex-farm > Quality testing: protein, butterfat, lactose, somatic cell counts > Water (freezing point)

Role of Defra in animal welfare

The UK Central Competent Authority (CCA) for animal welfare, responsible for policy

World Veterinary Association (WVA)

The WVA is the internationally recognized representative of global veterinary medicine. It was founded in 1863 in Hamburg, Germany, but was completely reorganized in 1997. The WVA has collaborative agreements with the OIE, FAO and WHO.

WTO, Geneva

The World Trade Organization (WTO) is the only international organization dealing with the global rules of trade between nations. Its main function is to ensure that trade flows as smoothly, predictably and freely as possible. WTO uses the WHO/FAO/OIE standards.

Definition of yogurt

The acidified coagulated milk product made from milk or any combination of milk and/or products obtained from milk, in which, after pasteurisation, lactic acid has been produced within the product by the bacterial cultures Lactobacillus bulgaricus and/or streptococcus thermophilus with which may be used other suitable bacteria. The appropriate live organisms should be viable and abundant. Yogurt may, however be subject to heat treatment after fermentation if appropriately labelled.

Desciribing disease occurrence

The amount of disease is the morbidity; the number of deaths is the mortality. The times of occurrence of cases of a disease are its temporal distribution; the places of occurrence are its spatial distribution. The measurement and description of the size of populations and their characteristics is demography.

Certificate of competence

The certificate of competence awarded after an independent assessment of the driver's knowledge of: > General conditions of transporting animals > The documents that are required > Fitness for transport > Journey planning > Animal physiology and feed need, animal behaviour and the concept of stress > Practical aspects of handling animals > Impact of driving behaviour on welfare of animals and on the quality of meat > Emergency care for animals > Safety of personnel handling animals

WHO: Food-Borne Parasites

The criteria can be summarized as: (1) number of global illnesses; (2) global distribution; (3) morbidity-acute; (4) morbidity-chronic; (5) percentage chronic; (6) mortality; (7) increasing illness potential; (8) trade relevance; and (9) socio-economic impact. Each criterion was then weighted by the experts in terms of their importance. The three criteria for disease severity (3, 4 and 5) were combined into one criterion, giving a total of 7 criteria weights, reflecting the relative importance of each criterion to the overall score. ·The global ranking of food-borne parasites by "importance" and their primary food vehicle in descending order was (first 10): > Taenia solium - Pork > Echinococcus granulosus - Fresh produce > Echinococcus multilocularis - Fresh produce > Toxoplasma gondii - Meat from small ruminants, pork, beef, game (red meat and organs) > Cryptosporidium spp. - Fresh produce, fruit juice, milk > Entamoeba histolytica - Fresh produce > Trichinella spiralis - Pork > Opisthorchiidae - Freshwater fish > Ascaris spp. - Fresh produce > Trypanosoma cruzi - Fruit juices

Control of Substances Hazardous to Health Regulations 2002 (COSHH)

The definition of a "substance hazardous to health" includes, in addition to solids, gases, liquids and vapours, any micro-organism that creates a hazard to the health of any person. The regulations require employers to assess the risks to health of their employees in the course of their work and to identify the steps to be taken to prevent or control the exposure. Employers must assess all products used in veterinary practice: > Identify and name activity where product will be used. > Identify and list hazardous substances > Identify route by which they are hazardous > Protection required > Means of disposal > Assessment of risk. Veterinarians, whether in practice as employees or employers, in the laboratory or elsewhere, should ensure that as employers a proper assessment of the workplace has been undertaken. Where veterinary work is carried out on premises of the clients the responsibility for COSHH is shared between the 2 parties although the degree of liability will depend on the circumstances of the hazard and the workplace.

Host determinants - sex

The effects of sex hormones may predispose animals to disease. Behavioural patterns may account for bite wound abscesses being more common in male than female cats. Genetic differences in disease incidence may be inherited either by being sex-linked, sex-limited (e.g. cryptorchidism), sex-influenced

Prescriptions for backyard chickens

The eggs are eaten; therefore, these are food producing species. A product should be selected which is authorised for egg laying chickens and has a withdrawal period for egg laying chickens. The owner must be made aware of the withdrawal period. Unfortunately, some products are in large pack sizes, as they are designed for use in commercial poultry flocks. Options: > Look for alternative antibiotic authorised for use in layers > Administer enrofloxacin and advise owners that they should not eat the eggs anymore Even though enrofloxacin is authorised for use in chickens, it is NOT for use in animals from which eggs are produced for human consumption (check SPC)

Formulating a causal hypothesis

The first step in any epidemiological investigation of cause is descriptive. > A description of time, place, and population is useful initially. When attempting to establish a causal association, five principles should be considered: 1) the time sequence of the events; 2) the strength of the association; i.e. statistical probabilities 3) biological gradient; i.e. dose response 4) consistency; 5) compatibility with existing knowledge.

Department of Health

The government department responsible for public health issues. Public Health England deals with zoonoses

Define risk communication

The interactive exchange of information and opinions throughout the risk analysis process as regards hazards and risks, risk-related factors and risk perceptions, among risk assessors, risk managers, consumers, feed and food businesses, the academic community and other interested parties, including the explanation of risk assessment findings and the basis of risk management decisions

Risk Communication from the beginning till the end

The interactive exchange of information throughout the risk analysis process > Gathering of appropriate data inputs > Explanation of risk assessment findings > Explanation of the basis for risk management decisions Liaisons with farmers, animal feed producers, processors, retailers, consumers etc.

Definition of humane slaughter

The killing of an animal or animals for food whilst inflicting the minimum of pain (and/or distress?) upon it or them

The Health and Safety at Work Act 1974

The main Act of Parliament governing health, safety and welfare at work which specifies the duties of the employer and employees with regard to health and safety. The Act places a duty on the employer to ensure, as far as is reasonably practicable, the employees' and publics' health, safety and welfare at work. The Act also places a duty upon the employee, while at work, to: > take reasonable care for their own health and safety and that of others who may be affected by what they do or do not do, > cooperate with the employer on health and safety, > not interfere with or misuse anything provided for their health, safety or welfare. These duties are qualified in the Act as "so far as is reasonably practical"; i.e. an employer should exercise good management and common sense especially in areas where it is impossible to significantly reduce risk or where the time and cost of measures are disproportionate to the risk. The Act is made more explicit through the following sets of Regulations with relevance to veterinarians in the UK: > Control of Substances Hazardous to Health Regulations 2002 (COSHH) > The Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations 1995 > Reporting of Injuries, Diseases and Dangerous Occurrences Regulations (RIDDOR) 2013 > First-Aid Regulations 1981

Food Standards Act 1999

The main purpose of the Food Standards Act 1999 is to establish the Food Standards Agency. It is there to provide the FSA with functions and powers and to transfer certain functions in relation to food safety and standards. The Act was introduced in the House of Commons in 1999. It sets out our main goal to protect public health in relation to food. It gives the FSA power to act in the consumer's interest at any stage in the food production and supply chain.

The Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations 1995

The main requirement is on employers to carry out and review local risk assessments. Employers with more than 5 employees must record the main findings of the assessments. Other requirements on the employer include: > Provision of safe environment, systems and equipment for work. > Provision of training and information necessary for health and safety. > To provide first aid kits, safety signs, and protective clothing. > To monitor safety. > To set up emergency procedures Five steps to risk assessment: 1. Look for hazards 2. Decide who might be harmed and how 3. Evaluate the risks and decide whether the existing precautions are adequate or whether more should be done 4. Record your findings 5. Review your assessment and revise it if necessary

Food Safety Act 1990

The main responsibilities for all food businesses under the Act are to ensure that: > Businesses do not include anything in food, remove anything from food or treat food in any way which means it would be damaging to the health of people eating it > The food businesses serve or sell is of the nature, substance or quality which consumers would expect > The food is labelled, advertised and presented in a way that is not false or misleading

Wild game

The majority of wild game in EU (including UK) is sold directly from hunter to final consumer and through registered premises e.g. butchers, shops, restaurants. Hunter (Hunter's declaration) -> Larders, Collection centres (registered under 852) -> Approved Game Handling Establishments, AGHE (approved under 853) -> butcher shops (852)/ supermarkets (842) -> final consumers OR hunter -> final consumer OR hunter -> butcher shops -> final consumer

First Aid Regulations 1981

The minimum first aid provision on any work site is a suitably stocked first aid box and an appointed person to take care of first aid issues. If it is considered that there is a significant risk of accidents, then one or more staff should be trained in first aid techniques.

Microbiological testing - Enterobacteriaceae

The name given to a group of bacteria that live predominantly in the intestines of animals. > The group includes most of the major food-borne pathogens of animal origin such as Salmonella, Yersinia and E. coli O157. The presence of these organisms on the surface of carcases is an indicator of faecal and environmental contamination.

Definition of buttermilk

The nearly milk fat-free fluid remaining from the butter-making process (i.e., the churning of fermented or non-fermented milk and cream). Buttermilk is also produced by the fermentation of fluid skim milk, either by spontaneous souring - by the action of lactic acid-forming or aroma-forming bacteria - or, by inoculation of heated milk with pure bacterial cultures (cultured buttermilk). Buttermilk may be pasteurised or sterilised.

Definition of milk

The normal mammary secretion obtained from one or more milkings; however, if not bovine (cow or buffalo) the origin must be stated (Section II point require milk that is not from cows to be clearly labelled (for example milk from a buffalo, even though it is of bovine origin, should be explicitly labelled as "buffalo milk").

Scanning surveillance

The ongoing systematic collection, analysis, and interpretation of data and the dissemination of information to those who need to know in order to take action Concern flagged up by private vets, APHA vets, abattoir vets, local authority Communication to APHA vet advisor (toxicology) -> FSA and other agencies

Post-harvest processing

The only possibility for marketing oysters from high risk areas during peak vulnificus season is to undertake post-harvest processing Purification - only about 40-50% of pathogenic vibrios removed at 48 hours > Not sufficient to produce a safe product Other procedures > Pasteurization > Freezing > Ultra-High Pressure In USA, it was found that education campaigns (displaying posters informing of dangers during high risk periods) actually increased consumption of oysters (especially by young males) > In Californian, post-harvesting processing requirements during high risk periods reduced the incidence of disease

Define viscera

The organs of the thoracic abdominal and pelvic cavities, as well as the trachea and oesophagus and, in birds, the crop.

Definition of casein

The principal protein constituent of milk, washed and dried, insoluble in water and obtained from skimmed milk by precipitation: by the addition of acid, microbial acidification, by using rennet or other milk-coagulating enzymes.

Define spoilage

The process in which food or other substances stop being good enough to eat or use, or the waste produced in this process' 'Spoilage means any detrimental change in state' Spoiled does not always mean unfit e.g. aged beef, mould on sausages/ cheese

Define risk management

The process, distinct from risk assessment, of weighing policy alternatives, in consultation with all interested parties, considering risk assessment and other factors relevant for the health protection of consumers and for the promotion of fair trade practices, and, if needed, selecting appropriate prevention and control.

Responsibilities for Clinical and Special waste

The producer of waste must ensure that the waste is handled and stored safely and securely. That the transfer of waste for treatment or disposal is only made to an authorised person. A written description of the waste is required in a transfer note.

Define mechanically separated meat (MSM)

The product obtained by removing meat from flesh-bearing bones after boning or from poultry carcases, using mechanical means resulting in the loss or modification of the muscle fibre structure.

Definition of cheese

The product obtained from the coagulation of milk, cream, skimmed milk, partly skimmed milk, concentrated skimmed milk, reconstituted dried milk, butter milk, materials obtained from milk, other ingredients necessary for the manufacture of cheese provided that those are not used for replacing, in whole or in part, any milk constituent, with or without partially draining the whey resulting from the coagulation. Cheese can also be made from whey, where it is made by either concentrating the whey with or without the addition of milk and milk fat and subsequently moulding it or just by coagulating the whey with or without the addition of milk and milk fat.

Mince packaging

The raw material for mince can be frozen meat or fresh meat which is then refined to meet particular specifications. It is derived from the forequarter cuts, hindquarter trim, or both. What is the process and how does it work? > The manufacture of mince uses a combination of vacuum packing and MA. > Prior to mincing, the temperature of the meat needs to be as low as possible (when mince is made from frozen meat, residual ice in the mince keeps temperatures relatively low). > Using textbook practice and with MA packaging and transportation in trays allowing free circulation of cold air, mince can be expected to enjoy a shelf life of 7 days. Speak to your supplier if your product appears dull brown

Toxicology

The science that deals with the adverse effects of chemicals on living organisms and assesses the probability of their occurrence

Food toxicology

The study of the nature, properties, effects, and detection of toxic substances in food, and their disease manifestation in humans Every animal/human can have a different response to toxins

Veterinary public health

The sum of all contributions to the physical, mental and social well-being of humans through an understanding and application of veterinary science

Wellcome Trust

Their vision is to achieve extraordinary improvements in human and animal health. In pursuit of this, they support the brightest minds in biomedical research and the medical humanities.

Benefit-risk assessment of VMP

Therapeutic benefit Risk to consumer, environment, user, target species Development of resistance Severity of risks and whether they can be mitigated is taken into account

Development of a VMP

Therapeutic concept -> Research and Development -> Submission to Regulatory Authority (VMD in UK) (-> Inspection of manufacturers) -> Authorisation if favourable benefit-risk balance -> Post-authorisation surveillance Benefit-risk assessment is lifelong process Post-authorisation surveillance > Adverse event reporting > Residue surveillance scheme (drug residues in foods of animal origin) > Surveillance of antimicrobial use and resistance In the first phase of both human and veterinary drug development (first in man; target animal safety, TAS), both use healthy subjects Differences: > Cost - subject numbers much lower in veterinary testing, especially at phase 3 > Time - quicker to develop veterinary drug, as you can investigate active substance in target species at much earlier stage of development - Human drug development - pre-clinical testing is carried out on rodents, dogs, primates - Veterinary - pre-clinical stage can be done on target species

Edible Co-Products are different to Animal-By-Products

There is no legal definition of Edible Co-Products. This is an industry term used in the UK. Edible Co-products are: > Rendered Animal fat and Greaves > Treated Stomach Bladders and intestines > Gelatine and Collagen

Koch's postulates

These postulates state that an organism is causal if: 1) it is present in all cases of the disease; 2) it does not occur in another disease as a fortuitous and non-pathogenic parasite 3) it is isolated in pure culture from an animal, is repeatedly passaged, and induces the same disease in other animals.

Brucellosis in cattle

Third trimester abortions with Brucella abortus Retained placenta > Once expelled will have a leathery appearance Endometritis Birth of dead or weak calves > Respiratory distress and lung infections Low milk yield

Defra Zoonoses report (2017)

This report provides relevant highlights on zoonoses in UK such as: notifiable or reportable under veterinary and/or human legislation, the numbers of reported cases in animals and humans, significant trends, controls and who is responsible for what in case of outbreaks.

Xanthosis: (Lipofuscinosis)

Thought to be a hereditary condition Dark brown colouration of muscles due to the pigment xanthine Most commonly affects the > Heart, tongue and masseter muscles, kidneys > Lymph nodes near the kidneys (adrenal bodies) are enlarged and dark brown Judgement: Reject affected parts

Characteristics of pathogens

Three important characteristics of pathogens that affect transmission of infectious agents are infectivity, virulence and stability. Infectivity relates to the amount of an organism that is required to initiate infection. The length of time for which an organism can remain infective outside its host is the organism's stability. > Some organisms survive only for short periods of time, that is they are very labile (e.g. Leptospira spp. in dry environments). - Seasonal disease, HIV > Stability is frequently facilitated by protective capsules, such as those forming the outer layer of bacterial spores (e.g. Bacillus anthracis).

Intelligent packaging

Time temperature indicators: indicates cumulative exposure above temperature threshold in Degree Hours Leak indicators, e.g. oxygen detection for MAP. Freshness indicators: > Microbial metabolites (amines, ammonia etc) > Microbial enzymes > Detect consumption of specific nutrients. Safety indicators: > Detection of specific bacteria > Detection of specific toxins

Carcass lesions - jaundice

Tissues of carcase and offal stained with bile salts > Needs differentiating from carotene pigment > Carotene does not stain cartilage Judgement - unfit for human consumption

Slaughter Priorities

To ensure welfare in the slaughterhouse, animals should be slaughtered without delay > Animals in acute pain > Any animal too young to take solid food > If animal cannot be moved must be killed in situ Slaughterhouse must have emergency procedure in place Sick or disabled animals must be isolated from other animals in suitable accommodation

Socio-economic significance of wildlife pathogens

To human health > Zoonotic pathogens > Food safety (wild animal products) To domestic animal health > Pathogens shared with livestock, poultry > Economic costs to livestock industries > Effects on human food supply and food safety To wildlife and environmental health > Economic costs - harvest, tourism > Environmental costs - biodiversity, stability

What do all hygiene regulations regarding food production have in common?

To respect basic principles/standards of OiE, FAO, WTO, WHO, not compromising food safety, animal health and possibly animal welfare; Clear food business operator (FBO's) responsibility for production, including primary producers for the first time Flexible approaches to production and enforcement that are less prescriptive taking into consideration small/traditional business using precautionary principle

Physical effects of an electric stun

Tonic phase > Animal collapses and becomes rigid > No rhythmic breathing > Head is raised > Forelegs extended and hind legs flexed into the body > 10-15s Clonic phase > Gradual relaxation of muscles > Paddling or involuntary kicking (can be severe at times) > Downward movement of eyeballs > Urination and/or defecation > If animal is not bled, will enter recovery phase, so bleed WITHOUT DELAY (within 15s, preferably when still in tonic phase) Recovery phase > Resumption of normal rhythmic breathing > Response to painful stimuli > Becomes visually aware > Attempts to stand

Expected duration of phases following head-only electrical stunning

Tonic: 10-20s for pigs, sheep, goats, 5-20s for cattle, 8-14s for calves Clonic: 15-45 for PSG, 10-60s for cattle, 8-28s for calves Recovery: 30-60s for PSG, 45-90s for cattle, 40-70s for calves If accounting for shortest possible times, a sheep can be back on its feet within a minute

Review of recommended anthelmintic programs for dogs

Toxacariasis (and other helminths): > Prevention of infection of pups: - Medicate dam with fenbendazole from d.-20 until d.+20 of whelping (50mg/kg/day). - Medicate dam and pups (e.g. pyrantel) at: >> 2 weeks; then fortnightly until 12 weeks >> At 12 weeks then 3-monthly > At-risk situations (children etc) - medicate monthly. Tapeworms (Echinococcus sp.): > Monthly medication with praziquantel (PPP is 34-58 days).

Contact zoonoses - Faecal - Helminth parasites

Toxocara caninum (T. cati, Baylisascaris): > Average less than 10 human cases each year. > Puppies a major source of infection (transplacental). > 2-3 weeks for embryonation of eggs but these can be found on the dog's coat. Ancylostoma caninum: > Dermatitis, eosinophilic enteritis, anaemia in man. > Larvae infective in damp environment after 5-9 days. > Neonatal pups infected in milk

Traceability

Traceability needs to be considered in the context of quantity and THE ACTUAL PRODUCT > On an international/national level e.g. wholesaling (whole cuts, cuts of meat and retail packs in large quantities) > Retailing to final consumers "Traceability" - a buzzword? > Used in different context for different purposes e.g. legal, commercial, best practice, QA > But what it means legally (food safety), in general terms, is laid down in Article 18 of Regulations (EC) No 178 /2002, Regulation (EU) 931/2011(commercial documents/ delivery notes) + ( If) Organic food legislation +Regulation (EC) No 1760/2000 and Regulation (EC)1825/2000 ( CATTLE ID AND beef labelling) > And/or in some sector specific marketing legislation e.g. weight, price, nutrition, assurance schemes etc.,

EU/EFSA Approach to modernisation of meat inspection

Traditional inspection methods use physical checks such as visual inspections, palpation and incisions to examine meat for lesions or flaws, such as bruising or broken bones. > However, such manual practices often date back decades and are not always adequate to detect the main public health hazards. > Most important public health hazards from meat are food-borne pathogens (Salmonella, Campylobacter and E. Coli) and chemical contaminants/veterinary residues They recommended to avoid palpation and incision techniques in post-mortem inspection because they do not help to detect the main hazards. EFSA scientific opinions now need to be translated/considered by EU officials which may be the long process (years rather than months)

Additional requirements for long journeys over 8 hours

Transporters must: > Be in possession of a long journey transporter authorisation > If the vehicle is used for transporting farmed animals and horses, get it inspected and approved > Ensure contingency plans in case of emergencies are in place > Ensure the Journey Log has been completed (for journeys of unregistered horses and livestock) where the journey is going outside the UK

Animal feed and food safety

Trucks pose a biosecurity risk: > Wheels > Bulk silo connector hoses - Locate feed bins at farm boundary - Farm supplies own connector hose - Wheel washes Potential problems: > Spread of zoonotic disease: - BSE - Salmonella Other issues: > Drug residues > Chemical contaminants > Zootechnical additives > Genetically modified material

Carcass lesions - TB

Tubercles (tumour-like masses) or miliary masses in lymph nodes and organ Most common in cattle, pigs, deer - sheep quite resistant Judgement: > Notifiable disease > Where lesions only in one organ, part rejected > Where multiple areas are affected, entire carcase and offal rejected > Category 2 > If seen first time, notify APHA and abattoir

Definition of an outbreak

Two or more people experiencing a similar illness are linked in time/place Greater than expected rate of infection compared with the usual background rate for the place and time Single case for rare diseases such as diphtheria, botulism, rabies, viral haemorrhagic fever or polio Exposure of a group of people to a hazard

Hazards from waste water

Typical hazards are biological and chemical and go beyond human wastes: Farm: > Slurry, chemical escape > Nitrate run-off Veterinary practice: > Veterinary medicines, chemicals Abattoir: > Contaminated materials, slurry from lairage > Specified risk material Industry: persistent organic pollutants (dioxins, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) Benzopyrene Hazards are significant to people, animals, environment

Yersinia - human disease

Typically children <5yrs. Enterocolitis, pharyngitis Erythema nodosum Mesenteric lymphadenitis 141 cases in UK in 2017 (38 cases Y. entercolitica)

Which dogs get rabies?

Typically free-roaming animals > Referred to for years as 'strays' Regarded as uncontrolled, expanding nuisance > Various WHO documents Clear implications from these suppositions that rabies control would be improved by reducing their numbers, controlling their breeding and vaccination of a few of them. BUT > The dogs are owned - and obtained purposely > They are fed > Population sizes are controlled (by established indigenous means) > Unintended consequences of culling > Communities will often cull invading stray dogs for fear that they carry rabies

Imports into the UK

UK "national" rules vs. EU "harmonised" rules Veterinary inspectors at UK border Protecting UK biosecurity (human and animal health) Primarily EU rules - what to check, how to check, documentation required Some national rules - e.g. Rabies order - import licence/quarantine Live animals Animal Products including food Identity, Documentary and Physical checks

EU Protected Food Names

UK (or any other Country) does not have to be politically a part of EU to apply for these names. Some flexibilities within the context of Hygiene Regulations, in terms of structure, equipment and practices, are permitted for "Traditional Foods" and "Traditional Methods of Production" > To preserve tradition (cultural heritage), helping rural remote areas etc. and because the intention of EU Regulator is not to destroy this production > Accomodate the needs of FBO in regions with special geographical constraints > Some storage places used in traditional methods (e.g. caves) are not possible to clean and disinfect Exclusions from the scope, e.g. for private consumption

BSE Conclusions

UK BSE epidemic dramatically declined: controlled Risk Prevalence of infection significantly higher in residual pre-August 1996 population: permanently excluded from food and feed chain including export. § Observed prevalence of BSE in cattle born after July 1996, in UK is equivalent to that in other EU Member States. § SRM controls are key food safety control measure for BSE. § Feed controls are the key animal health control measure for BSE § EU measures (feed, SRM, testing) exceed OIE measures.

EU Treaties (Lisbon Treaty)

UK gave powers to EU to legislate certain laws that are directly or indirectly applicable in UK ALTHOUGH, repealed by European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018

Legislation: Controlling and Monitoring Food-borne Zoonoses

UK legislation > The Food Safety and Hygiene (England) Regulations 2013 > The Zoonoses (Monitoring) (England) Regulations 2007 > Notifiable Disease legislation, e.g. - Tuberculosis (England) Order 2007 - Brucellosis (England) Order 2000 - Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathy (England) Regulations 2018 EU legislation > Directive 2003/99/EC on the monitoring of zoonoses and zoonotic agents > EU Food Hygiene Regulations: - 852/2004 (H1), 853/2004 (H2), [854/2004 (H3)], Animal By Products legislation 1069/2009 (plus domestic Regulation)

Global apiculture

UK produces 7,000 tonnes of honey pa 95% of honey consumed in the UK is imported (mostly from China) > In recent years, reports of finding contaminants such as antibiotics in imported honey Over 50 countries £100s of millions

Effect of Journey times on Incidence of Dead on Arrival (DoA)

UK travel times approx. > 50% less than 3 hours > 6% greater than 7 hours Mortality increases steply with journey times over 5 hours Other influences > Initial handling > Weather (Temperature and humidity) > Stocking density

Controlling hazards from discharged wastewater

UK water treatment companies control hazardous discharges into sewers: > Consent to Discharge from businesses > Specifies what is permitted and at what levels > Trade Effluent Inspectors audit. > Water Industry Act. Environment Agency controls what is discharged to water courses after treatment: > Standards set by EU Water Framework Directive and monitored by Environment Agency > Bathing water, shell-fish hygiene

Human Animal Infections and Risk Surveillance (HAIRS) Group

UK-based, multi-agency, cross-disciplinary horizon scanning group Identify and discuss infections with potential interspecies transfer (esp. zoonotic infections) Difficult to prevent introduction of vector-borne diseases, e.g. West Nile Fever

Zoonotic infections in healthy animals are more problematic:

Unaware they are present Often difficult/expensive to test for in animals Economically insignificant to livestock farmer May just be harmless commensals in animals Less motivation to control

What would happen if, during an audit, an OV finds out the hygiene was so "bad" that the risk to public health is compromised?

Under the UK law do one of the following: > Stop production and request for FBOs to clean premises/ equipment/ animals > Detain/ reject animals/ carcases / meat that OV considers risk to public health > Reject meat and/or recommend for prosecution

Lairage environment

Unfamiliar e.g. may be stressful for animals Systems adopted to exploit natural behaviour of animals e.g. moving from dark to light Generally: adequate space e.g. lie down, stand up, turn around, light, well ventilated, draught free, dry and hygienic Floors: non slip, should not injure feet, where surface made slippery such as rain or ice footing should be improved with straw, sand, grit etc. Pens: where possible solid walls better e.g. animals more relaxed, less noise, draught protection, rectangular more space than square pens etc.

· Approval: conditional & full

Unique approval Number - note the difference FSA directly approved e.g. by vets: UK 5519 EC Environmental Health Departments: UK NP 015 EC Different terminology used: Health mark (red and wild game meat carcases), in all other cases called an Identification mark e.g. on labels List published on FSA website

Reception of raw milk for processing to cheese

Unrefrigerated > Treat or process as soon as possible after arrival Refrigerated at < 6 °C > Treat or process within 36 hours Refrigerated at < 4 °C > Treat or process within 48 hours Buffalos, ewes or goats milk > Treat or process within 72 hours

Symptoms of vitamin A toxicity in lambs

Unusual clinical signs > Hair loss around eyes, mouth and ventrally > Fleece dirty (lambs reported as 'sweaty') > Reluctant to stand (joint pain but no joint effusion) > Poor growth rate, yet continuing to feed No white muscle disease No coccidiosis

Food safety - developed world

Up to 10% of population may suffer annually. Reduction in many food-borne diseases (cholera, typhoid etc) Issues/Factors > Increases in other food borne diseases: > Intensive farming systems with sub-clinical infection. > Industrialised mass production: potential impact is greater. > Consumer demand for 'less processed' foods. > Changes in methods of consumer food preparation (less effective control). Campylobacter = most important cause of food poisoning > Norovirus is 2nd, Listeria is 3rd Eggs are no.1 cause, followed by then mixed food and fish/fish products

Bivalve-associated outbreaks in England and Wales

Up to 2002, lots of outbreaks recorded as unknown cause After this time, lots recorded due to viral gastroenteritis (introduction of more sensitive/reliable detection methods, e.g. real time RT-PCR) EU food hygiene legislation related to bivalves first implemented from 1993 (red arrow) > Prevalence of hepatitis A in UK dropped markedly > Many hepatitis A outbreaks due to inadequately cooked cockles > Requirements related to cooking process changed in late 1990s to allow more effective heating through bulk of product Most outbreaks related to norovirus, second most had unknown cause Most reported outbreaks due to oysters (usually eaten raw) Peak in December - norovirus = winter vomiting virus December, January and February (Christmas, New Year, Valentine's Day) are also when sales of oysters peak

Vet responsibilities regarding prescription

Use authorised medicines responsibly in the interests of animal welfare (appropriate dose, quantity prescribed, correct indication, etc.) Ensure contra-indications and warnings are understood, especially withdrawal periods Keep complete records of use Report suspected adverse events (including lack of efficacy) Follow RCVS code of practice Report illegal use and suspected counterfeit medicines

Tips on handling / moving animals

Use natural behaviour of animals Cattle and sheep herd instinct to follow herd leader Not driven from brightly lit area to a darker area Should not cross shadows, direct sunlight, shining or moving objects Sticks and goads (maintained and in good condition) only used when necessary > To persuade animal to move forward when way is clear > Never with excessive force or frequency Goads need to be maintained in good conditions > Legislation restricts use to muscles of hind quarters of adult cattle and pigs, which are refusing to move forward when the way ahead is clear

Metritis

Usually parturient animals Uterus enlarged full of foul-smelling purulent fluid Chronic form presents as endometritis or pyometra Judgement: > Rejection of uterus > If systemic signs rejection of entire carcase and offal

Prevention of human rabies

Vaccination > Pre- and post-exposure prophylaxis Category 1 - touching/feeding, licks intact skin - no action Category 2 - nibbling uncovered skin, minor scratches without bleeding - vaccine Category 3 - single/multiple bites or scratches, contamination of MM with saliva, exposure to bats - immunoglobulin and vaccine Since their development more than four decades ago, concentrated and purified cell-culture and embryonated egg based rabies vaccines (CCVs) have proved to be safe and effective in preventing rabies. > First generation: human diploid cell rabies vax (HDCV) > Second generation: purified chick embryo cell-culture (PCECV), Vero cell rabies vaccine (PVRV) > Nerve tissue vaccines induce more severe adverse reactions and are less immunogenic than cell culture derived vaccines and their production and use are therefore not recommended by WHO. - Unacceptably high rates of post-administration neurological complications Wound washing is critically important > Thorough washing of the wound with soap/detergent and water, followed by the application of ethanol or an aqueous solution of iodine or povidone. - And often forgotten / underemphasised > Never suture the wound Control disease in dogs through vaccination > National dog vaccination programmes often much cheaper than PEP usage > Concentration remains on human vaccination! Rabies provides the best justification for one health approaches to human disease control

Effect of packaging on sensory qualities of meat

Vacuum pack, nitrogen, overwrap (oxygen-permeable film), high oxygen pack After different days of retail display (0, 4, 7), steaks were frozen for later assessment Vacuum pack - after several days of display, chewiness decreased (steak continued to tenderise In contrast, with high oxygen packaging, steak chewiness increased over time

Preventing spoilage - Controlling oxygen levels

Vacuum packing - CO2 rises to 20%, oxygen falls to 1%. Controlled (100%) CO2 packing: Discolouration of myoglobin, so only poultry. Modified atmosphere packaging: > Mixture of oxygen (red meat) or nitrogen (poultry) and raised levels of CO2 > Low temperature enhances antimicrobial action of CO2 > Gram -ves more sensitive than Gram +ves

Implementation of risk management decision

Validate the control(s) where necessary Implement the selected control(s) Verify implementation

Veterinary Medicines Directorate (VMD) staff

Variety of scientific and non-scientific teams > Scientific disciplines include veterinary surgeons, pharmacists, chemists, immunologists, toxicologists, eco-toxicologists and epidemiologists. > Non-scientific teams include experts in policy, finance, IT, an international development team, administrative staff Based in Weybridge, Surrey

Avian influenza

Various subtypes are associated with human illness: H5N1 (2003), H7N9 (2013) H5N6 (Asian lineage, 2014), H7N4 (2018). Usually associated with exposure to birds or their environments particularly live poultry markets or backyard poultry Small clusters have been identified but no evidence of widespread human-to-human transmission Severe human illness, and high fatality rate Milder cases also observed - incl. conjunctivitis Almost all subtypes of influenza A are known to affect birds, occasional spill-over events into humans. Notifiable animal disease when: > Subtype is H5 or H7 (even if LPAI) > Any subtype that causes HPAI The Divisional Veterinary Manager will notify PHE when there are suspect or confirmed incidents of AI. > This will be in strict confidence on a case by case basis

Major non-statutory pests and diseases of the honeybee

Varroa destructor Chronic bee paralysis virus Others: Nosema, other viruses, Crithidia (protozoa), amoeba, wasps, woodpeckers

Epidemiology of rabies

Vast majority of human cases (>99%) are derived from domestic dogs Sylvatic cycles are also common and important > Skunk and racoon cycles in USA > Different wildlife cycles in southern Africa > Fox cycle in western Europe (still exists to some extent in eastern Europe) > Bat rabies in north America Each cycle requires specific and individually tailored disease control policy

Leishmania infantum

Vector (sandfly) present in S. Europe (not UK), 12% seroprevalence in dogs in Portugal. Canine and human disease: Cutaneous or visceral form Treatment with pentavalent antimony compounds. Control: > Vector populations > Dog populations > Implications of PETS Travel Scheme (257 cases reported in UK, 2005-7).

Cellulitis in poultry

Vent abscesses: industry term Inflammation of the area under the skin > Most commonly found around the vent (pericloacal cellulitis) > Infection by E. coli common Infection is acquired: > Through feather follicles > Scratches Presents in two forms: > Wet form - Connective tissue under skin is yellowish and jelly-like > Dry form - Yellow caseous pus also known as crisping. Theoretically could be trimmed, but not commercially viable

Types of enforcement

Verbal enforcement Non- verbal enforcement > Formal/ advisory letters and enforcement notices (The Food Safety and Hygiene (England) Regulations 2013 and equivalents in SWANI) - Remedial Action Notices (RANs) >> Immediate risk, e.g. equipment is dirty >> Can detain animals/food for further inspection - Hygiene Improvement Notices (HINs) >> For maintenance, e.g. equipment is rusty - Other notices e.g. prohibition ordered/ recommendations - Detention notices (under FSA 1990), seizure notices etc. And/ or recommendation for prosecutions > The court will decide

VTEC O157

Verocytotoxigenic E.coli (VTEC) O157 A serogroup of E.coli that causes serious illness in people through the production of verocytotoxin Other serogroups of VTEC (e.g., VTEC O26, VTEC O104) O157 present in many animal species, esp. cattle + sheep Abattoir surveys: present on about 40% of cattle farms, 4% of cattle It does not cause illness in animals (commensal) Shed in animal faeces - intermittent Contamination of environment VTEC O157 persists for weeks/months Adult ruminants are high risk Acquired directly or indirectly from animal faeces > Contaminated food or water > Direct/indirect (environmental) animal contact > Person to person spread Vets are involved because VTEC O157 is an important zoonosis, not because of any direct significance to livestock farmers.

HAACP 7. Establishing documents and records commensurate with the nature and size of the food business to demonstrate the effective application of the measures outlined in subparagraphs (a) to (f)

Very few incomprehensive records > Lack of knowledge. > Objective is to have understandable documents and records. Many meaningless records > Why not to use a SIMPLE DIARY (one page of records per week) > Exception reporting is OK (if nothing happens, no need to record).

Effect of animal handling and lairage on sensory properties of meat

Very important for tenderness Bruising > May require trimming > Also be aware of weight loss, if due to stress > Rind-side damage for pork Stress can affect pH of meat post-slaughter > Prolonged stress or feed withdrawal prior to slaughter - insufficient glycogen stores in muscle (high pH) - DFD > Acute stress around time of slaughter causes pH to drop rapidly when temperature is still high - PSE - Tougher meat after cooking Effect of stress on toughness: toughness increases depending on post-transport behaviour (nervous > restless > calm)

Bordetella bronchisepticum

Very rare pneumonia and URT zoonosis in IS people. Subclinical carriage with increased shedding during Kennel Cough. Control: segregation, medication and vaccination.

Illegal transport

Very young animals, e.g. calves less than ten days old, pigs less than three weeks and lambs less than one week Calves less than 14 days old, for journeys over eight hours Cervine animals in velvet, i.e. deer with newly growing antlers Puppies and kittens less than eight weeks old, unless accompanied by their mother New-born mammals where the navel hasn't completely healed Heavily pregnant females - where more than 90 per cent of the expected gestation period has passed - unless being transported for veterinary treatment Females who have given birth during the previous seven days Sick or injured animals where moving them would cause additional suffering, unless instructed by a vet Shorn sheep during cold weather - particularly November to March

OiE - role in food safety

Veterinarians (working with WHO) play a crucial role in "food safety" in developing and developed world.

Why is the term "Meat Hygiene Vets" incorrect, misleading?

Veterinarians are not responsible for the outcome of meat hygiene in the current national and international legal framework. Veterinarians, however, are responsible to enforce the compliance by "verifying" and "auditing" FBOs hygienic practices and procedures.

Who can prescribe, dispense and supply?

Veterinary surgeons: > Can prescribe POM-V, POM-VPS > Can dispense/supply POM-V (own or other vet's prescription), POM-VPS, NFA-VPS, AVM-GSL Pharmacist: > Can prescribe: POM-VPS > Can dispense/supply: POM-V (against prescription from vet), POM-VPS, NFA-VPS, AVM-GSL SQP (holding AMTRA qualification (i.e. not RVN automatically)) > Can prescribe: POM-VPS > Can dispense/supply: POM-VPS, NFA-VPS, AVM-GSL Other traders (RQP status not required) can supply: > AVM-GSL products > Schedule 6 exemption products - Tend to be those marketed for terrarium animals, cage birds, aquarium fish, small rodents "Prescription" diets not regulated by VMD (regulated by FSA)

Routes of entry of zoonotic organisms

Via loss of skin integrity - abrasions / cuts / puncture wounds Through mucous membranes Oral - gastro-intestinal tract Inhalation

Routes of infection

Via oral, respiratory, skin & mucous membranes by: o ingestion o inhalation o contact o inoculation o iatrogenic o coitus Vertical transmission > hereditary (inherited) > congenital (acquired) - germinative (inheriting a gene) - transplacental - ascending infection - infection at parturition

Pathogenic vibrios

Vibrios are motile, gram negative rods that usually live in a range of aquatic environments > Some live in freshwater, others in estuaries or coastal marine locations > One species can survive in hypersaline conditions > Some species can cause infections in humans > Not significant problem in Europe, but are in other parts of the world - Need to be considered due to imports, changing conditions Vibrios are a significant cause of seafood-associated illness worldwide Three main species of interest are V. cholerae, V. parahaemolyticus and V. vulnificus > V. cholerae causes pandemic cholera, and is usually transmitted by contaminated drinking water or contaminated food (via water) Several other species may also cause seafood-associated infection > Some via intestinal tract, others causing wound, eye, ear infections

Agent determinants

Virulence - ability of infectious agent to cause disease Pathogenicity - may be used as synonym for virulence but is generally used to refer to quality not quantity of disease caused. Virulence and pathogenicity are intrinsic factors of agent Agent may undergo a phenotypic changes which causes a change in ability to cause disease. > These changes are generally transient. If the agent undergoes a genotypic change, e.g. following mutation or recombination, it will be inherited.

Evisceration Inspection Point

Viscera may be removed mechanically and may be placed in trays (or attached to body) corresponding to carcase Mirror on other side, so all parts of carcase can be viewed Parts requiring inspection > Surface of bird > Viscera > Internal body cavity > (excluding head and feet if not for human consumption)

National Bee Unit

Visit beekeepers and assess health, instigate control of statutory pests Highly skilled and trained In all other EU countries, this is done by vets

Inspection of the diaphragm

Visual Inspection Palpation and incision if necessary Likely to reflect disease status in abdominal and thoracic cavities Adhesions may be present

Inspection of the genital organs

Visual inspection > Except penis if already discarded Eaten in some cultures!

Poultry meat inspections

Visual inspection Additional inspection(s), examination(s) or test if required NO palpation, incisions The purpose of ante/post-mortem inspection is the same including responsibilities H1 applies to all i.e. general requirements for structure/equipment/ hygiene practices, etc. Specifics on poultry in Regulation 853 H2 and as always, links with other Regs e.g. ABP, 178/2002, Welfare, Domestic Regs etc. Enforcement powers of Authorised officers e.g. inspection/auditing tasks Decisions concerning meat fitness, 'shall be declared unfit' is the same as red meat

Inspection of Young Animals

Visual inspection and palpation of > Umbilical region > Joints Incision if necessary > Umbilical region > Synovial fluid examined

Post mortem meat inspection

Visual, palpation, incision, additional testing e.g. Trichinella On line inspection role > Inspection/ sampling/ testing Meat Hygiene Inspector, or Slaughterhouse staff, Plant Inspection Assistant (PIA) Normal or abnormal? > Colour - jaundice > Consistency

Effect of vitamin E

Vitamin E is an antioxidant Vitamin E supplementation in diet - increases beef colour stability after 7 days of retail display Mincing 4 days after trimming or immediately made no difference to colour stability Number of days of supplementation affected colour shelf life If supplemented for 154 days then withdrawn for 63 days, colour shelf life decreases again Vitamin E supplementation is at supra-nutritional levels Forage feeding also has high antioxidant levels, so don't need to supplement in grazing animals or those fed a high quality silage

Vehicle temperature

Warm spots - midline, towards front of lorry > 25% of deaths due to heat occur here Cold spots - towards back of lorry > 70% of deaths occur here

Egg products - preparation for breaking out and processing

Washing and disinfection varies by country. Candling is used to identify spoiled eggs prior to breaking. Note that cracked eggs tend to be selected for processing and these are more susceptible to spoilage. Some systems involve separation of melange from shell by centrifugal force (exposure to shell surface greatly increases level of contamination) - this product is usually frozen prior to transfer for pasteurisation.

What is special waste?

Waste that poses specific hazards to handlers or the environment. Some wastes are classified as both clinical and special. Examples in veterinary practice: > Old POM pharmaceuticals and containers > Organophosphates > Radiography fluids > Radioactivity > Poisons > Sharps

Factors affecting meat spoilage - water activity, aw:

Water activity is available water NOT the water content of food The aw affects lag and log phase bacterial growth, maximum cell yield and spore germination The aw of a food is affected extrinsic and intrinsic factors Water has an aw of 1.0 0.98-1.0 = fruit, veg, meat, fish, milk, egg 0.93-0.98 = bread, processed cheese 0.93-0.96 = cured meat 0.87-0.93 = salami, some cheese 0.73-0.87 = jams, dried fruits 0.60-0.80 = flour, cereals <0.60 = chocolate, dried pasta, honey Most bacteria - minimum of aw of 0.90 Most yeasts - 0.88 Most moulds - 0.80 Halophilic (salt loving) bacteria - 0.75 Xerophilic (like low aw) fungi - 0.65 Osmophilic (like high osmotic pressures) yeasts - 0.61

Staying in lairage

Water available all the time (not poultry) Staying longer (if) than 12 hours then > Suitable bedding (except slatted or mesh floor) > Feed should be provided (appropriate feeding equipment) Where possible, animals should be kept in their own social or transport group e.g. mixing may lead to fighting, unfamiliar groups of pigs should not be mixed Animals of one species penned separately from animals of another species Fractious animals penned individually Horned cattle kept apart from each other and from other cattle > Unless animals reared together Adult boars and mature bulls penned individually > Unless separation likely to cause greater stress or injury For lactating cows, arrangements to milk twice in 24hrs Pigs: Use of sprinklers (fine spray) in lairage /races to pig stunning can be beneficial (not below 5°C) e.g. settling pigs, reduces body temperature BUT > in cold weather may chill pigs excessively > in hot weather, without adequate ventilation, may greatly increase humidity levels (overheating and death)

Welfare in Transport: Fitness to Travel

Welfare of Animals (Transport) (England) Order 2006 The law states that an animal is not fit for its intended journey if it is ill, injured, infirm or fatigued unless it is only slightly injured, infirm, or fatigued and the intended journey is not likely to cause it unnecessary suffering However, there is provision for unfit animals to be transported for veterinary treatment or slaughter, provided: > It is not dragged, pushed by any means > It is not lifted by a mechanical device (except under veterinary supervision) > Provided transport is carried out in a way that does not cause the animal unnecessary suffering

Pale Soft Exudative (PSE) Pork

Well-muscled pigs Subjected to severe and/or acute stress before slaughter > Increased lactic acid production > pH of muscle falls rapidly Judgement - meat is fit for human consumption

Brining

Wet brining (liquid solution - water, salt, sugar, spices etc) Dry curing (traditional in Europe with salt, possibly sugar) - Parma ham, prosciutto Injection (typically for ham production) - faster cure Note: Salt content between 3,5 % to 5 %. Important to drain liquid.

Plucking

Wet vs. Dry > Water Bath > Steam Wax High risk of contamination > Direct > Aerosol Carcases sprayed / washed

Cross contamination

When slaughtering animals for human consumption It means contaminating fresh meat from either environment e.g. aerosol, touching floors, walls, dirty equipment e.g. knives, saws, rails, hides, GI material, operators' hands/ clothes e.g. unhygienic practices.

Cascade system

Which medicine should a vet prescribe? 1. A UK authorised product; a) authorised for that species and b) authorised for that disease. 2. Prescribe under the cascade. Legislation states that "If there is no authorised veterinary medicinal product in the UK for a condition affecting a (food/non food) species, by way of exception, the veterinary surgeon responsible may, under his/her direct personal responsibility and in particular to avoid causing unacceptable suffering treat the animal concerned with the following: i. A veterinary medicine authorised in the UK for use in another animal species, or for a different use in the same species (known as "off-label use"); ii. If there is no product as referred to in (i) a) a medicine authorised in the UK for human use or; b) an authorised veterinary medicine from another EU Member State. iii. If there is no product as referred to in (ii) a medicine to be made up at the time on a one-off basis by a veterinary surgeon or a properly authorised person."

White muscle disease in poultry

White striping in the breast muscle > Becomes stiffer Vitamin E / Selenium deficiency > Usually caused by inability to use the nutrient > Rather than an absolute deficiency

Food safety principles and legislation - New legal framework

Whole food chain approach Clear responsibilities - FBOs and Competent Authorities (CAs) Traceability Precautionary principle > See also proportional principle - measures proportional to level of risk Take rapid, effective, safeguard measures for health emergencies International and EU decision-making forums > Codex Alimentarius At all stages of policy making

V. parahaemolyticus

Widely present in coastal and estuarine environments, especially when water temperature is >15C Causes gastro-enteritis Ability to produce illness mainly associated with certain strains, able to produce certain haemolysins > Thermostable Direct Haemolysin (TDH) & TDH-Related Haemolysin (TRH) > e.g. in the USA, only 0.2-3.2% of environmental isolates are TDH +ve Risk factors > Concentration of V. parahaemolyticus in environment > Water temperature > Time unrefrigerated after harvest > Ambient air temperature > Duration of cooldown after refrigeration has started > Grams of oysters consumed Increasing length of time refrigerated reduces risk, as V. parahaemolyticus is killed

Wild game regulations

Wild Game Meat is Regulated by the same Regulation as other food: EU Hygiene Regulation e.g. 852 (H1), 853 (H2) IMPORTANT - in 2019/ 2020 (not related to Brexit) the Official Controls Regulation changed > EU Regulation 854/2004 and 882/2004 have been revoked in EU&UK and replaced by: - Regulation (EU) 2017/625 on Official Controls - Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2019/627 of 15 March 2019 - Commission Delegated Regulation (EU) 2019/624 of 8 February 2019 > However, the principles of post-mortem inspection are similar Ante mortem inspection is actually the Trained Hunters' observation of live animals before being shot and the hunter's declaration is signed Post Mortem Inspection is less prescriptive than for domestic animals e.g. viewing of all visible surfaces with some incisions. > See specifics in Manual of Official Controls (MOC) and relevant regulation - Section 8 for PM of wild game. > Visual examination of the carcass, its cavities and, where appropriate, organs, correlating to the requirement of other species e.g. bovine, poultry - For example, lymph node inspection in deer > Feral Wild boar - Trichinella Testing

Rabbit zoonoses

Wild rabbits -a novel vector for Verotoxigenic Escherichia coli (VTEC) O157. Mycobacterium avium ssp paratuberculosis. Encephalitozoon cuniculi Francisella tularensis (hares, not in UK)

Actions following an audit

Will depend on risk and will vary from > The most extreme audit and take an enforcement action > Or more often, again, depending on risk, requiring FBO to take corrective action within reasonable (agreed) time scale > And either increasing or decreasing audit frequency

International trade within the EU

Within the EU, subject to animal health rules (i.e. disease freedom), the trade for animals and products of animal origin takes place without checks at the borders of Member States. Animals and germplasma require health certificates and most other products of animals origin can move freely with commercial documents. Harmonised import rules for SPS of most commodities Some exports negotiated on EU level. Some at UK level. In UK vet advisors support to policy: > Negotiating export requirements for UK to export to third countries and the EU > EU (harmonised) health requirements for export to TCs where the EU has a mandate (e.g. as part of an free trade agreement [FTA]) > Heath requirements for intra-Union trade > Health requirements for imports into the EU/UK *Changes post EU Exit* Trade between EU member states (either individually or as a Community) and third countries (outside EU) can only take place if there is a signed agreement for specific animal species and commodities. Defra is UK Central Competent Authority for import from third countries and export to third countries

Proper Officer

Working under Health Protection Regulations (2010) Appointed by the local authority (LA) to receive and forward information about notifications within their area. The Proper Officer is usually the Consultant in Communicable Disease Control (CCDC)/ Consultant in Health Protection (CHP).

Codes of Practice

Written guidelines issued by an official body or a professional association to its members to help them comply with its ethical standards' RCVS Code of professional conduct Food law code of Practice

Metazoonoses

Zoonoses transmitted to vertebrate host by invertebrate. It depends on invertebrate vector to complete the life cycle e.g. Lyme Disease

Control of Salmonella - legislation

Zoonosis Regulation (EC) 2160/2003 - control of salmonella and other specified food-borne zoonotic agents The Eggs and Chicks (England) Regulations 2009 Commission Regulation (EU) 200/2010 and Implementing Regulation (re: reduction of the prevalence of Salmonella serotypes in adult breeding flocks of Gallus gallus) and Commission Regulation 517/2011 (re: laying hens of Gallus gallus) All Breeding Flocks and Hatcheries, laying flocks, and broiler flocks of greater than 350 birds will be required to operate National Control Programme based on baseline surveys of prevalence, agreed reduction targets (set by EFSA) and ongoing surveillance at national level (annual surveys and reporting).

Emerging zoonotic diseases

Zoonotic diseases caused either by new agents or by micro-organisms previously known but now occurring in places or in species where the disease was previously unknown New diseases emerged in 1970/80s: Legionnaire's disease, Lyme disease, toxic shock syndrome, Ebola haemorrhagic fever, drug resistant TB, HIV, etc. Many have reservoirs/ originated in bats

Enzymes

e.g. protease, lipase, carbohydrase etc. may also be used in food because of their specific biochemical actions which serve technological purposes at any stage of the food chain.

Why is lactic important in meat?

pH drops in 24 hours from approximately from 7 to 5.5 (from lactic acid produced by anaerobic glycolysis) > Important for keeping quality of meat and suppressing microbial growth Dark firm dry (DFD) beef - prolonged stress or feed withdrawal prior to slaughter - insufficient glycogen stores in muscle - not much lactic acid is produced, pH too high > Reasonable eating quality (perhaps lacking flavour) but can spoil readily Pale soft exudative (PSE) pork - acute stress around time of slaughter causes pH to drop rapidly when temperature is still high; tougher meat after cooking Electrical stimulation of carcass after death can improve pH, making meat ready for consumption quicker

Factors affecting meat spoilage - acidity:

pH< 4: majority of bacteria inhibited (some exceptions = lactic and acetic acid bacteria) Some may grow in very alkaline conditions (some pseudomonas) Yeasts and mould prefer more acidic - optimum pH 5 Some Clostridium grow and produce toxin at pH< 4.5