WGU C913 Ultimate Study Combined Sets

Norm Group

A large sample of students Previous classes, current class, age, rate, school, school district national levels

Operant Conditioning

A learning process through which the strength of a behavior is modified by reinforcement or punishment. Voluntary responses are strengthened or weakened as a result of their consequences. Strengthening a behavior by providing a positive stimulus or removing a negative stimulus immediately after the behavior has occurred.

Least Restrictive Environment (LRE) (Accommodating Student Variability):

A legal term from the IDEA that specifies that students with disabilities must be educated as close to the same environment as their typical (nondisabled) peers. It is this provision on which inclusion is based.

split-half

A measure of reliability in which a test is split into two parts and an individual's scores on both halves are compared.

Mnemonic Device-A memory-directed tactic (Social Cognitive Theory):

A memory-directed tactic that helps a learner transform/organize information to enhance its retrievability; mnemonic devices meaningfully organize information, provide retrieval clues. (helping students become self-regulated learners)

working memory

A newer understanding of short-term memory that involves conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory active maintenance of information in short-term storage

Which of the following most clearly describes a form of parental behavior that would lead to desirable child development during the psychological stage Erikson described for two to three year olds? -Parents insist that their daughter attempt to cut a piece of meat, even though she is reluctant to try - parents toilet train their child in a very strict manner -Parents agree on a policy of not setting limits for their child, so that she or he can become more autonomous - A parent encourages a child who is trying to learn new skills, while at the same time providing support and supervision for her.

A parent encourages a child who is trying to learn a new skill, while at the same time providing support and supervision for her. Autonomy vs. shame and doubt - children exert independence.

Piaget Basic Theory Principle (Cognitive Development Theory): Disequilibrium

A perceived discrepancy between an existing scheme & something new (when experiencing disequilibrium, one's brain will equilibrate through 2 types of scheme adaption: assimilation & accommodation until equilibrium is restored).

Musical

Abilities to produce and appreciate rhythm, pitch and timbre; appreciation of the forms of musical expressiveness. Violinist/composer

Reliability

Ability of a test to yield very similar scores for the same individual over repeated testings

Reliability

Ability of a test to yield very similar scores for the same individual over repeated testings the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, on alternate forms of the test, or on retesting

Short-Term Memory

About seven bits of information held for about 20 seconds

Short-Term Memory (Information Processing Theory):

About seven bits of information held for about 20 seconds (working memory).

It is not uncommon for schools to offer breakfast (at reduced or no cost) as well as other snacks & small meals throughout the day. In addition, children at some schools enjoy a special time each day for napping & rest. These activities are manifestations of the work of: (13-2)

Abraham Maslow. (13-2) *This scenario indicates a humanistic approach. Maslow was a pioneer of the humanistic approach, described here. (13-2)

Formative Assessment. (14)

Assess periodically how well students are progressing toward mastery of objectives and to provide useful information for designing subsequent instruction. (14)

Because Ms. Montoya has a very diverse 4th grade class in terms of learning skills and motivation, she decides to use an assessment for learning approach to assessment. Which of the following best reflects that approach? (14)

Assess what students have learned every day with a variety of brief assessments. (14) *The essence of formative assessment, or assessment for learning, is making assessment a more or less continuous process during an instructional unit by using both formal and informal assessment techniques. The basic purpose of this approach is to generate information that can be used to determine whether or not to reteach parts of a unit or move on to the next one. (14)

Single Subject Achievement Tests

Assesses how much one has learned in a particular school subject

Single subject achievement test (Types of standardized test)

Assesses how much one has learned in a particular school subject

Achievement Battery

Assesses how much one has learned in multiple school subjects

Achievement batter (Types of standardized test)

Assesses how much one has learned in multiple school subjects

Competency Tests

Assesses ones competence in selected basic skills areas. Often taken to graduate.

How does computer adaptive testing (CAT) determine the limits of a student's knowledge? a.) CAT tests contain twice as many items as other tests. b.) CAT tests allow examinees to pick the items to which they will respond. c.) CAT tests make students more comfortable with taking tests. d.) CAT tests determine ability based on student responses to items.

CAT tests determine ability based on student responses to items.

Well-Structured Problems (Constructivist Learning Theory):

Clearly stated, known solution procedures; known evaluation standards.

Well-structured problems

Clearly stated, known solution procedures; known evaluation standards. Math problems are good examples.

Simulated learning environments (microworlds) provide students with opportunities to solve problems in a form and setting that they have not likely encountered before. According to Piaget, these students will most likely experience ... -Cognitive development through accommodation - Cognitive development through adaptation -Cognitive conflict and disequilibration -Cognitive reorganization through assimilation

Cognitive conflict and disequilibration

Piaget's view of cognitive development

Cognitive development makes social development possible. Piaget believed that children's schemes develop more quickly when children interact with one another than when they interact with adults.

Piaget's Cognitive Development Theory

Cognitive development more strongly influenced by peers than by adults; instruction can accelerate development of schemes that have begun to form; underestimates children's abilities; most adolescents are not formal operational thinkers; sequence of stages uniform across cultures but rate of development varies

Piaget's Cognitive Development Theory:

Cognitive development more strongly influenced by peers than by adults; instruction can accelerate development of schemes that have begun to form; underestimates children's abilities; most adolescents are not formal operational thinkers; sequence of stages uniform across cultures but rate of development varies.

taxonomies of learning objectives

Cognitive, affective, and psychomotor taxonomies are popular sources of objectives

Technology that helps students code, store, and retrieve information reflects a(n) __________ approach to instruction. (13-2)

Cognitive. (13-2) *Coding, storing, and retrieving information is an element of the information processing/social cognitive approach. This type of technology supports the information processing/social cognitive approach, one of 2 types of cognitive approaches. (13-2)

Ability Grouping: Joplin Plan (Accommodating Student Variability):

Combines students across grade levels with the same grade equivalent scores in a subject-reading or math.

The benefit of giving students norm-referenced standardized achievement tests is that they allow parents and educators to: (15)

Compare a student's level of achievement with other, similar students. (15) *Norm-referenced tests allow teachers to compare the scores of one student to the scores of the sample of students who made up the standardization group. (15)

Criterion-Referenced Grading

Compare individual performance with stated criteria; provide information about strengths and weaknesses

Criterion-Referenced Grading (Ways to Evaluate Student Learning):

Compare individual performance with stated criteria; provide information about strengths and weaknesses

Norm-Referenced Tests

Compare one student with others

Norm-Referenced Tests (Understanding Standardized Assessment):

Compare one student with others

Norm-referenced grading

Compare one student with others. Assumes that classroom achievement will naturally vary among a group of heterogeneous students because of differences in such characteristics as prior knowledge, learning skills, motivation, and aptitude.

Norm-Referenced Grading

Compare one student with others; based on absence of external criteria; can be used to evaluate advanced levels of learning

Norm-Referenced Grading (Ways to Evaluate Student Learning):

Compare one student with others; based on absence of external criteria; can be used to evaluate advanced levels of learning

Norm-referenced assessment

Compare students performance with other students performace

Macro moral issues

Broad social issues - civil rights, free speech, the women's movement, wilderness preservation Kohlberg

Goals

Broad, general statements of desired educational outcomes

Goals (Approaches to Instruction):

Broad, general statements of desired educational outcomes.

How can technology increase student intrinsic motivation

By using hypermedia and multimedia to make learning more interesting and relevant Motivation is a complex concept affected by many factors. Teachers should not limit their scope of their attempts to motivate their students. Choose computer technology that increases both extrinsic and intrinsic motivation.

extinction

Gradual weakening and disappearance of a response tendency because the response is no longer followed by reinforcement. To weaken a target behavior by ignoring it. I.e., a child crying, parents just let child cry and cry, eventually the crying will taper off.

Cognitive Domain (Thinking Skills): Comprehension

Grasping the meaning of information by putting it into one's own words.

Spontaneous Recovery

Extinguished behaviors may reappear spontaneously

Spontaneous Recovery (Operant Conditioning) (Behavioral Learning Theory):

Extinguished behaviors may reappear spontaneously.

According to Piaget, invariant thought processes, such as organization and adaptation, are those that function differently for infants, children, adolescents, and adults.

FALSE

According to Erikson, teachers can help students between the ages of 4 and 5 develop in a healthy fashion by - giving them freedom to explore and taking time to answer questions - encouraging them never to feel guilty - promoting the open expression of initiative at all times -Striving for a perfect balance between initiative and guilt.

Giving them the freedom to explore and taking the time to answer questions.

David Wechsler

Global Capacity View

Self-Esteem

Global judgement we make of self

Kohlberg's 6 Stages of Moral Reasoning: Level 2-Stage 3 (Conventional Morality-all about rules) (Moral Development Theory):

Good boy-Nice girl orientation: The right action is one that would be carried out by someone whose behavior is likely to please or impress others.

Educational goals are: (13-1)

General in Nature. (13-1) *Educational Goals are broad, general statements of what educators and policy makers would like to see schools accomplish. (13-1)

Educational goals are: (13-1)

General in nature. (13-1) *Education goals are broad, general statements of what educators and policy makers would like to see schools accomplish. (13-1)

Why did Norman Gronlund develop a procedure for writing instructional objectives after Mager? a.) Mager's recommendations were old and out of date. b.) Specific objectives work better for factual information. c.) Criteria for acceptable performance must be quantifiable. d.) General objectives are needed for complex learning tasks.

General objectives are needed for complex learning tasks.

Measuring Reliability

Generally speaking, anything larger than a 0.90 in reliability is considered very reliable

Do low grades encourage greater efforts?

Generally, no. Students are more likely to withdrawal or blame others for their failures

Erikson Adults (Psychosocial Development):

Generavtivity vs Stagnation (guide/self-absorption)

Students Who Are Gifted a s Talented (Accommodating Student Variability):

Gifted & talented students show high performance in one or more areas; students of color are underrepresented in gifted classes because of over reliance on test scores; gifted & talented students differ from their non-gifted peers intellectually & emotionally; separate classes for gifted/talented students aid achievements but may lower academic self-concept of some students.

Middle School (Grades 6-8; 11-13 Years Old)

Girls' growth spurt occurs earlier, and so they look oder than boys of the same age; early-maturing boys are likely to draw favorable responses; late-maturing boys may feel inadequate; early-maturing girls may suffer low self-esteem; late-maturing girls are likely to be popular and carefree; average age of puberty: girls-11, boys-14; discussion of controversial issues may be difficult because of a strong desire to conform to peer norms; teenagers experience different degrees of emotional turmoil; the environment of middle schools does not meet the needs of adolescents, leading to lower levels of learning; self-efficacy beliefs for academic and social tasks become strong influences on behavior

Selected response assessment

Give students a choice of answer, usually measure lower levels of learning and do not reveal what students can do

Mastery Approach

Give students multiple opportunities to master goals at their own pace

Mastery Approach (Ways to Evaluate Student Learning):

Give students multiple opportunities to master goals at their own pace

Criterion-referenced grading

Gives information about individual strengths & weaknesses because it assesses whether the examinee has achieved specific instructional objectives. (14)

Mrs. Ely needs to find out how well her students have learned several concepts and terms that she has recently taught them in science class. She can do this most efficiently by: (14)

Giving her class a written test. (14) *Written tests are meant to assess how much people know about a certain topic. These tests are used to assess such things as knowledge about concepts, facts, and principles. While a pop quiz can be in written form, it can also be a verbal quiz. The final options is an example of a performance assessment (verbally quizzing her students; holding a science fair.) (14)

concrete operational stage

Grade 1 - 11 years old Mental tasks tied to concrete objects and situations Ability to solve conservation problems depends on an understanding of 3 basic aspects or reasoning (identity, compensation, reversibility

The Humanistic Approach to Teaching: Student-Centered Instruction (Approaches to Instruction):

Humanistic Teachers: Addresses needs, values, motives, self-perceptions; show respect, courtesy, fairness, caring attitude.

The __________ approach to instruction has its focus on students' needs & values, as well as their ability to direct their own learning. (13-2)

Humanistic. (13-2) *The humanistic approach pays particular attention to the role of noncognitive variables in learning, specifically, students needs, emotions, values, and self-perceptions. (13-2)

Describe the differences between conditions covered under IDEA & under the 504 Plan (Accommodating Student Variability):

IDEA: child has one or more of the 13 specific disabilities listed under IDEA guidelines/learning & attention issues may qualify. 504 Plan: child has any disability including learning/attention issues that interfere with the child's ability to lean in a general education classroom. A child may qualify for 504 even if they don't qualify for IDEA.

According to Marcia, what identity status is usually the last to emerge developmentally

Identity Achievement - Seek out interpersonal relationships and are capable of making mature, informed decisions after carefully considering all potential alternatives.

Erikson 12-18 Years-Adolescents (Psychosocial Development)

Identity vs Role Confusion (role confusion/self-identity)

Issues

Ill-structured problems that arouse strong feelings

Issues (Constructivist Learning Theory):

Ill-structured problems that arouse strong feelings.

Direct Instruction: Orientation

Introduction and overview of the lesson

inclusion

Keeping special education students in regular classrooms and bringing support services to the children rather than the other way around.

What rationale do constructivist teachers use for cooperative learning? a.) Brighter students can show slower students how to answer questions. b.) Knowledge comes from consensus of different views of a phenomenon. c.) The teacher leads students to the right way to do something. d.) Teachers don't have to prepare as many lectures.

Knowledge comes from consensus of different views of a phenomenon.

Situated learning

Knowledge is closely linked to the environment in which it is acquired, more true to life equals more meaningful learning

Cognitive domain objectives

Knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, evaluation

Cognitive Taxonomy

Knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, evaluation; most test questions stress knowledge, ignore higher levels of cognitive taxonomy

Cognitive Taxonomy (Approaches to Instruction):

Knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, evaluation; most test questions stress knowledge, ignore higher levels of cognitive taxonomy

The first (lowest-level) 3 categories (in order) of the taxonomy of objectives for the cognitive domain are: (13-1)

Knowledge, comprehension, application. (13-1) *The categories of the cognitive domain in correct order are knowledge, comprehension, applications, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. (13-1)

post conventional morality

Kohlberg's highest stage of morality- occurs late in life and is a personal morality, developed by the adult and which supersedes society's rules, laws. And restrictions

The basic purpose of giving a standardized test is to: (15)

Obtain an accurate, representative sampling of some aspect of student behavior. (15) *The basic purpose of giving a standardized test is to obtain an accurate, representative sample of some aspect of a person's behavior. (15)

The Humanistic Approach to Teaching: Student-Centered Instruction (Approaches to Instruction):

Maslow: Help students develop their potential by satisfying their needs

meaningful learning

Occurs when a learner encounters clear, logically organized material and consciously tries to relate the new material to ideas and experiences stored in long-term memory.

Self-regulated learning

Occurs when a person generates and controls thoughts, feelings, and actions in an effort to achieve a learning goal.

Extrinsic Motivation

Occurs when the learner does something to earn external rewards; excessive use of external rewards may lead to temporary behavior change, materialistic attitudes, decreased intrinsic motivation

Extrinsic Motivation (Motivation/Perceptional of Self):

Occurs when the learner does something to earn external rewards; excessive use of external rewards may lead to temporary behavior change, materialistic attitudes, decreased intrinsic motivation.

Intrinsic Motivation

Occurs when the learner does something to experience inherently satisfying results; enhanced when reward provides positive feedback, is available to all who qualify; undermined by forcing students to compete for limited supply of rewards

Personal Characteristics

Mental and emotional factors such as goals, anxiety, metacognition and self-efficacy.

Define & Explain Metacognition. Include the difference between metacognitive knowledge & metacognitive skills (Information Processing Theory):

Metacognitive: what we know about how we think (metacognitive knowledge) & how we guide & control our cognitive processes (metacognitive skills).

Intrinsic Motivation (Motivation/Perception of Self):

Occurs when the learner does something to experience inherently satisfying results; enhanced when reward provides positive feedback, is available to all who qualify; undermined by forcing students to compete for limited supply of rewards. (give rewards sparingly, especially on tasks of natural interest).

Selected-Response Tests (Ways to Measure Student Learning):

Objectively scored and efficient but usually measure lower levels of learning and do not reveal what students can do. Examples: multiple choice, true-false, matching

instructional objectives

Objectives are specific and measurable statements of what students should know and be able to do after instruction. -Cognitive, affective, and psychomotor taxonomies

objective (leads to the conclusion)

Objectives seem to work best when students are aware of them, treat them as directions to learn specific sections of material, and feel they will aid in learning

Social Cognitive View of Motivation

Observe and imitate admired models; raise self-efficacy

Social Cognitive View of Motivation (Motivation/Perception of Self):

Observe and imitate admired models; raise self-efficacy.

Basic Purpose of Standardized Tests

Obtain accurate, representative sample of some aspect of a person

Basic Purpose of Standardized Tests (Understanding Standardized Assessment):

Obtain accurate, representative sample of some aspect of a person.

Externalizing students

Often aggressive, uncooperative, restless, and negativistic. They tend to lie and steal, defy teachers, and be hostile to authority figures. Sometimes they are cruel and malicious.

Cognitive Development for Motivating Students (Motivation/Perception of Self):

Often difficult to arouse cognitive disequilibrium.

What are the uses of standardized tests?

Often used to screen students for exceptionalities, for research studies, to judge the success of the school/teacher, and to record development and improvement.

The pre operational stage

Once child starts talking - 7 years old before a child masters logical mental operations

Competitive structures

Ones grade is determined by how well everyone else in the group performs

Organization

Ongoing process of arranging information and experience into mental systems or categories

Digital portals

Online tools as a forum that provides access to information and the thoughts and experiences of fellow educators

Test examinee match

Only give tests that are appropriate for the type of decision one wants to make

Information Processing/Social Cognitive (Meaningful Learning): Use attention-getting devices.

Orally emphasize certain words or phrases by raising or lowering your voice. Use dramatic gestures. Underline key words and phrases that you write on a chalkboard or whiteboard. When discussing the work of important people, whether in science, math, social studies, or history, dress up to look like the person and speak as you think the person might have spoken.

Development

Orderly adaptive changes that human (or animals) go through from conception to death

Eight year old Elizabeth is given a butterfly net for her birthday. She spends hours and hours capturing all kinds of creatures. She notices that some of the creatures have six legs and some have eight. She also notices that some have hard covers over their wings and others don't. She takes notes of these differences and begins to separate her creatures according to differences she notes. Which of the following according to Piaget, is the process in which elizabeth is engaging? -Equilibrium -Assimilation -Foreclosure -Organization

Organization

2 basic instincts in thinking

Organization Adaption

Purpose for taxonomies of objectives

Organizational schemes that give teachers common vocabulary and a system for writing different kids of objectives

Gronlund's Recommendations for Use of General Objectives (Approaches to Instruction):

State general objectives, list sample of specific learning outcomes.

Mager's approach to developing objectives

State specific objectives that identify the act, define conditions, and state criteria

Mager

State specific objectives that identify the act, define conditions, state criteria

Mager's Recommendation for Use of Specific Objectives (Approaches to Instruction):

State specific objectives that identify the act, define conditions, state criteria.

gender bias

Stereotypical views and differential treatment of males and females, often favoring one gender over the other. Gender bias can affect the courses that girls choose to take, the career choices they make, their self-competence, and the degree to which they participate in class

How Sternberg's & Gardner's Intelligence Theories Are Used In The Classroom (Intelligence Theories-Understanding Student Differences):

Sternberg: for any grade level & for any subject, teaching/testing can be designed to emphasize the three abilities in his triarchic theory; analytic, creative, practical-as well as memory. Gardner: believes that teachers should use MI theory as a framework for devising alternative ways to teach subject matter.

Sensory Register

Stimuli held briefly for possible processing

Sensory Register (Information Processing Theory):

Stimuli held briefly for possible processing.

Guided learning environments

Teachers help students set goals, ask questions, encourage discussions, and provide models of problem-solving processes

Limitations of Maslow's theory

Teachers should do what they can to satisfy students' deficiency needs, particularly belonging and self-esteem needs, but it is often difficult to know how to meet students' deficiency needs. Teachers may be in a to satisfy some but not others - you may have many forces working against you as you try to meet their needs.

Study Phase

Team considers the curriculum, standards, learning goals, and select a topic for the "research" lesson

Planning phase

Team plans a lesson and plans the observations through which data will be collected

Reflection phase

Team shares Data and implications for improving teaching and learning are examined

Comprehension-directed Tactics (Social Cognitive Theory):

Techniques that aid in understanding the meaning of ideas & their interrelationships. Examples: self-questioning, note taking, concept mapping (helping students become self-regulated learners)

Memory-directed Tactics (Social Cognitive Theory):

Techniques that help produce accurate storage & retrieval of Information. Examples: rehearsal, mnemonic devices (helping students become self-regulated learners).

Motivating Students with Technology (Motivation/Perception of Self):

Technology can be used to support both extrinsic & intrinsic motivation; technology increases intrinsic motivation by making learning more interesting & meaningful.

Technology Tools for Knowledge Construction & Problem Solving (Constructivist Learning Theory):

Technology tools are available to help students construct knowledge, become solvers.

Information Processing/Social Cognitive (Meaningful Learning): Communicate clear goals and objectives.

Tell students what you want them to learn, why, and how they will be tested

The information-processing/social cognitive approach to teaching emphasizes the importance of: (13-2)

Telling students what they need to learn, why it is important for them to learn it, and how achievement will be tests. (13-2) *Information-processing/social cognitive approach suggests that teachers design lessons around principles of meaningful learning and teach students how to learn more effectively. (13-2)

Incremental Beliefs

Tend to have mastery goals and are motivated to learn meaningfully, improve skills

Entity Beliefs

Tend to have performance goals and are motivated to get high grades, avoid failure

Adaptation

Tendency to adjust to environment

Piaget Basic Theory Principle (Cognitive Development Theory):

Tendency to adjust to environment.

Equilibration

Tendency to organize schemes to allow better understanding of experiences

Piaget Basic Theory Principle (Cognitive Development Theory): Equilibration:

Tendency to organize schemes to allow better understanding of experiences.

Piaget Basic Theory Principle (Cognitive Development Theory) Organization:

Tendency to systematize or combine processes into coherent systems.

Organization

Tendency to systematize processes

If you want to use a test to measure students' self-concepts, and if you are concerned about the test's construct validity, you are concerned about whether the (15):

Test can identify students with strong self-concepts and those with weak self-concepts. (15) *If a test has a good construct validity, it is sensitive to the construct, or attribute, it purports to measure. If a test designed to measure self-concept actually distinguishes between those who have strong self-concepts and those whose self-concepts are weak, construct validity is demonstrated. (15)

Predictive validity. (15)

Test that is used to make probabilistic statements about how well students will perform in the future. (15) Those scoring high should perform significantly better academically the follow year or two than those who earn lower scores. (15)

criterion referenced testing

Test where one's performance is evaluated with reference to some standard

Summative Assessments

Testing that follows instruction and assesses achievement - Provides summary information, giving students and teachers information about what was learned Think: exams

Examinee Appropriateness

Testing very young children (under 3 or 4) is problematic because the standardized testing is not often appropriate for that age-level

Norm-referenced Test (15)

Tests allow teachers to compare the scores of one student to the scores of the sample of students who made up the standardization group. (15)

Memory. Language use.

Tests that females generally score higher on than males.

Visual-spatial ability. Mathematical operations. College entrance.

Tests that males generally score higher on than females.

Diagnostic Achievement Tests

Tests used to determine a student's strengths and weaknesses, judging whether or not a student needs special education services.

Vicarious Reinforcement (Motivation/Perception of Self):

That we expect to receive the same reinforcer that we see someone else getting for exhibiting a particular behavior.

What was the major result of the study of CBI in Massachusetts? a.) Students achieved higher MCAS scores than expected without CBI. b.) The CBI mastery approach was successful in raising MCAS scores. c.) High-stakes testing for NCLB led to the high school's failing AYP. d.) Students who took CBI scored higher than students who did not take CBI.

The CBI mastery approach was successful in raising MCAS scores.

Validity

The ability of a test to measure what it is intended to measure

Self-control

The ability to control one's actions in the absence of external reinforcement of punishment. Or, behaving in ways that lead to the accomplishment of desirable goals and suppressing behaviors that are detrimental when no one is looking.

Raymond Nickerson's definition of intelligence

The ability to learn, to reason well, to solve novel problems, and to deal effectively with the challenges—often unpredictable—that confront one in daily life.

Field Dependence and Field Independence

The extent to which a person's perception and thinking about a particular piece of information are influenced by the surrounding context. Field dependent learners' perception is strongly influenced by such contextual factors as additional information and other people's behavior. Field independent learners are more successful in isolating target information despite the fact that it is embedded within a larger and more complex context. They're more influenced by their own knowledge base than by other people's behavior or the presence of other information.

construct validity

The extent to which there is evidence that a test measures a particular hypothetical construct. - To know whether or not your self-esteem scale actually measures self-esteem

Independent practice

The fifth component of direct instruction. When students can correctly solve at least 85 percent of the problems given to them during guided practice, they are deemed ready for this phase.

Why should teachers refrain from using zeros when averaging final grades? a.) The student becomes angry for being unfairly singled out. b.) The final grade has lessened validity and may not reflect what the student learned. c.) Late assignments may be due to factors beyond the student's control. d.) Students cheat when they feel their grades are unfairly lowered.

The final grade has lessened validity and may not reflect what the student learned.

Punishment - Obedience Orientation

The physical consequences of an action determine goodness and badness Kohlber - preconventional Morality

Full inclusion

The practice of eliminating all pullout programs and special education teachers and of providing regular classroom teachers with training in teaching special-needs students so that they can teach these students in the regular classroom.

internal consistency

The precision of a test - We can gage this by looking at the split-half reliability

analysis

The process or result of identifying the parts of a whole and their relationships to one another.

The Triadic Reciprocal Causation Model (Social Cognitive Theory):

The result of interactions among personal characteristics, behavior, environmental factors.

portfolio

a collection of the student's work in an area, showing growth, self-reflection, and achievement

Portfolio

a collection of the students' work in an area, showing growth, self-reflection, and achievement

Good boy - nice girl orientation

The right action is one that would be carried out by someone whose behavior is likely to please or impress others. Kohlberg - Conventional morality

significance

The test measures worthwhile skills (application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation) and substantial bodies of important knowledge

structured practice

The third component of direct instruction. The teacher leads the entire class through each step in a problem or lesson so as to minimize incorrect responses.

declarative, procedural and conditional knowledge base

The types of metacognitive knowledge are all stored in long-term memory

Robert Sternberg's definition of wisdom

The use of one's abilities for the benefit of oneself and others by either adapting to one's environment, shaping it to better suit one's needs, or selecting a more compatible environment in which to function.

Ability grouping

The use of standardized mental ability or achievement tests to create groups of students who were considered very similar to each other in learning ability. At the middle and high school levels, the term tracking is typically used.

Affective Domain (Values): Characterization by a value or value complex

The value system becomes a way of life.

Under what circumstances would Vygotsky most likely advocate for the use of technology with respect to teaching essay writing?

The writing software provides scaffolds for learning

Situated Learning Theory (Approaches to Instruction):

Theory that students learn more easily from instruction involving relevant, real-world situations and applications than from abstract concepts.

concept mapping

This technique involves specifying the ideas that make up a topic and indicating with lines how they relate to one another. E.g. a flowchart.

Self-Regulated Learning

Thoughts, feelings, and actions purposely generated and controlled to maximize a learning outcome

Self-Regulated Learning (Social Cognitive Theory):

Thoughts, feelings, and actions purposely generated and controlled to maximize a learning outcome.

Summative assessment

To measure achievement and assign grades

Formative assessment

To monitor progress and plan instruction accordingly. Both teacher and student learn.

Standardized Test

To obtain an accurate, representative sample of some aspect of a person's behavior. (15)

Technology to promote mastery of standards

To prep for state assessments, students take computer based instruction courses that are aligned with state standards

Type I punishment (presentation punishment)

To weaken a behavior by presenting an averse stimulus after the behavior has occurred; when a negative contingency follows a behavior. E.g. spanking.

Type II punishment (time-out or removal punishment)

To weaken a behavior by removing a positive stimulus after the behavior has occurred; when a positive contingency is removed. E.g. an athlete is suspended from competition for an infraction.

Telementoring

Today, students have a chance to learn how knowledge is used in the world outside the school through a practice known as "telementoring." A teacher no longer needs to be the sole content matter expert in the classroom. Volunteer subject matter experts, such as marine biologists, can serve as telementors to work virtually with students in mentor-protégé relationships that contribute to students' authentic learning experiences.

A teacher can determine how well her class understands something by giving them

a written test

Why are affective domain objectives difficult to define, evaluate, or encourage? a.) Affective learning is demonstrated in subtle or indirect ways. b.) Affective outcomes cannot be separated from cognitive outcomes. c.) Parents are opposed to measuring affective outcomes. d.) Affective outcomes are not always observable in the classroom. e.) Affective outcomes cannot be arranged in an orderly taxonomy.

a)Affective learning is demonstrated in subtle or indirect ways. c.) Parents are opposed to measuring affective outcomes. d.) Affective outcomes are not always observable in the classroom.

What factors distinguish standardized tests from other forms of assessment? a. All test-takers answer the same questions under the same conditions. b. They are designed by test construction specialists. c. The questions reflect the values of a school district's community. d. The same scoring key is used to evaluate all test-takers' answers. e. Scores are compared either to a norm group or predetermined criteria.

a. All test-takers answer the same questions under the same conditions. b. They are designed by test construction specialists. d. The same scoring key is used to evaluate all test-takers' answers. e. Scores are compared either to a norm group or predetermined criteria.

How does Web 3.0 technology support instruction? a. Analytic searches provide quick access to personalized information. b. It encourages students to use the library more often. c. Social networks provide the means for students to engage others. d. Personalized searches use analytics to suggest results. e. Quality of information found in searches is guaranteed correct

a. Analytic searches provide quick access to personalized information. c. Social networks provide the means for students to engage others. d. Personalized searches use analytics to suggest results.

What are the main characteristics of direct instruction? a. Basic academic knowledge and skills are the focus of instruction. b. Affective objectives such as improved self-esteem are emphasized. c. Teachers make all instructional decisions in teacher-led lessons. d. Students are kept on-task with positive reinforcement. e. Lessons include demonstration, practice, and corrective feedback.

a. Basic academic knowledge and skills are the focus of instruction. c. Teachers make all instructional decisions in teacher-led lessons. d. Students are kept on-task with positive reinforcement. e. Lessons include demonstration, practice, and corrective feedback.

How should teachers help parents interpret test scores? a. Discuss norm-referenced tests starting at the local level. b. Discuss how a student masters criterion-referenced objectives. c. Focus attention on high scores on norm-referenced tests. d. Use test scores to classify students as fast or slow learners. e. Point out that test scores depend on the nature of the test.

a. Discuss norm-referenced tests starting at the local level. b. Discuss how a student masters criterion-referenced objectives. e. Point out that test scores depend on the nature of the test.

What testing tips should teachers give students before a standardized test? a. Follow directions for marking answers carefully. b. Set a pace that will allow time to complete the test. c. Use intuition for answering multiple-choice items. d. Bypass difficult items to return to them later. e. Go back to fill in blank items if time permits.

a. Follow directions for marking answers carefully. b. Set a pace that will allow time to complete the test. d. Bypass difficult items to return to them later. e. Go back to fill in blank items if time permits.

Why do many teachers dislike the task of assessing student learning? a. Many teachers lack in-depth knowledge of assessment principles. b. The role of assessor is seen as being inconsistent with the role of teacher. c. Classroom assessments contribute little to student learning. d. Many teachers think of assessment as grading rather than as instruction. e. High-quality assessment practices are a regular part of classroom culture.

a. Many teachers lack in-depth knowledge of assessment principles. b. The role of assessor is seen as being inconsistent with the role of teacher. d. Many teachers think of assessment as grading rather than as instruction.

The power of persuasive models students who observe an

admired model receive reinforcement may be motivated to exhibit the same behavior because they expect to receive the same reinforcement (vicarious reinforcement).

self-concept

all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, "Who am I?" our understanding and evaluation of who we are a sense of one's identity and personal worth

Equal opportunities for success

all students have equal opportunity to contribute to groups efforts.

Accelerated Instruction(Accommodating Student Variability):

allowing the students to skip one or more grades.

The nature of direct instruction

almost all classroom activity focused on learning basic academic knowledge and skills. The teacher makes all instructional decisions. students work productively toward learning new academic knowledge and skills as much as possible. All lessons include demonstration, practice, corrective feedback. Maintain a positive classroom climate by emphasizing positive reinforcement and avoiding the use of aversive consequences.

microworlds (Piaget)

also known as microcomputer-based laboratories simulated learning environments that provide opportunities for students to think about problems for which there are not obvious solutions or situations that do not immediately "make sense."

accommodation

altering existing schemes or creating new ones in response to new info

Forms/formats

always use a variety of formats so that no matter with students are able to do, they are able to show their intelligence

sociocultural theory (Vygotsky)

an approach that emphasizes how cognitive development proceeds as a result of social interactions between members of a culture Children's understanding is acquired through their problem solving interactions with adults and other children. A reciprocal transaction between people and settings

Criterion-Referenced Assessment

an assessment procedure in which a student's performance is compared to a particular level of mastery

(Erikson: Psychosocial Development) Adolescents exhibit a particular process called:

an identity status, for establishing an identity.

Disequilibrium

an imbalance between what is understood and what is encountered.

Social class (socioeconomic status or SES)

an individual or family's relative standing in society.

Environmental factors

an individuals social and physical environment.

Ethnic additive approach

an instructional unit composed of concepts, themes, points of view and individual accomplishments is simply added to the curriculum.

Quest Atlantis: Gaming and consequential engagement

an online multi-user virtual environment in which students collaborate with others to solve various problems related to a hypothetical society. Research shows increases in meaningful learning and problem solving skills.

Which best describes Piaget's concept of a scheme

an organized pattern of behavior or thought As defined by Piaget, schemes are organized patterns of behavior or thought that are formulated as children interact with objects, experiences and people in their environment. Piaget encouraged working in groups to encourage the development of schemes.

What level of Bloom's taxonomy for the cognitive domain has been met if students are able to detect logical fallacies in an argument? a.) knowledge b.) comprehension c.) application d.) analysis

analysis

Sternberg's Triarchic Theory

analytical, creative, and practical intelligence

Moratoium

anxious, dissatisfied with school, changes major often, daydreams, engages in intense but short lived relationships, may temporarily reject parental and societal values.

performance assessments

any form of assessments that requires students to carry out an activity or produce a product in order to demonstrate learning

Vygotsky: MKO (Cognitive Development Theory):

any person with more knowledge/skill than learner (teacher, tutor, peer, parent, sibling).

foreclosure status

a category of identity status in which the individual is not engaged in any identity experimentation and has established a vocational or ideological identity based on the choices or values of others (ie parents)

disequilibrium principle

anything that prevents an activity produces disequilibrium, and an opportunity to return to equilibrium will be reinforcing

What level of Bloom's taxonomy for the cognitive domain has been met when a student uses physics principles to calculate the load capacity of a bridge? a.) knowledge b.) comprehension c.) application d.) evaluation

application

Actions of people

are based on how they think the world is, rather than how it actually is.

Macromoral issues

are broad social issues such as civil rights, free speech, the women's movement and wilderness preservation.

Goals

are broad, general statements of what educators, policy makers, administrators want to see a school accomplish.

Goals

are general, and contain specific and measurable objectives within their sphere

Objectives

are specific and measurable statements of what students should know and be able to do after instruction.

Scientific Concepts

are the psychological tools that allow us to manipulate our environment consciously and systematically.

Theory of mind

around age 3, children begin to be aware of the difference between thinking about something and actually experiencing it. By 4 they begin to realize that thoughts may be false.

Evaluate the solution (step 5)

ask and answer a set of basic questions (who, what, where, when, how), identify imperfections and complications, anticipate possible negative reactions from other people, devise improvements.

The four most commonly given reasons for task failure

"I just have a poor head for numbers." (lack of ability) "I didn't really study for the exam." (lack of effort) "That test was the toughest I've ever taken." (task difficulty) "I guessed wrong about which sections of the book to study." (luck)

Suggestions for Social Cognitive/Information Processing Approach (Approaches to Instruction):

(1) Communicate Clear Goals/Objectives: tell students what you want them to learn, why, & how they will be tested. (2) Use Attention-Getting Devices: (a) orally emphasize certain words-raising/lowering voice, (b) use dramatic gestures, (c) underline key words/phrases that you write on boards, (d) dress up like/portray person studying. (3) Emphasize Organization/ Meaningfulness: present organized & meaningful lessons, concept mapping (4) Present Information in Chunks: break lessons into small, manageable parts, & don't introduce new topics until you have evidence that students have learned present material. (5) Facilitate Long-Term Encoding: (a) present Information through different media-photos, videos, audio, live models, manipulation of physical objects, (b) use lots of examples/analogies, (c) prompt students to elaborate by asking them to put ideas into their own words, relate new ideas to personal experience, & create their own analogies.

psychological tools

cognitive devices and procedures with which we communicate and explore the world around us; includes speech, writing, gestures, diagrams, numbers, chemical formulas, musical notation, rules, and memory techniques

Cognitive apprenticeship, teachers modeling

cognitive processes that students eventually take responsibility for as they become more skilled.

spontaneously recovery

A phenomenon of learning and memory which refers to the re-emergence of a previously extinguished conditioned response after a delay.

Backward Fading

A procedure that helps students develop problem-solving capability by reasoning from the solution back to first steps

Backward Fading-Formulate & Carry Out a Solution (Constructivist Learning Theory):

A procedure that helps students develop problem-solving capability by reasoning from the solution back to first steps.

norm group

A representative sample of individuals who reflect the population of students for whom the test is intended

Classroom observation schedules

colleagues observe in your classroom using a checklist that covers the classroom environment, your teaching behaviors and student behaviors.

Measurement

collecting information about how much knowledge and skill students have learned.

Ethnic group

collection of people who identify with each other based on: ancestors' country of origin, race, religion, language, values, political interests, economic interests, behavior patterns.

Synthesis

combining parts into a whole At the synthesis level in Bloom's cognitive taxonomy, students are required to collect component ideas and rearrange them into a comprehensive whole.

Forms of Biases: unfair penalization

comparing students who are unfamiliar with content, examples, or language of an assessment to students who are needing to use unrelated knowledge to achieve a high score (sports knowledge to test math abilities)

The effect of reinforcement students are motivated to

complete a task by the desire to obtain an externally provided reinforcer. Many students receive little or no reinforcement for their schoolwork.

Publication

complete reports of experiments, including descriptions of subjects, methods, results and conclusions are published in professional journals.

Ill structured problems

complex, few clues to solution procedures, less definite criteria for deciding when a solution is reached.

What level of Bloom's taxonomy for the cognitive domain has been met if students are able to restate in their own words facts and terms that appear in the textbook? a.) synthesis b.) comprehension c.) application d.) analysis

comprehension

psychomotor domain

concentrates on steps that lead to a skilled performance

Micromoral issues

concern personal interaction in everyday situations such as courtesy, helpfulness, loyalty, dedication and caring.

Morality

concern with the distinction between good and evil or right and wrong

Late maturing girls

confident, outgoing, assured, popular, likely to be chosen as leaders. As adults, likely to experience difficulty adapting to stress, likely to score low in ratings of overall psychological health.

Identity achievement

introspective, more planful, rational, logical decision making, high self-esteem, works effectively under stress, likely to form close interpersonal relationships.

Thalamus

involved in the ability to learn new information, in particular verbal

teacher inquiry

involves four steps: asking useful questions, gathering data, reflection and taking action. an example of taking action is: a teacher works one-on-one with students who are falling behind in the class, to help them complete homework assignments and improve their overall performance.

Theoretical learning

involves using psychological tools to learn scientific concepts.

Theoretical learning (extension of Vygotsky) (Cognitive Development Theory):

involves using psychological tools to learn scientific concepts.

Carter et al. 2005

helping student with disabilities; testes a procedure for preparing students with learning disabilities, mild intellectual disabilities, and language impairments for a high stakes test.

Scaffolding

helping students answer difficult questions or solve problems by giving them hints or asking leading questions.

Taxonomies are sequential

hierarchies of abilities or skills.

Mechanism Psychomotor Learning

higher level of behavior by which person gains confidence in performing behavior more complex or involves several more steps than guided response

Theoretical Learning

involves using psychological tools to learn scientific concepts; they are gradually interalized and generalized to a wide variety of settings and problem types

Educational psychology

is a branch of psychology that is concerned with understanding and improving how students acquire a variety of capabilities through formal instruction in classroom settings.

Taxonomies

is a classification scheme with categories arranged in hierarchical order. (start with lower skills and work up through taxonomies and move into harder objectives) Specific objective, not a goal

Learning style

is a consistent preference over time for dealing with intellectual tasks in a particular way.

Moral character

is a disposition to do both what is good and what is right.

Irreversibility

is a stage in early child development wen a child falsely believes that actions cannot be reversed or undone.

6 types of accommodations for students with special needs

1. Modify presentation format 2. Modify response format 3. Modify timing 4. Modify assessment settings 5. Exclude parts of the test 6. Modify use of instruments

Percentile ranks ( Standardized testing scores)

A score that indicates the percentage of students who are at or below a given student's score

Standard scores (in standardized testing scores)

A score that is expressed in terms of standard deviations, such as a z score or a T score

individualized education program (IEP)

A written statement that describes the educational program that has been designed to meet the child's unique needs.

Premack principle

AKA grandma's rule, requires work first, then chosen reward. E.g. eat your vegetables and then you can have dessert.

positive reinforcement

is demonstrated when a target behavior is strengthened by presenting a positive stimulus (the praise) after the behavior, thus reinforcing good habits

Self efficacy

is how capable people believe they are at a task or behavior.

Distributed practice

is short study periods at frequent intervals which reduce the demand on memory.

Distributed practice

is short study periods at frequent intervals, which reduces the demand on memory and allows for for better retrieval

Civic character

is the desire and willingness to use one's knowledge and skills to become an engages and responsible citizen.

Equilibration

is the process of trying to organize a system of schemes that allows us to adapt to the current environmental conditions.

Attention

is the selective focusing on a portion of the information currently stored in the sensory register.

Teleapprenticeship programs

it allows students of different backgrounds and abilities to work on projects collaboratively. It is the application that is most consistent with Vygotsky's sociocultural theory

Making decisions

it is important to distinguish between the quality of the test itself and the way the test is used. Even the best assessment can be misused

Understand the nature of the problem (step 2)

often called problem representation or problem framing, requires high level of knowledge of subject matter and familiarity with that type of problem.

Integrity vs despair

old age. Erikson

The impact of attention, selective focusing

on a portion of the information currently stored in the sensory register. What we attend to is influenced by knowledge schemes in long term memory.

Teaching phase

one member of the team conducts the lesson while others observe and collect data.

Reinforcement

one of the basic principles of behavior learning theory

ill-structured problems

problem is vaguely or generally stated, have no set procedures for implementing a solution, and have no widely agreed upon and objective criteria for determining when a satisfactory solution has been achieved

Emotional characteristics of grades 1-3

sensitive to criticism and ridicule and may have difficulty adjusting to failure, are eager to please the teacher, becoming sensitive to the feelings of others.

Logical-mathematical

sensitivity to and capacity to discern logical or numerical patterns; ability to handle long chains of reasoning. Scientists/mathematicians.

Linguistic

sensitivity to the sounds, rhythms and meanings of words; sensitivity to different functions of language. Poet/journalist

Piaget's 4 Stages of Cognitive Development

sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational

Special education

separate classes for students with physical and intellectual disabilities for the purpose of instruction.

A taxonomy can best be defined as a: (13-1)

series of categories arranged in hierarchical order. (13-1) *Cognitive, affective, and psychomotor taxonomies are popular sources of objectives. (13-1)

Gifted & Talented Students are (Accommodating Student Variability):

students who show high performance in one or more areas.

high level of self-efficacy

students with a high level of self-efficacy attribute failure to lack of effort and success to a mix of effort and ability

Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973

students with health or medical conditions not covered by IDEA may also be entitled to protections and services. (most common 504 plan is for ADHD)

norm-referenced testing

testing in which scores are compared with the average performance of others

Standardized Tests

tests given, usually nationwide, under uniform conditions and scored according to uniform procedures

Culture Fair Tests are....

tests without cultural biases

Most commonly known standardized test in the USA

the SATs Taken in high school and used in college applications

Validity

the ability of a test to measure what it was designed/intended to measure

Seriation

the ability to arrange objects in order by size.

self-control

the ability to control impulses and delay short-term gratification for greater long-term rewards self-control is the ability to work to complete tasks without reinforcement or punishment, when no one is looking

self-control

the ability to control one's actions in the absence of external reinforcement or punishment a person's ability to control an impulse to act; to override emotions

Irreversibility (Piaget-Cognitive Development Theory):

the inability to envision reversing an action (preoperational stage 2-7 years old)

Spontaneous concepts

they learn various facts, concepts and rules but they do so through activities and communication.

Metacognition

thinking about thinking. Thinking overall.

Grading on the curve

this form of norm-reference grading where student performance is compare to the average level. This grading damages relationships between students and teachers. Decreases motivation among certain students

Conservation problems

those that test their ability to recognize that certain properties stay the same despite a change in appearance or position.

sysnapses

tiny spaces between neurones, chemical messages sent across

Use of standardized testing scores

to Identify strengths and weaknesses, plan instruction, select students for programs

High stakes testing

using test results to hold students and educators accountable for achievement

test-retest reliability

using the same test with the same group of people at a later time allows psychologists to determine if a test is consistent over time, which is called test-retest reliability

Item analysis

very important to take the time to do this after exams! Can use these as soon as there is more than one question on an exam

Response cost

very specific punishment, if you're 5 minutes late then you have to stay and extra 5 minutes.

Cooperative learning

working in small, heterogeneous groups to help one another master a task.

distractors

wrong answers offered as choices in a multiple-choice item

Communicating with families

you can share notes, phone calls webpages to stay in contact with parents

Contingency contracts

you do this and I'll do this.

Intimacy vs isolation

young adulthood. Erikson

The set of psychological traits...

~The WHAT of personality -Characteristics that describe ways people are different from each other -Average tendencies of a person -Describe, explain, predict behavior

Reflective Teaching: A Process to Help You Grow from Novice to Expert

• Reflective teachers think about what they do and why • Reflective teachers have particular attitudes and abilities

Reflective Teaching: A Process to Help You Grow from Novice to Expert (Applying Psychology to Teaching):

• Reflective teachers think about what they do and why • Reflective teachers have particular attitudes and abilities

Good Teaching Is Partly an Art and Partly a Science

• Teaching as an art: beliefs, emotions, values, flexibility • Research provides a scientific basis for "artistic" teaching • Good teachers combine "artistic" and "scientific" characteristics

Good Teaching Is Partly an Art and Partly a Science (Applying Psychology to Teaching):

• Teaching as an art: beliefs, emotions, values, flexibility • Research provides a scientific basis for "artistic" teaching • Good teachers combine "artistic" and "scientific" characteristics

The Nature and Values of Science

• Unsystematic observation may lead to false conclusions • Grade retention policies are influenced by unsystematic observation • Scientific methods: sampling, control, objectivity, publication, replication

The Nature and Values of Science (Applying Psychology to Teaching):

• Unsystematic observation may lead to false conclusions • Grade retention policies are influenced by unsystematic observation • Scientific methods: sampling, control, objectivity, publication, replication

Disadvantages of Essay Testing

Cover less material than objective tests

Diversity-responsive teaching observation tool

Created in Colorado School District, 3 sections, focuses on how well teacher address diversity, exhibit appropriate classroom instruction and classroom-management behaviors

Constructivism (Constructivism Learning Theory):

Creating a personal interpretation of external ideas & experience; constructivism is an umbrella term; 3 variations: cognitive constructivism, social constructivism, critical constructivism.

Constructivism

Creating a personal interpretation of external ideas and experiences

Constructivism

Creating a personal interpretation of external ideas and experiences. Humans generate knowledge and meaning from an interaction between their experiences and their ideas; when they construct an interpretation of how and why things are—by filtering new ideas and experiences through existing knowledge structures.

7 steps of taxonomy for the psychomotor domain step 7 *origination

Creating new performances after having developed skills.

Psychomotor Domain (Physical Skills): Origination

Creating new performances after having developed skills.

A third-grade teacher wishes to evaluate students regarding their knowledge of the social studies unit that they have just completed. The teacher should use a __________ test to best accomplish this task. (15)

Criterion-referenced. (15) *Criterion-referenced tests are used to determine whether students have achieved sets of objectives at a given level of performance. (15)

Brain development differences

Cultural difference in brain active provide examples of how interaction in the world, shape the brain

The Rise of Multiculturalism

Cultural pluralism assumes that societies should maintain different cultures, that every culture within a society should be respected, that individuals have the right to participate in society without giving up cultural identity; the U.S. is becoming more culturally diverse because of changes in immigration, birth rates

The Rise of Multiculturalism (Cultural/Socioeconomic Diversity):

Cultural pluralism assumes that societies should maintain different cultures, that every culture within a society should be respected, that individuals have the right to participate in society without giving up cultural identity; the U.S. is becoming more culturally diverse because of changes in immigration, birth rates

Culture Fair Tests are also known as

Culture free tests

Criterion-referenced assessment

Deals with a definable standard that can be measured. (14)

Standard Deviation

Degree of deviation from the mean of distribution

Standard Deviation (Understanding Standardized Assessment):

Degree of deviation from the mean of distribution

(Erikson: Psychosocial Development) Psychosocial moratorium:

Delays commitment, uncertain about identity

Moratorium

Delays commitment, uncertain about identity

two-way bilingual programs

In this program, subject-matter instruction is provided in two languages to all students. This approach is typically used when English is the primary language of about half the students in a school and the other language (usually Spanish) is the primary language of the other half of the students.

Types of Computer-Based Instruction (CBI) Programs (Behavioral Learning Theory):

Include drill& practice, tutorials, simulations, & games; tutorial & simulation programs produce higher achievement than conventional instruction; CBI is no substitute for high-quality teaching.

Rubrics (Ways to Measure Student Learning):

Increase objectivity & consistency of scoring; align instruction with assessment, communicate teacher's expectations, help students monitor progress

Rubrics

Increase objectivity and consistency of scoring, align instruction with assessment, communicate teachers' expectations, help students monitor progress

The beneficial effect of cooperative learning on social & academic outcomes is most likely NOT due to which of the following reasons? (13-2)

Increased repetition & practice. (13-2) *Increased repetition & practice is an element of direct instruction, not cooperative learning. (13-2)

negative reinforcement

Increasing the probability that a particular behavior will be repeated by removing an unwanted and aversive stimulus whenever a target behavior is exhibited. E.g. a driver uses a seat belt to stop the annoying sound.

Criterion-Referenced Tests

Indicate degree of mastery of objectives

Criterion-Referenced Tests (Understanding Standardized Assessment):

Indicate degree of mastery of objectives

Foreclosure

Individuals in foreclosure unquestioningly endorse parents' goals and values

Marcia's Four Identity Statuses: (Psychosocial Development) Foreclosure:

Individuals in foreclosure unquestioningly endorse parents' goals and values (close-minded, authoritarian, low anxiety, feels superior to peers, dependent on parents for approval).

Identity Diffusion

Individuals in identity diffusion avoid thinking about jobs, roles, values

Marcia's Four Identity Statuses: (Psychosocial Development) Identity Diffusion:

Individuals in identity diffusion avoid thinking about jobs, roles, values ( not self-directed, disorganized, impulsive, low self-esteem, alienated from parents).

IDEA

Individuals with Disabilities Act

Erikson 6-11 Years-Elementary (Psychosocial Development)

Industry vs Inferiority (produce/pride)

The Cognitive Approach to Teaching: Facilitating Meaningful & Self-Regulated Learning (Approaches to Instruction):

Information-Processing/Social Cognitive Approach (Meaningful Learning): Design lessons around principles of meaningful learning, teach students how to learn more effectively; tell students what you want them to learn, why, and how they will be tested; present organized and meaningful lessons; present new information in small chunks.

social cognitive approach to teaching

Personal characteristics *Mental and emotional factors such as goals, anxiety, metacognition, and self-efficacy Behavioral patterns *Include self-observation, self-evaluation, making changes in behavior to overcome or reduce perceptions, and creating productive study environments. Environmental factors *An individual's social and physical environment

Micro moral issues

Personal interactions in everyday situations - curtesy, helpfulness, loyalty, dedication, and caring Kohlberg

Performance Character

Personal qualities that aid in achievement of goals.

Preschool and Kindergarten Characteristics ( 3-5 Years Old) (Age-Level Characteristics):

Physical: Extremely active, need frequent rest periods, large-muscle control is better established than small-muscle control & eye-hand coordination, bodies are flexible & resilient (except the skull-still soft) Social: friendships change rapidly, friends typically the same gender, play is an important part of development-free play provides multiple benefits, preference for gender of play peers/pair vs group play, aware of gender roles, gender differences in toy preferences & play activities are noticeable by kindergarten (gender roles) Emotional: express emotions freely, anger outburst frequent, jealousy among classmates is fairly common, much affection for the teacher Cognitive: by age four, children have a theory of mind-aware of their own mental processes & that others may think differently, skillful w/language, do not accurately assess their competence for particular tasks, competence is encouraged by interaction, interest, opportunities, signs of affection, peer comparisons help four. & five year olds more accurately judge their capabilities

Elementary School Characteristics (Grades 4-5; 9-10 Years Old) (Age-Level Characteristics):

Physical: become leaner & stronger, obesity can become a problem for this age group, gender differences in motor skill performance are apparent (boys are slightly better at sports-related motor skills, while girls are better at flexibility, balance, rhythmic motor skills), relatively calm & predictability in physical development Social: peer group norms for behavior begin to replace adult norms, friendships become more selective & gender based, play continues to make numerous contributions to children's development Emotional: develop a more global, integrated, complex self-image (self-description: way in which people describe themselves to others, self-esteem: global evaluation people make of themselves, self-concept: the evaluative judgments people make of themselves in specific domains-academically, socially, physically-all three make a self-image), self-image becomes more generalized & stable; based on primarily on comparison with peers, disruptive family relationships, social rejection, school failure may lead to delinquent behavior, delinquents have few friends-are easily distracted-not interested in school work-lack basic skills Cognitive: can think logically, but thinking is constrained & inconsistent, in memory skills, elementary grade children perform about as well as adolescents or adults, reason logically but concretely

Middle School Characteristics (Grades 6-8; 11-13 Years Old) (Age-Level Characteristics):

Physical: growth tends to be both rapid & uneven, girls' growth spurts occur earlier, & so they look older than boys of the same age, early-maturing boys are likely to draw favorable responses, late-maturing boys may feel inadequate, early-maturing girls may suffer low self-esteem, late-maturing girls are likely to be popular & carefree, pubertal development is evident is practically all girls & many boys, concern & curiosity about sex are almost universal, especially among girls, average age of puberty: girls-11, boys-14 Social: the development of interpersonal reasoning leads to greater understanding of the feelings of others, the desire to conform reaches a peak during the middle school years (discussion of controversial issues may be difficult because of a strong desire to conform to peer norms) Emotional: teenagers experience different degrees of emotional turmoil, as a result of egocentric thought, middle school students are typically self-conscious & self-centered Cognitive: need a classroom that is open, supportive, & intellectually stimulating (the environment of middle school does not meet the needs of adolescents, leading to lower levels of learning) students perceive their relationships with their teachers as being less friendly, supportive than earlier grades, self-efficacy becomes an important influence on intellectual & social behavior (self-efficacy beliefs for academic & social tasks become strong influences on behavior)

High School Characteristics (Grades 9-12; 14-18 Years Old) (Age-Level Characteristics):

Physical: most students teach physical maturity & puberty, many become sexually active (factors related to initiation of sexual activity vary by gender, race) Social: parents/adults are likely to influence long-range plans (values); peers influence immediate status, girls experience greater anxiety about friendships, most students become employed Emotional: many psychiatric disorders either appear or become prominent during adolescence (eating disorders, substance abuse, schizophrenia, depression, suicide; depression is most common among females, students of color; depression & unstable family situations place adolescents at risk for suicide) Cognitive: become increasingly capable of engaging in formal thought, between the ages of 12-16, political thinking becomes more abstract, liberal, & knowledgeable

PET

Positron emission tomography

Essay tests

Potential for high-level thinking. Possibility for students to be creative in their answers. Recommended use of a Scoring Rubric in order to maintain consistency in grading. Scoring Rubrics are also beneficial for students as they know the expectations that the teacher has for the assignment

Strategies for Grading Essay Questions

Scoring Criteria or Rubric

Classroom Assessment

Selected and created by teachers and can take many different forms; unit tests, essays, portfolios, projects, performances, oral presentations, etc.

Objective assessment

Selected response tests that assess foundational knowledge

Research on Social Cognitive Theory

Self-efficacy, epistemological beliefs, self-regulation related to each other and to achievement; observing a peer model improves students' self-efficacy and the quality of students' writing more than simply practicing writing;

The Role of Self-Perception in Motivation (Motivation/Perception of Self):

Self-esteem is global judgment we make of Self; self-concept is judgment we make of self in specific domains; self-efficacy is belief in our ability to carry out a specific action.

Self-Regulation-Key Idea of Constructivism (Constructivist Learning Theory):

Self-regulation by learners is a key to successful learning. Self-regulated learning occurs when a person generates & controls thoughts, feelings, & actions in an effort to achieve a learning goal.

Piaget's stages of cognitive development

Sensorimotor (birth to two years old) - develops primarily through sense and motor activities Preoperational (two to seven years old) - gradually acquires ability to conserve and decenter but not capable of operations and unable to mentally reverse operations Concrete Operational Stage (seven to eleven years) - schemes, class inclusion, seriation - Capable of operations but solves problems by generalizing from concrete experiences. Formal Operational (eleven years and older) - ability to hypothesize, solve problems systematically, engage in mental manipulations

Acrostic

Sentence made up of words derived from the first letters of items to be learned

Self-Regulated Learners (Social Cognitive Theory):

Set goals, create plans to achieve those goals (Epistemological beliefs); focus on the task, process information meaningfully, self-monitor; evaluate their performance, make appropriate attributions for success and failure, reinforce themselves

Self-Regulated Learners

Set goals, create plans to achieve those goals; focus on the task, process information meaningfully, self-monitor; evaluate their performance, make appropriate attributions for success and failure, reinforce themselves

Behavior Modification

Shape behavior by ignoring undesirable responses, reinforcing desirable responses

Sensorimotor

birth-2 years of age, learn through senses, object permanence. Piaget

Physical characteristics of grades 4-5

boys and girls become leaner and stronger, obesity can become a problem for some, gender differences in motor skill performance are apparent, period of relative calm and predictability in physical development.

Macromoral Issues (Moral Development Theory):

broad social issues such as civil rights, free speech, the women's movement, and wilderness preservation

The development of children's memory skills

by early middle school grades, most children spontaneously use basic encoding, organizing and retrieval skills. Some acquire more sophisticated memory skills on their own. Interactions with parents and cognitive demands of school appear to play a role.

How do performance assessments compare to traditional written tests with respect to cultural responsiveness? a. Traditional written tests are equally culturally responsive. b. Performance assessments are too narrow in scope to be culturally responsive. c. Most items in traditional written tests reflect the majority culture. d. The realistic nature of performance assessments allows all students to demonstrate their capabilities. e. Written tests reflect the lived experiences of all children.

c. Most items in traditional written tests reflect the majority culture. d. The realistic nature of performance assessments allows all students to demonstrate their capabilities.

What are the documented effects of using standardized tests to hold schools accountable for student achievement? a. significant improvement in reading and math b. uniform acceptance of standards in the U.S. c. cutoff scores lowered to avoid AYP penalties d. intensive teaching to the test e. greater reliance on authentic assessment

c. cutoff scores lowered to avoid AYP penalties d. intensive teaching to the test

Meaningfulness, when new material

can be related to information in long term memory.

Cognitive characteristics of grades 4-5

can think logically, although such thinking is constrained and inconsistent. Simply memory tasks, children can perform as well as adolescents or adults. More complex memory tasks, the performance of children is limited.

Interpersonal

capacities to discern and respond appropriately to the moods, temperaments, motivations and desires of other people. Therapist/salesman

The sensory register

capacity, duration, contents

Melting pot

diverse ethnic groups assimilate into one mainstream culture.

Within class ability grouping

division of a single class into two or three groups for instruction in specific subjects.

Limitations of Norm-Reference Testing

do not tell you when a srudent is ready to move on to more difficult material, not good for measuring affective/physcomotor objectives, tend to encourage comparison and comptetition (problematic for underacheiving students)

Use of different capabilities to adapt to lifes everyday demands

do you have street smarts, what capability or what knowledge do you need to use in order adapt.

Strategies to help students develop a sense of industry

don't grade on a curve, base grades on realistic and attainable standards, create goals.

Concept mapping

drawn lines representing the relationships among a set of ideas

Between class ability groups

each class is made up of students of similar ability. Regrouping, students of the same age, ability and grade but from different classes come together for instruction in a specific subject. Joplin Plan: regrouping that takes place across grade levels.

Individual accountability

each group member must make own contribution to group's goal.

Control

each hypothesis is tested under controlled conditions.

Spontaneous concepts (Vygotsky) (Cognitive Development Theory):

early childhood- they learn various facts and concepts and rules as a by-product of such other activities as engaging in play and communicating with parents and playmates. This kind of knowledge is unsystematic, unconscious, and directed at the child's everyday concrete experiences.

A percentile rank of 83 on a standardized math test means the student: a.) earned a score that was equal to or better than 83 percent of those in the norm group. b.) earned a grade of B. c.) answered 83 percent of the items correctly. d.) earned a score that was equal to or less than 83 percent of those in the norm group.

earned a score that was equal to or better than 83 percent of those in the norm group.

Stages of interpersonal reasoning

egocentric, social information role taking, self reflective role taking, multiple role taking, social and conventional system taking.

Vygotsky's concept of the Zone of Proximal development (ZPD)

emphasizes social interactions as scaffolds to learning.

Social constructivism

emphasizes the development of meaningful learning by focusing on culture and social interactions.

Cognitive constructivism

emphasizes the development of meaningful learning by focusing on the cognitive processes that take place within individuals.

Critical constructivism

emphasizes the effect of teachers' assumptions about students from various racial, ethnic and SES backgrounds on students' knowledge construction.

7 steps of taxonomy for the psychomotor domain step 5 *Complex or overt response

performing a task with a high degree of proficiency and skill

Psychomotor Domain (Physical Skills) Complex or over response

performing a task with a high degree of proficiency and skill

complex response level of psychomotor domain

performing a task with a high level of proficiency (perfect circles)

7 steps of taxonomy for the psychomotor domain step 3 *Guided response

performing under the guidance of a model

Personal interest

person shows intrinsic desire to understand a subject that persists over time and is based on preexisting knowledge, personal experience and emotion.

Macromoral Issues Concerns (Moral Development Theory):

personal interactions in everyday situations, such as courtesy, helpfulness, loyalty, dedication, & caring.

Physical characteristics of middle school

physical growth tends to be both rapid and uneven, producing early maturing and late maturing patterns of development. Pubertal development is evident in practically all girls and in many boys. concern and curiosity about sex are almost universal.

Organization, putting interrelated

pieces of information into chunks.

Carol Gilligan's critique of Kohlberg's theory

pointed out that Kohlberg's early research was conducted entirely with male subjects, yet it became the basis for a theory applied to both males and females

Organization

putting interrelated pieces of information into chunks.

assessment bias

qualities of an assessment instrument that offend or unfairly penalize a group of students because of the student's gender, socioeconomic status, race, ethnicity, and so one

Lessons for teachers

quality assessment; good instruction and good grading really depend on the teacher.

Self questioning and peer questioning

question stems help students ask appropriate questions about ideas and their interrelationships.

Formal feedback

questionnaires, evaluation forms.

Confidence Interval

range of scores in which an individual score is likely to fall

confidence interval

range of scores within which an individual's true score is likely to fall

T score

raw score translated to a scale of 1-100 with a mean of 50

Z scores

raw scores

What is adolescent egocentrism

reacting to what one thinks the world should be rather than what it is.

Affective taxonomy

receiving (attending), responding, valuing, organization, characterization by a value or value complex.

recognition

recognition is defined as the process of noting key features of a new experience and relating them to stored information, a succinct description of your behavior as you examine multiple-choice questions

Robert Mager

recommences that teachers use objectives that identify the behavioral act that indicates achievement, define conditions under which the behavior is to occur and state the criterion of acceptable performance

A middle school teacher grades an examination on a curve, which will likely

reduce the student's sense of industry

Shaping

reducing complex behaviors into a sequence of more simple behaviors. Reinforcing successive approximations to the complex behavior.

Social contract orientation

rules needed to maintain the social order should be based not on blind obedience to authority but on MUTUAL AGREEMENT. Rights of the individual should be protected. Kohlberg Postconventional morality

Social contract orientation

rules should involve mutual agreements, the rights of the individual should be protected.

Five characteristics of scientific study

sampling, control, objectivity, publication, replication.

scaffolding

scaffolding is accomplished when a student is provided with enough support to complete a task until competence is achieved. Support is gradually decreased until the student becomes able to work independently.

Scientific concepts (Vygotsky) (Cognitive Development Theory):

school age-psychological tools that allow us to manipulate our environment consciously & systematically.

The standardized tests used to satisfy the requirements of the No Child Left Behind Act are called high-stakes because: a.) teachers must pass them in order to retain their license. b.) the tests determine which school a child is allowed to attend. c.) the tests are given in the senior year of high school to determine who will be allowed to graduate. d.) schools will suffer penalties if a certain percentage of students do not achieve passing scores.

schools will suffer penalties if a certain percentage of students do not achieve passing scores.

Objectivity

scientific observers make special efforts to be objective and guard against being misled by predetermined ideas.

flexible variables

scientific studies generally include sampling, control, objectivity, publication and replication. Flexible variables would not allow for the control needed to identify valid results.

Standard scores

scores based on the standard deviation

Objective Testing

scoring answers does not require interpretation

conventional morality

second level of Kohlberg's stages of moral development in which the child's behavior is governed by conforming to the society's norms of behavior By early adolescence, social rules and laws are upheld to gain social approval or maintain social order

Premack Principle

select potential reinforcers. More probable behaviors will reinforce less probable behaviors. "if you clean out your desk then you can go out and play"

The impact of attention

selective focusing on a portion of the information currently stored in the sensory register. What we attend to is influenced by knowledge schemes in long term memory.

Early maturing boys

self confident, high self esteem, chosen as leaders. As adults they become self confident, responsible, cooperative, sociable, rigid, moralistic, humorless and conforming.

Performance phase

self control, focus on task, ignore distractions, thank about the steps involved in completing a task. Self observation, use journals and logs to maintain awareness of performance, try different approaches to learning.

Zimmerman's self-regulatory model

self-control processes (attention focusing, self-instruction, use of tactics) and self-observation processes (self-recording and self-experimentation)

Self-esteem

self-worth. Overall evaluation people make of themselves.

well-structured problems

straightforward, familiar, and easily defined problems

perceptual centration (Piaget)

strong tendency to focus attention on only one characteristic of an object or aspect of a problem or event at a time. -- preoperational stage

Individualistic structures

structures characterized by students working alone and earning rewards solely on the quality of their own efforts.

Cooperative structures

structures characterized by students working together to accomplish shared goals.

Competitive structures

structures in which one's grade is determined by how well everyone else in the group performs.

compare and contrast

student must: examine in detail, or analyze, the content being learned in order to explain or interpret

Cognitive characteristics of high school

students become increasingly capable of engaging in formal thought, but may not use this ability. Between the ages of 12 and 16, political thinking becomes more abstract, liberal and knowledgeable.

Complexity of teaching and learning

students exposed to the same materials and teaching methods are likely to vary in how much and what they learn and a teacher's effectiveness is likely to vary from class to class and year to year.

Transfer of learning

students independently apple knowledge and skills to similar but new information.

Computer supported intentional learning environments

students learn how to set goals, generate and interrelate new ideas, link new knowledge to old, share ideas with peers.

Group goals/positive interdependence

students must support one another's learning efforts for group to achieve goal.

Motivation is affected by

students perceptions of their capabilities, students beliefs about the likelihood that their actions will affect the quality of the outcome, students interest in the task, approval students receive from important people.

Legislative

students prefer to formulate their own rules and plans.

Multiple perspectives

students should have the opportunity to view ideas and problems from multiple ways.

Promotive interaction

students taught how to help one another complete their assigned tasks.

Computer based instruction (CBI)

students who learn from intelligent tutoring and simulation programs score higher on achievement tests than students who are conventionally taught.

Four steps of teaching as inquiry

Asking questions, gathering data, reflection, taking action.

Biases

Aspects of tests that distort performances for a group pf students so that they do better or worse

General Transfer (Constructivist Learning Theory):

Due to the use of the same cognitive strategies.

Types of standardized test

-Achievement tests - Single subject Achievement test -Achievement battery - Aptitude tests - Diagnostic test - Competency test

Erikson 4-5 Years-Pre-K (Psychosocial Development)

Initiative vs Guilt (explore/restricted)

As defined by Vygotsky psychological tools....

-Include speech, writing, maps, and diagrams -are passed on through culture -both aid and change mental functioning -are introduced through social interactions

Erikson's Psychosocial stages

-Trust vs. mistrust -Autonomy vs. shame/doubt =Initiative vs. guilt -Industry vs. inferiority -Identity vs. role confusion -Intimacy vs. isolation -Generativity vs. stagnation - integrity vs. despair

Self-Concept

Judgement we make of self in specific domains

James Banks Four Approaches To Multicultural Education (Cultural/Socioeconomic Diversity):

(1) Contributions Approach: ethnic historical figures whose values & behaviors are consistent w/American mainstream culture are studied (Booker T. Washington, Sacajawea), whereas individuals who have challenged the dominant view are ignored (W.EB. Du Bois, Geronimo). (2) Ethnic Additive Approach: an instructional unit composed of concepts, themes, point of view, & individual accomplishments is simply added to the curriculum. (3) Transformative Approach: based on the principle of constructivism, requires the concrete operational schemes-introduced at middle school level. (4) Decision-Making & Social Action Approach: incorporates all the components of the previous approaches & adds the requirement that students make decisions/take actions concerning a concept, issue, or problem being studied.

How does gender bias affect students? (Intelligence Theories-Understanding Student Differences):

(1) Course selection (2) Career choice (3) Class participation Of male and female students.

Metacognitive Knowledge (Information Processing Theory):

(1) Declarative: "knowing that" (2) Conditional: knowing when/why we use certain learning processes in certain circumstances. (3) Procedural: knowing how to use various cognitive processes.

Four Types of Performance Assessments (Ways to Measure Student Learning):

(1) Direct Writing Assessments: ask students to write about a specific topic (2) Portfolios: contains one or more pieces of a student's work, some of which demonstrate different stages of completion. (3) Exhibitions: involve showing is such products as paintings, drawings, photos, sculptures, etc. (4) Demonstrations: students are required to show how well they can use previously learned knowledge/skills to solve a somewhat unique problem.

Why Cooperative Learning Works (Approaches to Instruction):

(1) Effect on Motivation: moderate to strong effects. (2) Effect on Achievement : moderate to large increase in test scores. (3) Effect on Social Interaction: teaches students how to productively interact with one another.

Four Basic Intermittent Reinforcement Schedules (Behavioral Learning Theory):

(1) Fixed Interval (FI) (2) Variable Interval (VI) (3) Fixed Ratio (FR) (4) Variable Ratio (VR) Each schedule produces a different pattern of behavior.

Self-Regulation Cycle (Social Cognitive Theory):

(1) Forethought Phase: (a) task analysis, (b) self-motivational beliefs (2) Performance Phase: (a) self-control, (b) self-observation (3) Self-Reflection Phase: (a) self-judgment, (b) self-reaction (helping students become self-regulated learners).

Self-Efficacy Effects on Goals, Outcome Expectations, & Attributions (Motivation/Perception of Self):

(1) Goals: (a) task mastery-involve doing what is necessary to learn meaningfully the Information/skills that have been assigned, (b) performance-approach-involve demonstrating to teachers/peers one's superior intellectual ability by outperforming most others in class, (c) performance-avoidance-involve reducing the possibility of failure so as not to appear less capable than other students. (2) Outcome Expectations: high-level or low-level expectations (3) Attributions: reasons students cite to explain why they succeed/fail at a task.

7 Elements if Cooperative Learning (Approaches to Instruction):

(1) Group Heterogeneity: the size of the group is relatively small & as heterogeneous as circumstances allow. (2) Group Goals/Positive Interdependence: a specific goal/grade is identified for the group to attain. (3) Promotive Interaction: students are shown how to help one another overcome problems & complete whatever task has been assigned. (4) Individual Accountability: each member of a group has to make a significant contribution to achieving the group's goal. (5) Interpersonal Skills: students taught basic skills as leadership, decision-making, trust-building, clear communication, & conflict management. (6) Equal Opportunity For Success: heterogeneous with respect to ability & their success depends on positive interdependence, promotive interaction, & individual accountability, important that steps be taken to ensue that all students have an opportunity to contribute to their team. (7) Team Competition: rarely used properly; effective way to motivate students to cooperate with each other.

5 Best Technology Practices That Support A Constructivist Approach (Approaches to Instruction):

(1) Helping Students Process Information: uses technology to minimize the cognitive demands of a task; to help learners form schemas/patterns of information; to extend/augment thinking in new directions; to supply information overview/memory cues. (2) Discovery & Exploratory Environments: not just tools to transmit/represent information for the learner; they also provide environments that allow for discoveries/insights. (3) Guided Learning: teachers help students set goals, ask questions, encourage discussions, & provide models of problem-solving processes. (4) Problem & Project-Based Learning (PBL): provides students with story problems, lab problems, or investigation problems. (5) Situated Learning: technology can play a key role in providing access to a wide variety of real-world learning situations.

Marcia Identity Statuses (extension on Erikson's observation on identity formation) (Psychosocial Development Theory):

(1) Identity/Role diffusion (2) Foreclosure-negative (3) Moratorium-positive (4) Identity achievement-positive Psychosocial moratorium at any age can result in developmental delays.

Applying Social Cognitive Theory in the Classroom:

(1) Include the development of self-regulating learning skills in your objectives & lesson plans. (2) Teach students how to use both memory & comprehension tactics & to take notes. (3) Establish the foundation for self-regulated learning in kindergarten & the primary grades.

4 Parts of Character Development as an Educational Goal (Age-Level Characteristics):

(1) Intellectual character: refers to ways of thinking that direct & motivate what a person does when faced with a learning task that often lead to a meaningful outcome (curious, open-minded, reflective, strategic, skeptical). (2) Moral character: disposition to do both what is good & right (honest) (3) Civic character: the desire & willingness to use one's knowledge & skills to become an engaged & responsible citizen (volunteers, public boards) (4) Performance character: refers to personal qualities that facilitate the achievement of one's goals. (willingness to persevere)

Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: Cognitive Domain (Thinking Skills) (Approaches to Instruction):

(1) Knowledge: Remembering previously learned Information, such as facts, terms, procedures, & principles. (2) Comprehension: Grasping the meaning of Information by putting into one's own words, drawing conclusions, or stating implications. (3) Application: Applying knowledge to actual situations, as in talking principles learned in math & applying them to laying out a baseball diamond or applying civil liberties to current events. (4) Analysis: Breaking down objects/ideas into simpler parts & seeing how the parts relate & are organized. For example, discussing how the public & private sectors differ or detecting logical fallacies in an argument. (5) Synthesis: Rearranging component ideas into a new whole. For example, planning a panel discussion or writing a comprehensive term paper. (6) Evaluation: Making judgments based on internal evidence or external criteria. For example, evaluating a work of art, editing a term paper, or detecting inconsistencies in the speech of a politician.

Class Participation (Intelligence Theories-Understanding Student Differences):

(1) Level of Voice: The degree to which students feel comfortable expressing themselves & their views. (2) Loss of Voice: Students suppress true beliefs about various topics in the presence of parents; teachers, & classmates of the opposite sex.

Why Cooperative Learning Works-Part 2 (Approaches to Instruction):

(1) Motivational Effect: encourage such achievement-oriented behaviors as trying hard, attending class regularly, praising the efforts of others, receiving help from groupmates. (2) Cognitive-Development Effect: promotes cognitive growth because students model for each other more advanced ways of thinking than any would demonstrate individually. (3) Cognitive Elaboration Effect: new Information that is elaborated is more easily retrieved from memory than is Information that is not elaborated.

5 Components of Direct Instruction (Approaches to Instruction):

(1) Orientation: teacher provides an overview of the lesson & why they need to learn the material. (2) Presentation: involves the teacher explaining, illustrating, & demonstrating the new material. (3) Structured Practice: teacher assistance; teacher leads the entire class through each step in a problem/lesson. (4) Guided Practice: students work at their own desks on problems as demonstrated by the teacher. (5) Independent Practice: when students can correctly solve 85% of the problems given to them during guided practice, they are ready for independent practice.

Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: Psychomotor Domain (Physical Skills) (Approaches to Instruction):

(1) Perception: Using sense organs to obtain cues needed to guide motor activity. (2) Set: Being ready to perform a particular action (3) Guided Response: Performing under the guidance of a model. (4) Mechanism: Being able to perform a task habitually with some degree of confidence/proficiency. For example, demonstrating the ability to get the first serve in the device area 70% of the time. (5) Complex/or Overt Response: Performing a task with a high degree of proficiency/skill. For exampl, typing all kinds of business letters /forms quickly with no errors. (6)Adaption: Using previously learned skills to perform new but realized tasks. For example, using skills developed while using a word processor to do desktop publishing. (7) Origination: Creating new performances after having developed skills. For example, creating a new form of modern dance.

Four Factors That Affect Self-Efficacy (Social Cognitive Theory):

(1) Performance Accomplishments (2) Verbal Persuasion (3) Emotional Arousal (4) Vicarious Experience

Four Key Ideas of Constructivism (Constructivist Learning Theory):

(1) Prior Knowledge: (2) Multiple Perspectives (3) Self-Regulation (4) Authentic Learning

Suggestions for Constructivist Approach (Approaches to Instruction):

(1) Provide Scaffolding w/in the ZPD: (a) provide explanations w/in the zpd (not too difficult/easy),(b) make explanations meaningful by emphasizing how concepts/principles are relevant to your students everyday lives (what they know), (c) give students the opportunity to use the concepts/principles that are embedded in your explanations. (2) Provide Discovery Learning: let students discover things for themselves. (3) Foster Multiple Viewpoints: help students to understand that different views of the same phenomenon exist, & produce a broader understanding. (4) Emphasize Relevant Problems/Tasks: create interest/relevance by posing problems or assigning tasks that are both challenging & realistic. (5) Encourage Autonomous Learners: students should be able (under right circumstance) to work independently of the teacher than they typically do (give them enough time to work on their tasks, talk, listen).

Five Steps of Problem Solving (Constructivist Learning Theory):

(1) Realize A Problem Exists (2) Understand The Nature Of The Problem (3) Compile Relevant Information (4) Formulate & Carry Out A Solution (5) Evaluate The Solution

Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: Affective Domain (Values) (Approaches to Instruction):

(1) Receiving (attending): Willingness to receive or attend. (2) Responding: Active participation indicating positive response/acceptance of an idea/policy. (3) Valuing: Expressing a belief/attitude about the value/worth of something. (4) Organization: Organizing various values into an internalized system. (5) Characterization by Value/Value Complex: The value system becomes a way of life.

Associated Control Processes of Sensory Register (Information Processing Theory):

(1) Recognition (2)Attention

The Control Processes (Information Processing Theory):

(1) Recognition (2) Attention (3) Maintenance Rehearsal (4) Elaborative Rehearsal (5) Retrievel

Taking Account of Your Students Cultural Differences (Textbook/Learning Guide) (Cultural/Socioeconomic Diversity):

(1) Recognize that differences are not necessarily deficits. (2) Recognize that the groups we & others describe with a general label are frequently made up of subgroups w/somewhat different characteristics. (3) Above all, remember that each student is a unique person. Although descriptions of various ethnic groups & subgroups may accurately portray some general tendencies of a large group of people, they may apply only partly or not at all to given individuals.

Associated Control Processes of Short-term Memory (Information Processing Theory):

(1) Rehearsal: (a) Maintenance rehearsal, (b) Elaborative rehearsal (2) Organization (3) Meaningfulness (4) Visual Encoding

5 Types of Mnemonic Devices (Social Cognitive Theory):

(1) Rhymes: items of information that one wants to recall are embedded in a rhyme. (2) Acronym: word made from the first letter of items to be learned. (3)Acrostic: sentence made up of words derived from the first letters of items to be learned. (4) Loci method: visualize items to be learned stored in specific locations. (5) Keyword method: visually link the pronunciation of a foreign word to an English translation. (helping students become self-regulated learners)

Four Types of Behavior Affected by Self-Efficacy (Social Cognitive Theory):

(1) Selection Processes (2) Cognitive Processes (3) Motivational Processes (4) Affective Processes

5 Elements of Humanism (Approaches to Instruction):

(1) Self-Actualization (2) Hierarchy of Needs (3) Self-Esteem & Self-Efficacy (4) Relation to Self (5) Relationship of Student & Teacher

The Memory Stores (Information Processing Theory):

(1) Sensory Register (SR) (2) Short-Term/Working Memory (STM) (3) Long-Term Memory (LTM)

Theories of Intelligence (Understanding Student Differences):

(1) Spearman: 2-Factor Theory of Intelligence: General (g-factor) affects overall performance. Specific (s-factor) affects performance on only specific intellectual tests. (2) Sternberg: Triarchic Theory of Intelligence (Successful Intelligence): Practical, Creative, Analytical. (3) Gardner: Multiple Intelligences-8 (Logical-mathematical, Linguistic, Musical, Spatial, Body-Kinesthetic, Interpersonal, Intrapersonal, Naturalists. (4) Wechsler: Global Capacity View: Think rationally & act purposefully.

Using Awareness of Learning Styles to Guide Instruction (Intelligence Theories-Understanding Student Differences):

(1) Teachers should use various instructional methods to engage all styles of learning at one time or another. (2) Teachers should use various test formats to expand students' repertoire of learning styles & measure accurately what students have learned.

Piaget: Morality of Constraint vs Morality of Cooperation (Moral Development Theory):

(1) The first four differences call attention to the tendency for children below the age of 10 or so to think of rules as sacred pronouncements handed down by external authority. (2) The last three differences call attention to the tendency for children above the age of 10 or so to see rules as mutual agreements among equals.

Promoting Multicultural Understanding & Classroom Achievement (Cultural/Socioeconomic Diversity):

(1) Use culturally relevant teaching methods. (2) Help make students aware of the contributions that specific ethnic groups have made to the development of the US/rest of the world. (3) Use instructional techniques/classroom activities that are consistent w/the value system of students who share a particular cultural background & that encourage students to learn from/about one another's cultures. (4) At the secondary level, involve students in activities that explore cultural differences in perceptions, beliefs, & values. (5) Involve students, especially at the secondary level, in community service activities. (6) Make every effort to contact/work w/parents of ethnic minority students.

Promoting Classroom Achievement for All Students (Suggestions for Teaching-Textbook):

(1) Use every possible means for motivating educationally disadvantaged students to do well in school. (2) Use a variety of instructional techniques to help educationally disadvantaged students master both basic & higher-order knowledge & skills. (3) Be alert to the potential dangers of the teacher expectancy effect. Concentrate on individuals while guarding against the impact of stereotyping. (4) Remember that, in addition to being a skilled teacher, you are also a human being who may at times react subjectively to students.

Describe Sternberg's three functional styles (Intelligence Theories-Understanding Student Differences):

(1)Legislative: prefers to create/plan. (2) Executive: prefers to follow explicit rules. (3) Judicial: prefers to evaluate/judge.

5 Aspects Of Ethnicity That Often Lead To Misunderstandings (Cultural/Socioeconomic Diversity):

(1-2) Verbal/Nonverbal Communication Patterns: ethnic groups differ in verbal/nonverbal communication patterns. (3) Time Orientation: for students whose ethnic cultures are not time bound-a rigid approach to learning may be upsetting. (4) Social Values: American values competition & individualism-students from some ethnic groups are more likely to value relationships/family loyalty. (5) Instructional Format: ethnic groups may differ in terms of the instructional formats & learning processes they prefer.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs (Motivation/Perception of Self):

(Bottom to fop) (5) Physiological (food, water, oxygen) (4) Safety (nurturance, money) (3) Belongingness/love (acceptance, affection) (2) Esteem (respect) (1) Self-Actualization (maximizing one's potential)

Social Cognitive Theory (Research on Social Cognitive Theory):

(Created by Albert Bandura) Holds that self-efficacy, epistemological beliefs, self-regulation related to each other & to achievement; observing a peer model improves students ' self-efficacy; observing a peer model improves the quality of students' writing more than simply practicing writing; observing a peer model improves students ' self-efficacy for math problem solving/math problem-solving ability.

Information Processing/Social Cognitive (Meaningful Learning): Suggestions

(Design lessons around principles of meaningful learning, teach students how to learn more effectively.) Communicate clear goals and objectives. Use attention-getting devices. Emphasize organization and meaningfulness. Present information in chunks. Facilitate long-term coding.

Criticisms of Lawrence Kohlberg's Theory (Moral Development Theory):

(Moral development difficult to accelerate, moral dilemmas not relevant to daily life, relies on macromoral issues, ignores characteristics other than moral reasoning.

Moral relativism

(Morality of cooperation) Rules are flexible, intent is important in determining guilt

Cognitive Constructivism (Constructivist Learning Theory):

(Outgrew from Piaget) Emphasizes the role of cognitive processes in meaningful learning.

Self/Regulation Skills (Social Cognitive Theory):

(Strengthening self-efficacy beliefs to students and teaching them how to use self-regulatory skills-observational or modeling) Are learned best in a four-level process: (1) Observation (2) Emulation (3) Self-Control (4)Self-Regulation (helping students become self-regulated learners)

Moral realism

(morally constraint) Rules are sacred, consequences determine all guilt. Piaget

moratorium

(n.) a suspension of activity; an official waiting period; an authorized period of delay

direct instruction

*Almost all classroom activity focused on learning basic academic knowledge and skills *the teacher makes all instructional decisions *students work productively toward learning new academic knowledge and skills as much as possible *all lessons include demonstration, practice, and corrective feedback *Maintain a positive classroom climate by emphasizing positive reinforcement and avoiding the use of aversive consequences.

characteristics of the constructivist approach to teaching

*Cognitive apprenticeship-teachers modeling *cognitive processes that students eventually take responsibility for as they become more skilled *Situated learning- giving learning tasks situated in realistic contexts *Multiple perspectives-Students should have the opportunity to view and problems from multiple ways

5 suggestions for a social cognitive/information-processing approach

*Communicate clear goals and objectives *Use attention-getting devices *Emphasize organization and meaningfulness *Present information in learnable amounts and over realistic time periods *Facilitate encoding and information into long-term memory

Mager's: Recommendations for use of specific objectives

*Describe what you want learners to be doing when demonstrating achievement and indicate how you will know they are doing it *In your description, identify and name the behavioral act that indicates achievement, define the conditions under which the behavior is to occur, and state the criterion of acceptable performance

Gronlund's: recommendations for use of general objectives

*Formulate general objectives of instruction that describe types of behavior students should exhibit. *Under each general instructional objective, list up to five specific learning outcomes that provide a representative sample of what students should be able to do when they have achieved the general objective

Identify and explain the 5 suggestions for a constructivist approach

*Provide scaffolding instruction within the zone of proximal development (ZPD) *Provide opportunities for learning by discovery *foster multiple viewpoints *emphasize relevant problems and tasks *encourage students to become more autonomous learners

Construct Validity (15):

*Test is sensitive to the construct, or attribute, it purports to measure. (15) A test designed to measure self-concept actually distinguishes between those who have strong self-concepts and those whose self-concepts are weak. (15)

Be able to recognize characteristics of the humanistic approach to teaching

*classroom provides for physical safety *Students receive emotional support *Students given clear and achievable expectations *Instruction is organized and comprehensible *Help with learning is provided when needed *Interactions with students are respectful, courteous, and fair *feedback is constructive *Students allowed some freedom to make learning choices *learning seen as exciting, meaningful, pleasurable

Vygotsky's view of cognitive development

*cognition result of social interactions in which children learn through guided participation *children gradually grow intellectually and begin to function on their own because of assistance that adult and peer partners provide. He saw social interaction as the primary cause of cognitive development. Vygotsky believed that children learn more from the instructional interactions they have with those who are more intellectually advanced, particularly if the instruction is designed to fall within the child's zone of proximal development.

Identify and explain the 5 technology practices for a constructivist approach

*helping students process information-multimedia encyclopedias, interactive databases *Discovery and exploratory environments-Logo, Geometric Supposer, GenScope

Validity

- Accuracy of inferences we draw about the test taker - Based on evidence for content validity, predictive validity, construct validity

Short answer tests

- Advantage: easy to write - Disadvantage: measure lower levels of learning

Essay tests

- Advantage: measure ability to solve realistic problems - Disadvantage: low reliability and validity

Performance assessments

- Advantage: measures ability to solve realistic problems - Disadvantage: low reliability and validity

Selected response tests

- Advantages: efficient, objectively scored - Disadvantages: usually measure lower levels of learning (knowledge, understanding)

Examinee appropriateness

- Appropriateness for a particular group of students - Testing young children for admission or retention purposes is problematic because of low reliability (inconsistency of scores when retested)

Types of performance assessments

- Direct writing assessments - Portfolios - Exhibitions - Demonstrations

According to Piaget, invariant thought processes, such as organization and adaptation, are those that function differently for infants, children, adolescents, and adults. - True - False

- False

Characteristics of performance assessments

- Focus on student actively responding to complex, realistic problems - May be more responsive to cultural diversity - Emphasize formative assessment

Interpreting standardized test scores

- Grade equivalent scores - Percentile ranks - Standard scores - Stanine score

Criterion-referenced grading

- Grades based on same standard for every student regardless of class - A=90%, B=80% etc. or WGU's objective assessments - Provide specific, accurate info o strengths and weaknesses

Ways to evaluate student learning

- Norm-referenced grading - Criterion-referenced grading - Mastery approach

Simpson's psychomotor domain taxonomy

- Perception - Set - Guided Response - Mechanism - Complex Overt Response - Adaptation

Criteria for evaluating standardized tests

- Reliability - Validity - Normed Excellence - Examinee Appropriateness

Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development

- Sensorimotor Stage - Pre operational Stage - Concrete operational - Formal operational stage

Norm-referenced grading

- Student grades are compared to others in that class only - "Grading on a curve" - Meaningless to compare grades in one class to grades in another - Used to select students for program with limited enrollment

normed referenced testing

- Student's scores gain meaning by being compared to scores of norm group - Score interpretation difficulties arise when certain groups are not represented in the norm group

Mastery approach

- Students have multiple chances to master goals - WGU's performance tasks

Cerebral cortext

- The outer covering the brain

According to Piagetian theory, children's thinking gradually shifts from being based on concrete objects or ideas to thinking that is more abstract and generalized. - True -False

- True

Summative Assessment

- Used to check mastery of material at end of teaching process, and to assign grades - No opportunity to reteach material

Formative Assessment

- Used to check progress and understanding during teaching process - Both student and teacher learn from this - Allows teacher to reteach material as needed

Rubric

- Used to help make grading more reliable - What WGU uses for every performance task

Ways to measure student learning

- Written tests - Selected response tests - Short answer tests - Performance assessments

Which of the following most clearly describes a form of parental behavior that would lead to desirable child development during the psychosocial stage Erikson described for two and three year olds? - a parents encourages a child who is trying to learn new skills, while at the same time providing support and supervision for her - parents insist that their daughter attempt to cut a piece of meat, even though she is reluctant to try - parents toilet train their child in a very strict manner - parents agree on a policy of not setting limits for their child, so that she or he can become more autonomous

- a parents encourages a child who is trying to learn new skills, while at the same time providing support and supervision for her * In the stage of autonomy v. shame and doubt, children begin to exert independence. If they are encouraged by their parents and are allowed to go at their own pace while being supervised, they will develop the independence to successfully negotiate successive stages.

Which of the following examples best illustrates Piaget's concept of assimilation? - a woman who, after being stuck on the elevator, decides that all cable-driven devices are unsafe - a student learns that opossums can hang from tree branches by their tails and therefore adds opossums to her scheme of animals with prehensile tails - a child who changes her scheme of "all snakes are poisonous and deadly" after easily surviving a bite from a common grass snake - a person who quits the baseball team after learning that you must wear extremely tight, nylon pants

- a student learns that opossums can hang from tree branches by their tails and therefore adds opossums to her scheme of animals with prehensile tails * The student already has a scheme about animals with prehensile tails, and can add the information about opossums to that existing scheme.

A child who is concrete-operational is: - unable to feel sympathy for a classmate who has broken an arm - able to generalize from experiences to a broad range of situations - able to understand that hummingbirds and ducks are both birds - able to imagine what his friends would think of him if he could lift four hundred pounds

- able to understand that hummingbirds and ducks are both birds * Children in the concrete operational stage are not able to transfer many kinds of learning experiences, though they may learn one situation quite well. Neither are they able to think hypothetically at this point.

Stella, who has always believed that wolves stalk and kill human beings, learns that they are actually quite wary of humans and rarely attack them. Consequently, she joins an environment group that is dedicated to reintroducing wolves to areas where they once lived. This behavior is a reflection of: - conservation - preoperational stage thinking - accommodation - assimilation

- accommodation * When Stella expands her understanding of wolves and changes her behavior, she is accommodating or modifying her scheme to include her new understanding of wolves.

What does the Piagetian term "operation" describe? - surgical procedures and techniques - calculations by mathematical processes - actions carried out through logical thinking - imitative behaviors

- actions carried out through logical thinking

Based on what he has seen at the circus, Larry came to believe that all elephants were docile. Recently, on his first African safari, he approached an elephant with the intention of petting it. Sensing Larry's presence, the elephant wheeled around and proceeded to charge. Larry must now adjust his elephant behavior scheme. According to Piaget, Larry must: - disequilibrate - organize - activate - adapt

- adapt * Adaptation is the process of creating a good fit between one's conception of reality and one's real life experiences. The individual must adapt his conception of how elephants react to being approached by humans, given his experience in the wild.

On a visit to the zoo, a preschool-aged child points a zebra and says, "Look at the horse." This is an example of: - assimilation - accommodation - identity formation - formal operations

- assimilation

By providing time for free play, a preschool teacher is helping children develop a sense of: - trust - identity - intimacy - autonomy

- autonomy

Piaget's work in moral development suggests that the typical twelve-year-old: - believes that extenuating circumstances should be considered - takes a single, absolute moral stand - cannot consider the intentions behind an act - determines guilt by the amount of damage

- believes that extenuating circumstances should be considered * Moral relativism (morality of cooperation) refers to a level of moral reasoning where extenuating circumstances are taken into consideration. Rules are flexible, and the intent of the wrongdoer is taken into account.

According to Vygotsky: - genetically factors predispose how effectively children assimilate, accommodate, and equilibrate new information - children benefit greatly from information handed down to them by those who are more cognitively advanced - Piaget was incorrect in asserting that the formal operational stage was the highest level of cognitive development - peer interactions do more to stimulate cognitive development than do interactions with adults

- children benefit greatly from information handed down to them by those who are more cognitively advanced * Vygotsky believed that children learned best from more competent adults and peers.

Simulated learning environments (microworlds) provide students with opportunities to solve problems in a form and setting that they have not likely encountered before. According to Piaget, these students will most likely experience which one of the following? - cognitive organization through accommodation - cognitive reorganization through assimilationg - cognitive development through adaptation - cognitive conflict and disequilibration

- cognitive conflict and disequilibration * Microworlds are simulation programs that are specifically designed to help students restructure cognitive schemes by presenting problems that do not fit neatly into their current conception about how things work. This creates cognitive conflict and disequilibration.

A student who is at the stage of conventional morality (as described by Kohlberg) makes moral decisions on the basis of: - self-chosen moral principles - avoiding punishment to receive benefits - concern about what others might think - staying out of trouble

- concern about what others might think * According to Kohlberg, individuals in this stage conform to the conventions of society. The correct option most clearly illustrates the good boy-girl orientation that is one of two types of conventional reasoning.

Which of the following is most likely to promote a sense of industry among students? - encourage intense competition for top grades by limiting the number of available A's and B's - set a class "curve," making sure that equal percentages of students receive A's, B's, C's, D's, and F's - encourage communication with local businesses to keep students informed of available job opportunities - create reasonable performance standards and communicate those standards to students

- create reasonable performance standards and communicate those standards to students * One factor that is known to have a negative effect on one's sense of industry is competition for a limited number of rewards, such as when teachers grade on a curve. This practice limits the top grades to the few with the highest scores, regardless of the actual level of their performance. The solution is to base grades on realistic and attainable standards which are communicated to students in advance.

Vygotsky's concept of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): - is achieved only by students capable of formal operations - can vary with the child's environment - must be introduced by teachers and parents - emphasizes social interactions as scaffolds to learning

- emphasizes social interactions as scaffolds to learning

Teachers should be knowledgeable about stages of development in human behavior because this information: - helps teachers control children's behavior - explains why behavior changes over time - is useful in creating lesson plans - tells teachers what students will and will not be able to understand - indicates how rapidly some children will learn

- explains why behavior changes over time - is useful in creating lesson plans - tells teachers what students will and will not be able to understand

Infants between birth and age two acquire an understanding of the world around them by: - being able to transfer what they see from one situation to the next - using deferred imitation - exploring their own bodies and senses - imitating what they observe

- exploring their own bodies and senses * Infants in this stage explore the world around them primarily through their senses and motor activities. They do not use mental and physical schemes until about age two.

Sarah, though she prefers dance to medicine, is a medical student because her parents have always dreamed of having a "Dr. Daughter." She is certain that medicine is the right career for her because her parents have supported that notion. Sarah would be classified by Marcia as which of the following types? - diffusion - foreclosure - achievement - moratorium

- foreclosure * Foreclosure types do not experience doubt and identity issues because they accept and endorse the choices and values of their parents

According to Erikson, teachers can help students between the ages of four and five develop in a healthy fashion by: - striving for a perfect balance between initiative and guilt - encouraging them never to feel guilty - giving them the freedom to explore and taking the time to answer questions - promoting the open expression of initiative at all times

- giving them the freedom to explore and taking the time to answer questions * According to Erikson, children who are encouraged by adults and given the freedom to explore and experiment will develop the desire to initiate these undertakings. Children who are not encouraged, or who are made to feel guilty for their initiative, may have a problem successfully resolving this stage.

Why might Lawrence Kohlberg's stage theory of moral development be controversial? - his moral dilemmas are far removed from everyday social interactions - Moral determinations vary from culture to culture - the theory predicts moral action at each stage of cognitive development - the theory deals primarily with personal everyday situations - differences in male and female socialization effect morality

- his moral dilemmas are far removed from everyday social interactions - Moral determinations vary from culture to culture - differences in male and female socialization effect morality

What does Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development describe? - equilibrium as a biological process - sociocultural aspects of education - how knowledge develops - object permanence and invariant stages

- how knowledge develops

According to Marcia, what identity status is usually the last to emerge developmentally? - identity diffusion - identity achievement - moratorium - foreclosure

- identity achievement * Identity achievement types seek out interpersonal relationships and are capable of making mature, informed decisions after carefully considering all potential alternatives.

How does Erikson's theory define industry v. inferiority as a stage of psychosocial development? - becoming independent of parents and teachers - learning to be intellectually productive - choosing an occupation - establishing close emotional bonds with others

- learning to be intellectually productive

As defined by Vygotsky, psychological tools: - include speech, writing, maps and diagrams - are passed on through culture - must result from formal instruction - both aid and change mental functioning - are introduced through social interactions

- include speech, writing, maps and diagrams - are passed on through culture - both aid and change mental functioning - are introduced through social interactions

You have decided that the students in your kindergarten class will no longer be allowed to participate in unstructured play or imagination activities. These types of activities, in your opinion, are a waste of learning time and have no place in a solid curriculum. Your thoughts largely ignore the need to resolve which of the following psychosocial crisis? - play v. work - integrity v. despair - trust v. mistrust - initiative v. guilt

- initiative versus guilt * Erikson's stage of initiative v. guilt stresses that children should participate in self-chosen physical activities and use language to discover and explore in order to develop a sense of initiative. Discouraging these activities increases the probability that children will come to feel guilty about acting on their own.

Rhonda, a sixth grader, loves to work in her father's wood shop crafting items that she designs. Often, however, when she approaches her father about letting her work with him, he dismisses her requests and tells her that she should "help your mother in the kitchen and stay out of my way." According to Erikson, Rhonda: - will certainly never have feelings of inferiority - may not work with wooden craft items until she is older and her gender role is properly formed - is at risk for developing feelings of inferiority - may have trust issues in any relationship

- is at risk for developing feelings of inferiority * Elementary and middle school children are at Erikson's stage of industry v. inferiority. Industry refers to the need for a child to learn that he or she can successfully complete tasks. Experiences that make children feel inadequate may lead to inferiority.

Ephraim, a student at Central State University, where parking spaces for students are few and far between, refuses to attempt to park in the spaces designated for students. Further, he will not buy a student parking sticker for his car. Though he receives numerous tickets, he continues to blatantly ignore all parking rules and regulations. Which of the following answers would describe postconventional justification for his behavior? - campus security is oblivious to the needs of the students and should not be part of the parking division - it is wrong for the university to make students pay for a service they can't guarantee - he parks where he wants because his mom told him to do so - he is not aware of how his actions may harm the student body

- it is wrong for the university to make students pay for a service they can't guarantee * In this stage, morality is characterized by an understanding of the moral principles of society upon which our laws are based. Laws are seen more as mutual agreements, and ethical principles are self-chosen and applied consistently. In this example, the person who values personal freedom, rights and autonomy is willing to disobey a law in order to remain true to those ideals.

A parent wonders whether it would be beneficial for his child to attend preschool. According to Vygotsky, the best reason for attending would be that a young child: - needs time away from parents - learns most in the company of peers and interested adults - benefits most from individual tutoring - learns best from same-age peers

- learns most in the company of peers and interested adults

Piaget's analysis of cognitive development and moral behavior: - links cognitive development to moral reasoning and behavior - is based on his observations of children at play - defined moral realism and moral relativism - was elaborated by Lawrence Kohlberg - specified what nice girls and good boys do

- links cognitive development to moral reasoning and behavior - is based on his observations of children at play - defined moral realism and moral relativism - was elaborated by Lawrence Kohlberg

According to Piaget, all but which of the following are characteristics of children in preschool and the primary grades (i.e. between the ages of 2 and 7)? - logical thought begins to emerge at this stage - they are unable to mentally translate volume from a tall thin container to a short fat container - there is a focus on the mastery of symbols, such as words - they begin to understand that words represent actions and ideas

- logical thought begins to emerge at this stage * Piaget defined the preoperational stage of cognition as prelogical. While children at this age have begun to learn symbols and have a considerable repertoire of mental schemes, their actions defy logic.

What assumptions are often made about children learning moral themes through reading but are not supported by research? - moral themes are the equivalent to fact-based information - moral themes are accessible to readers - readers interpret what they read differently - all readers understand the author's point - reading comprehension involves cognitive activity

- moral themes are the equivalent to fact-based information - moral themes are accessible to readers - all readers understand the author's point

Eight-year-old Elizabeth is given a butterfly net for her birthday. She spends hours and hours capturing all kinds of creatures: butterflies, moths, crickets, grasshoppers, beetles, aphids, and pill bugs, to name just a few. She notices that some of the creatures have six legs and some have eight. She also notices that some have hard covers over their wings and others don't. She takes not of these differences and begins to separate her creatures according to the differences she notes. Which of the following, according to Piaget, is the process in which Elizabeth is engaging? - foreclosure - equilibrium - assimilation - organization

- organization * Elizabeth is organizing by creating a classification scheme for her creatures

Which of the following classroom practices would be most appropriate for children at Erikson's stage of industry vs. inferiority? - placing completed assignments in each student's Successful Work folder - awarding extra points for students who finish assignments quickly - stressing the importance of earning high grades - displaying charts listing the best students in various activities

- placing completed assignments in each student's Successful Work folder * Elementary students are at Erikson's stage of industry v. inferiority. Experiences that make children feel inadequate are likely to lead to inferiority.

Initiative v. Guilt is a stage of psychosocial development in which: - middle-school students are most intellectually curious. - pre-school and kindergarten children should explore and experiment - adolescents experience inferiority and self-consciousness - infants approach the world with suspicion or trust

- pre-school and kindergarten children should explore and experiment

"I would love to run across my mom's new white carpet after playing in the mud just to see what cool designs I could make. I won't though because I am afraid that she would get mad at me." These thoughts reflect which level of Kohlberg's theory of moral development? - conventional - postconventional - primary - preconventional

- preconventional * The essence of Kohlberg's preconventional morality is that punishment is to be avoided.

In what way can technology be most helpful in fostering cognitive development? - reading library books online - using computers to take tests - doing basic arithmetic - presenting virtual environments in which to solve problems

- presenting virtual environments in which to solve problems

Lawrence Kohlberg proposed that humans develop through stages of moral reasoning. Which orientations from Kohlberg's theory would an elementary teacher most likely observe? - punishment-obedience - good boy-nice girl - law-and-order - social contract - universal ethical principle

- punishment-obedience - good boy-nice girl - law-and-order

What is adolescent egocentrism? - reacting to what one thinks the world should be, rather than what it is? - being argumentative with adults - the desire to consider alternative points of view - adolescents' concern for peers who achieve identity formation

- reacting to what one thinks the world should be, rather than what it is

A middle school teacher grades an examination on a curve, which will likely: - make students study harder for the next examination - reduce the students' sense of industry - discourage students from cheating - create a sense of healthy competition

- reduce the students' sense of industry

As it relates to identity development, a psychosocial moratorium: - creates a negative identity state - should be a period of postponing commitment - refers to a wish to be alone - refers to a symptom of emotional instability

- should be a period of postponing commitment * When a young person feels threatened by having to make many important choices at once, a psychosocial moratorium may be appropriate. This delay of commitment should ideally be a period of exploration.

In what area is Erik Erikson most recognized for his work? - stages of cognitive development - stages of psychosocial development - research on adolescent behavior - multiculturalism

- stages of psychosocial development

According to Vygotsky, one's culture: - plays no role in cognitive development - plays a weak role in cognitive development - affects how we relate to one another but not how we think - strongly influences what we learn and how we think

- strongly influences what we learn and how we think * Vygotsky believed that social and cultural forces were major influences on how people learn and the kinds of cognitive skills they develop.

If you wanted to use computer-based technology in a way that was consistent with Vygotsky's principles of cognitive development, which of the following applications would you select? - microcomputer-based laboratory software - teleapprenticeship programs - simulated learning environment (microworld) software - drill-and-practice software

- teleapprenticeship programs * Teleapprenticeship programs allow students of different backgrounds and abilities to work on projects collaboratively, and are the application that is most consistent with Vygotsky's sociocultural theory.

According to Erikson, personality growth occurs in eight stages that are characterized by: - a perfect balance between positive and negative personality characteristics - the acceptance of desirable qualities and the rejection of negative ones; a preponderance of desirable qualities is what determines how well adjusted someone is. - dichotomies that lack any prescribed order, though these stages are nonetheless experienced by most individuals - the confrontation and resolution of various crises for better or worse

- the confrontation and resolution of various crises for better or worse * Erikson viewed personality development as the successful resolution of eight psychosocial crises, at various critical periods in the life span. In his view, people are optimally adjusted when they possess both negative and positive qualities of a particular stage, provided the positive quality is stronger than the negative quality.

To what does the Piagetian term "egocentrism" refer? - the young child's desire to work and play cooperatively with peers - young children's ability to solve conservation problems - the difficulty of understanding another person's perspective - selfishness and conceit

- the difficulty of understanding another person's perspective

A child with a face covered in cookie crumbs was asked if he ate a cookie before dinner. He responded, "No, because it is against the rules to eat cookies before dinner." In Piagetian terms, what is this child demonstrating? - the morality of constraint - moral relativism - sacred pronouncements - rules as flexible guides

- the morality of constraint

Sources of Assessment Error: Student Errors

- the students mood, motivation, test-taking skills, cheating, etc. can impact their score on a test Can be in favour or against student

Which of the following best reflects the concept of scaffolding? - the teacher ends each lesson with fifteen minutes of drill-and-practice exercises - the teacher breaks a large project down into smaller pieces and provides an outline to students - students are asked to write a summary of the previous day's lesson - students are required to retake tests or work on papers until a minimum passing grade is achieved

- the teacher breaks a large project down into smaller pieces and provides an outline to students * Scaffolding involves providing students with various types of aids to help them learn a concept or skill. These aids can include prompts, suggestions, rules for organizing information, and so on.

Under what circumstances would Vygotsky most likely advocate for the use of technology with respect to teaching essay writing? - the students are taught to use specific writing software - the writing software provides scaffolds for learning - knowledge of writing software is required for college and career readiness - students are encountering disequilibrium

- the writing software provides scaffolds for learning

While students are engaged in a problem-solving exercise, the teacher provides hints and prompts and asks leading questions. What is likely the primary purpose of the teacher's actions? - to help students solve the problem faster - to get through the lesson in the prescribed time - to be culturally aware and responsive to students - to scaffold the students' zones of proximal development

- to scaffold the students' zones of proximal development

Erikson describes Autonomy v. Shame and Doubt as a developmental stage during which: - toddlers develop willingness to direct their own behavior - adolescents form romantic attachments - elementary students develop moral reasoning - adults learn to manage guilt

- toddlers develop willingness to direct their own behavior

According to Erikson, if Robert has successfully resolved the psychosocial crisis of adolescence, he is now able to: - view himself as having a meaningful role in life - think abstractly about philosophical issues - form a strong romantic attachment to another person, marry, and plan to begin a family - understand group dynamics and get along well with others

- view himself as having a meaningful role in life * The psychosocial crisis of adolescence is identity v. role confusion. The successful resolution of this crisis allows one to view oneself as having a meaningful adult role in life.

Vygotsky was a contemporary of Piaget's whose research in the area of cognitive development in children indicates that: - social interactions and experiences play no role in cognitive development - the narrower the zone of proximal development, the easier it is to capitalize on instruction and grasp difficult concepts - we learn best when instruction is pitched just above the lower limit of our zone of proximal development - problem-solving skills and strategies tend to transcend cultural differences

- we learn best when instruction is pitched just above the lower limit of our zone of proximal development * Vygotsky believed that learning should be focused just above the level a child is able to manage on their Zone of Proximal Development. By focusing on one level above, we challenge the student to learn more, and provide scaffolding to support the student in the process.

As an example of mastery of formal operations, a teacher might ask students to: - list the advantages and disadvantages of the use of plastic products - name all fifty states - write an adventure story in which they play the role of the main character - calculate the area of a triangle

- write an adventure story in which they play the role of the main character * Writing an adventure story requires the student to hypothesize what it might be like to be the main character in an adventure story. The other options require only concrete thinking.

In his work on the development of moral reasoning in children, Piaget found that: - eight-year-olds take into consideration the motive in wrongdoing - young children tend to be much more literal than adolescents in their interpretation of rules - eight and twelve year olds go through the same process and arrive at essentially the same conclusions in determining the degree of guilt for any given crime - adolescents judge the degree of guilt by the magnitude of the crime, with no thought for the intentions of the wrongdoer

- young children tend to be much more literal than adolescents in their interpretation of rules * Piaget's morality of constraint, or moral realism, refers to the moral thinking of children up to the age of ten or so. Children this age see rules as ready-made, imposed by an outside authority, and applied to a wrongdoer regardless of the circumstances of the crime.

Using Technology to Promote Self-Regulated Learning (Social Cognitive Theory):

-Computer programs that include models can improve students' problem-solving skills. -Computer programs that let students control access to information work best with those who have some self-regulatory skills:

Why might Lawrence Kohlberg's stage theory of moral development be controversial?

-His moral dilemmas are far removed from everyday social interactions. -moral determinations vary from culture to culture. -Differences in male and female socialization effect morality.

Suggestions for Teaching: Effective Assessment Techniques (Assessment of Classroom Learning):

-It is necessary to obtain a representative sample of behavior when testing. -Table of specifications helps ensure an adequate sample of content, behavior. -Elementary grade students tested as much for diagnostic, formative assessment purposes as for summative purposes. -Rating scales & checklists make me evaluations of performance more systemic. -Item analysis tells about difficulty, discriminating power of multiple-choice items.

Characteristics to Constructivist Approach

-Provide scaffolded instruction within the zone of proximal development. -Provide Opportunities for learning by discovery. -Foster multiple viewpoints -Emphasize relevant tasks and problems. -Encourage students to become more independent learners.

Principles of Piaget's Theory

-Scheme -Cognitive Organization - Equilibration - Disequilibrium - Adaption

How Will Learning About Educational Psychology Help You Be a Better Teacher?

-Teaching is complex work because it requires a wide range of knowledge and skills -Research in educational psychology offers many useful ideas for improving classroom instruction -Teachers who have had professional training are generally more effective

How Will Learning About Educational Psychology Help You Be a Better Teacher? (Applying Psychology to Teaching):

-Teaching is complex work because it requires a wide range of knowledge and skills -Research in educational psychology offers many useful ideas for improving classroom instruction -Teachers who have had professional training are generally more effective

split-half reliability

-compare individual's performance on 2 halves of same test (odd and even numbered questions, first/second half, etc.) -reveals internal consistency of a test - You should expect rot get the same results if the exam were split in to (if the test is reliable)

Piaget's analysis of cognitive development and moral behavior

-links cognitive development to moral reasoning and behavior -is based on his observations of children at play -defined moral realism and moral relativism -was elaborated by lawrence Kohlberg

What assumptions are often made about children learning moral themes through reading but are not supported by research

-moral themes are the equivalent to fact based information -moral themes are accessible to readers -all readers understand the author's point

Lawrence Kohlberg proposed that humans develop through stages of moral reasoning. Which orientations from Kohlberg's theory would an elementary teacher most likely observe?

-punishment-obedience -good boy - nice girl -law-and-order

Sensorimotor stage

0-2 years old Involving the sense and motor activity Object permanece Reverse action

Characteristics of humanistic teaching

1. Classrooms welcoming and physically safe 2. Emotional support, clear expectations, help provided when needed 3. Constructive feedback 4. Teacher-student interactions are characterized by respect, courtesy, & fairness 5. Students see learning as exciting & pleasurable

Characteristics of information processing/social cognitive teaching

1. Communicate clear goals and objectives 2. Use attention-getting devices 3. Emphasizing organizational & meaningfulness 4. Present information in learnable amounts and over realistic time periods 5. Facilitate encoding of information into long-term memory

Characteristics of Social Learning teaching

1. Group/cooperative learning 2. Classroom Reward Structures 3. Promotive Interaction 4. Individual Accountability 5. Interpersonal Skills 6. Equal Opportunities for success 7. Team Competition

scaffolding four-component model

1. Model desired academic behaviors 2. Create a dialog with the student 3. Practice 4. Confirmation

General principles of development

1. People develop at different rates 2. Development is relatively orderly 3. Development takes place gradually

Kohlberg's Six Stages of Moral Reasoning

1. Punishment Avoidance & Obedience 2. Exchange of Favors 3. Good Boy/Good Girl 4. Law & Order 5. Social Contract 6. Universal Ethical Principle (never reach)

Characteristics of constructivist teaching

1. Scaffolded instruction within the zone of proximal development 2. Opportunities for learning by discovering 3. Foster multiple viewpoints 4. Emphasize relevant problems and tasks 5. Encourage students to become more autonomous learners

Characteristics of direct instruction

1. Teacher decides what to teach 2. Teacher decides how to teach 3. Teacher provides information

Piaget's 4 Stages of Cognitive Development

1. sensorimotor 2. preoperational 3. concrete operational 4. formal operational

Formal operational

11-adult, formal logic (test hypotheses/think abstractly). Piaget

Identity vs role confusion

12-18 years of age. Erikson

Mental Self-Government Styles

13 styles which fall into one of five categories: functions, forms, levels, scope, and leaning. Within these categories, there are legislative, executive, and judicial functions; monarchic, hierarchic, oligarchic, and anarchic forms; global and local levels; internal and external scopes; and liberal and conservative leanings. Most individuals have a preference for one style within each category.

Autonomy vs shame and doubt

2-3 years of age. Erikson

Preoperational

2-6 years of age, egocentric logic. Piaget

Information Processing is composed of (Information Processing Theory):

3 memory stores & a set of control processes that determine the flow of information from one memory store to another.

Group heterogeneity

4-5 students who different in gender, ethnicity and social class.

Initiative vs guilt

4-5 years of age. Erikson

Sternberg's Learning Styles: Styles of Mental Self-Government (Intelligence Theories-Understanding Student Differences):

5 categories: (1) Legislative, (2) Executive, (3) Judicial, (4) Monarchic, (5) Hierarchic

Short term memory/working memory

5-8 bits of information (average of 7), duration is 20-30 seconds, contents, relationship to achievement.

Concrete operational

6-11 years of age, concrete logic. Piaget

Industry vs inferiority

6-11 years of age. Erikson

Conventional Morality

9 to 20 yrs old. Conforms to the conventions of society because they are the rules of a society Kohlberg

What situation calls for the administration of an achievement test? (15)

A biology department is developing an advanced course and wants to select students on the basis of how much they understand about biology. (15) *An achievement test measures how much a pupil has learned in a particular field of study. Accordingly, it would be appropriate to use such a test to determine whether students were ready to take an advanced course. The other options describe situations where aptitude tests or affective inventories would be more appropriate. (15)

Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) (IDEA) (Accommodating Student Variability):

A brain injury due to an accident that causes cognitive or psychological impairments that adversely affect educational performance.

adolescent egocentrism

A characteristic of adolescent thinking that leads young people (ages 10 to 13) to focus on themselves to the exclusion of others. Inability to differentiate between the world as adolescents think it should be and the world as it actually is (Elkind)

Speech or Language Impairment (IDEA) (Accommodating Student Variability):

A communication disorder such as stuttering, impaired articulation, a language/voice impairment that adversely affects a child's educational performance.

Learning style

A consistent preference over time and subject matter for perceiving, thinking about, and organizing information in a particular way.

intellectual disability

A disability characterized by significant limitations both in intellectual functioning and in adaptive behavior, which covers many everyday social and practical skills. This is determined by examining both intellectual functioning and adaptive behavior in three areas: conceptual skills, social skills, and practical, everyday living skills.

Specific Learning Disability (IDEA)(Accommodating Student Variability):

A disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding/using language that leads to learning problems not traceable to physical disabilities, mental retardation, emotional disturbances, or cultural-economic disadvantage.

Moral Character

A disposition to do what is good and what is right.

realistic problem solving

A form of problem solving that considers the feelings, values, advantages, and disadvantages of a situation.

Scientific Method

A series of steps followed to solve problems including collecting data, formulating a hypothesis, testing the hypothesis, and stating conclusions. a logical, systematic approach to the solution of a scientific problem sampling, control, objectivity, publication, and replication

Zero Transfer-Transfer of Learning (Constructivist Learning Theory):

A situation in which prior learning has no effect on new learning.

Zero transfer

A situation in which prior learning has no effect on new learning. Learning to conjugate Latin verbs, for example, is not likely to have any effect on learning how to find the area of a rectangle.

Which of the following examples best illustrates Piaget's concept of assimilation? -A student learns that opossums can hang form tree branches by their tail and therefore adds opossums to her scheme of animals with prehensile tails -A child who changes her scheme of "All snakes are poisonous and deadly" after easily surviving a bite from a common grass snake -A woman who, being stuck on an elevator, decides that all cable-driven devices are unsafe - A person who quits the baseball team after learning that you wear extremely tight nylon pants.

A student who learns that opossums can hang from tree branches by their tail and therefore adds opossums to her scheme of animals with prehensile tails. -Assimilation refers to interpreting an experience in such way that it fits into one's existing scheme.

Lesson study cycle

A system for building and sharing practitioner knowledge among colleagues. (study, planning, teaching, reflection)

Under what condition would the use of an aptitude test be most appropriate? (15)

A teacher must choose the ten students most likely to succeed in a limited-enrollment course. (15) *An aptitude test measures what a student already knows about a subject; an aptitude test estimates potential for achievement. The correct option describes a situation where the potential ability of learners needs to be known in order for a decision to be made. (15)

humanistic approach

A teaching philosophy which assumes students will be highly motivated to learn when the learning material is personally meaningful, when they understand the reasons for their own behavior, and when they believe that the classroom environment supports their efforts to learn, even if they struggle.

spontaneous concepts

A term coined by Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky to denote the facts, concepts, and rules that young children acquire as a natural consequence of engaging in everyday activities.

Culture

A term that describes how a group of people perceives the world; formulates beliefs; evaluates objects, ideas, and experiences; and behaves. The concept typically includes ethnic group but can also encompass religious beliefs and socioeconomic status.

Assessment

A two-step process which involves collecting information about how much knowledge and skill students have learned (measurement), and then making judgments about the adequacy or acceptability of each student's level of learning (evaluation).

Stanine score (in standardized test scores)

A type of standard score that divides a population into nine groups

The Role of Academic Self-Concept in Motivation & Learning (Motivation/Perception of Self):

Academic self-concept & achievement can positively affect each other; design instruction to improve both academic self-concept & achievement.

The Role of Self-Perceptions in Motivation

Academic self-concept and achievement can positively affect each other; design instruction to improve both academic self-concept and achievement

Career Choice (females) (Intelligence Theories-Understanding Student Differences):

Academic success, encouragement, & models influence women to choose careers in science/math.

Identity

Accepting one's body, having goals, getting recognition

(Erikson: Psychosocial Development) Identity-Adolescents: 12-18 years old:

Accepting one's body, having goals, getting recognition.

Stella, who has always believed that wolves stalk and kill human beings, learns that they are actually quite wary of humans and rarely attack them. Consequently, she joins an environmental group that is dedicated to reintroducing wolves to areas where they once lived. This behavior is a reflections of -Conservation -Preoperational stage thinking -Accomodation -Assimilation

Accommodation - Stella makes room for new information about wolves, and accommodates or expands her scheme to include that new understanding.

teacher flexibility

According to Wasserman, one aspect of teacher flexibility can be thought of as the ability to improvise, adapting teaching strategies by using a different approach to teach the same information

steps of taxonomy for the affective domain step 2* responding

Active participation indicating positive response or acceptance of an idea

Affective Domain (Values): Responding

Active participation indicating positive response or acceptance of an idea.

Based on what he has seen at the circus, Larry came to believe that all elephants were docile. On his first African safari, he approached an elephant with the intention of petting it. Sensing Larry's presence, the elephant wheeled around and proceeded to charge. Larry must now adjust his elephant behavior scheme. According to Piaget, Larry must -Adapt -Disequilibrate -Organize -Activate

Adapt

Humanistic Approach

Addresses needs, values, motives, self-perceptions; sho respect, courtesy, fairness, caring attitude

Scaffolding

Adjusting the support offered during a teaching session to fit the child's current level of performance

Adaption

Adjustments to the environment (Assimilation and accommodation)

Split Half

Administer a single test to a group of students, create two scores by dividing the test in half, and measure the extent to which the rankings change from one half to the other

Split-half (type of reliability)

Administer a single test to a group of students, creating two scores by dividing the test in half, and measure the extent to which the rankings change from one half to the other

Test Retest

Administer the same test to the same people on two different occasions and measure the extent to which the rankings change over time

Test-retest (Type of reliability)

Administer the same test to the same people on two occasions and measure the extent to which the rankings change over time

Alternate Form

Administer two equivalent forms of a test to the same group of students at the same time and compare the results

Alternate form (type of reliability)

Administer two equivalent forms of a test to the same group of students at the same time and compare the results

Gilligan's Theory of Moral Development: Gender Differences (Moral Development Theory):

Adolescent males: instead of remaining loyal to adult authority, as they mature shift their loyalty to abstract principles (self-reliance, independence, justice, fairness). Process of detachment allows adolescents to assume a more equal status with adults. Adolescent females: different primary concern, care less about separation & independence, more about remaining loyal to others through expressions (caring, understanding, sharing experiences) Detachment for female adolescents is a moral problem rather than sought-after development milestone.

Identity Status

Adolescents exhibit this particular process for establishing an identity

Adolescent Egocentrism

Adolescents preoccupied with their own view of the world and how they appear to others

Piaget: Adolescent Egocentrism (Cognitive Development) (Psychosocial Development Theory):

Adolescents preoccupied with their own view of the world and how they appear to others (Stage 3).

Humanistic approach

Adresses needs, values, motives, self-perceptions (Maslow & Rogers)

Self-Efficacy Influences Motivation (Motivation/Perception of Self):

Affects choice of goals, expectations of success, attributions for success & failure.

Per-operational

Ages 2 to 7 Gradually requires ability to conserve and decenter, but not capable of operations. -Egocentrism -conservation -perceptual centration

Multi-Cultural Education Programs

Aim to promote respect for diversity, reduction of ethnocentrism and stereotypes, improved learning; can be approached in different ways; peer tutoring improves achievement; multi-cultural understanding can be promoted by electronically linking students from different cultural backgrounds

Multi-Cultural Education Programs (Cultural/Socioeconomic Diversity):

Aim to promote respect for diversity, reduction of ethnocentrism and stereotypes, improved learning; can be approached in different ways; peer tutoring improves achievement; multi-cultural understanding can be promoted by electronically linking students from different cultural backgrounds

Inclusion Policy

Aims to keep students with disabilities in regular classrooms for the entire day

Inclusion Policy (Accommodating Student Variability):

Aims to keep students with disabilities in regular classrooms for the entire day.

Selected-response tests do all but which of the following? (14)

Allow instructors to assess what students can do with what they've learned. (14) *A disadvantage of selected-response tests is that they do not assess what students can do with what they know. (14)

Direct Instruction

Almost all classroom activity focused on learning basic academic knowledge and skills. The teacher makes all instructional decisions. Students work productively toward learning new academic knowledge and skills as much as possible. All lessons include demonstration, practice, corrective feedback. Maintain a positive classroom climate by emphasizing positive reinforcement and avoiding the use of aversive consequences.

Cognitive Domain (Thinking Skills)

Also known as Bloom's Taxonomy. Includes: Knowledge Comprehension Application Analysis Synthesis Evaluation

Piaget, Kohlberg, and Gilligan: Moral Development

Although slight differences do exist, both males and females use both caring and justice orientation to resolve real-life moral dilemmas; moral knowledge does not always result in moral behavior

Piaget, Kohlberg, and Gilligan: Moral Development (Moral Development Theory):

Although slight differences do exist, both males and females use both caring and justice orientation to resolve real-life moral dilemmas; moral knowledge does not always result in moral behavior

Response to Intervention (RTI)

An additional method of identifying students with learning problems (rather than a discrepancy between a student's IQ and her or his achievement). A way to determine how much students benefit from—or are responsive to—the instructional interventions they experience in the classroom. A second purpose was to help teachers document each instructional intervention with a student and how well that student responded to each intervention.

Measurement

An evaluation expressed in quantitative terms -Thinking about how much, how often, how well, etc. - Allows comparison to specific standards/performance of other students

self-efficacy

An individual's belief that he or she is capable of performing a task. one's sense of competence and effectiveness; belief in his or her own ability

expectancy-value theory

An individual's level of motivation for a particular task is governed by that person's expectation of success and the value placed on that success.

Humanism

An intellectual movement that focused on human potential and achievements a belief that emphasizes faith and optimism in human potential and creativity

Which of the following best describes piaget's concept of a scheme? -An organized pattern of behavior or thought -The tendency to adjust to one's environment -A plan of action -failure to reflect on the perspective of others

An organized pattern of behavior or thought.

Ms McCarver is very supportive of the new anti-bullying program ontroduced by their campus counselor because it is representative of her

Anti-bullying programs support the second level of Maslow's hierarchy of needs, including emotional and social support. This is an important component of the humanistic approach

steps of taxonomy for the cognitive domain Step 3 *Application

Applying knowledge to actual situation

Cognitive Domain (Thinking Skills): Application

Applying knowledge to actual situations.

Advantages (Uses)of Norm Reference Teaching

Appropriate when only the top candidates can be admitted to a program (MCAT for medical school)

Cultural pluralism

As opposed to the idea of a melting pot, this view assumes that societies should maintain different cultures, that every culture within a society should be respected, and that individuals have the right to participate in society without giving up cultural identity

performance assessment

Assessment in which students demonstrate their knowledge and skills in a nonwritten fashion. it measures a student's ability to use a wide range of knowledge and skills over an extended period of time to solve realistic problems or create products.

Summative assessment is synonymous with the phrase: (14)

Assessment of learning. (14) *Summative assessment & assessment of learning as essentially the same. (14)

Measurement

Assigning numbers or ratings according to rules to create a ranking

Measurement

Assigning numbers or ratings according to rules to create a ranking.

Measurement (The Role of Assessment in Teaching):

Assigning numbers or ratings according to rules to create a ranking. Example: WPM, scoring rubric

On a visit to the zoo, a preschool aged child points to a zebra and says "look at the horse" this is an example of

Assimilation

Ability Grouping

Assumes intelligence is inherited, reflected in IQ, and unchangeable and that instruction will be superior; no research support for between-class ability grouping; Joplin Plan and within-class ability grouping for math and science produce moderate increases in learning; between-class ability grouping negatively influences teaching goals and methods; Joplin Plan and within-class ability grouping may allow more focused instruction

Ability Grouping (Accommodating Student Variability):

Assumes intelligence is inherited, reflected in IQ, and unchangeable and that instruction will be superior; no research support for between-class ability grouping; Joplin Plan and within-class ability grouping for math and science produce moderate increases in learning; between-class ability grouping negatively influences teaching goals and methods; Joplin Plan and within-class ability grouping may allow more focused instruction.

Egocentrism

Assumption that others see things the same way

Piaget: Egocentrism (Cognitive Development Theory):

Assumption that others see things the same way

Rhonda, a sixth grader, loves to work in her father's wood shop crafting items that she designs. often, however, when she approaches her father about letting her work with him, he dismisses her requests and tells her that she should "help your mother in the kitchen and stay out of my way". According to Erikson, Rhonda - May have trust issues in any relationship -May not work with wooden craft items until she is older and her gender tole is properly formed -will certainly never have feelings of inferiority - is at risk for developing feelings of inferiority

At risk for developing feelings of inferiority -Industry vs. inferiority - need for a child to learn that he or she can successfully complete tasks.

Observation: Self-Regulating Skills (Social Cognitive Theory):

Attend to actions/verbalizations of the model & discriminate relevant from irrelevant behaviors. Source of Motivation: Vicarious; note rewards received by the model & anticipate receiving similar rewards for exhibiting similar behavior.

Cognitive Domain (Thinking Skills): Analysis

Breaking down ideas into simpler parts and seeing how the parts relate and are organized.

Successful Students

Attribute success to effort, ability; failure, to lack of effort

Successful Students (Motivation/Perception of Self):

Attribute success to effort, ability; failure, to lack of effort

Unsuccessful Students

Attribute success to luck, easy tasks; failure, to lack of ability

Unsuccessful Students (Motivation/Perception of Self):

Attribute success to luck, easy tasks; failure, to lack of ability.

Authentic Learning-Key Idea of Constructivism (Constructivist Learning Theory):

Authentic problems provide realistic contexts that contribute to the construction & transfer of knowledge. When students encounter problems that are realistic, they are able to ya what they already know about the problem situation.

Erikson 2-3 Years-Toddlers (Psychosocial Development):

Autonomy vs Shame & Doubt (independence/self-doubt)

Visual Impairment including Blindness (IDEA)(Accommodating Student Variability):

Av visual impairment so severe that even with corrective lenses a child's educational performance is adversely affected.

Pre-Conventional Morality

Avoid punishment, receive benefits in return

Pre-Conventional Morality (Moral Development Theory):

Avoid punishment, receive benefits in return. (Piaget, Kohlberg, Gilligan:Moral Development)

Metacognition (Primary Grade Students: 6-8 yrs)(Age-Level Characteristics):

Awareness of cognitive processes begin to emerge.

Perceptual Centration, Irreversibility, Egocentrism

Barriers to logical thought

Piaget: Perceptual Centration, Irreversibility, Egocentrism (Cognitive Development Theory):

Barriers to logical thought.

Criticisms of Erikson's Theory

Based largely on personal experience, not applicable to many cultures, gender-biased

Criticisms of Erikson's Theory (Psychosocial Development):

Based largely on personal experience, not applicable to many cultures, gender-biased.

Foundational knowledge

Basic factual information and cognitive skills that students need to do high-level tasks, solve problems and create products

Skinner's approach to instruction

Be clear about what is to be taught. Teach first things first. Present subsequent material in small, logical steps. Allow students to learn at their own rate.

Pre-Placement Evaluation: (Accommodating Student Variability):

Before a child with a disability can be placed in a program that provides special education services, "a full & individual evaluation of the child's educational needs" must be conducted.

Skinner's Approach to Instruction (Behavioral Learning Theory):

Clear goals, logical sequencing of material, self-pacing.

Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)

Before placement, student must be given complete, valid, and appropriate evaluation; IEP must include objectives, services to be provided, criteria for determining achievement; students with disabilities must be educated in least restrictive environment; students with learning disabilities, speech impairments, intellectual disability, or emotional disturbances most likely to be served under IDEA; multidisciplinary assessment team determines whether student needs special services; classroom teacher, parents, and several specialists prepare IEP

Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) (Accommodating Student Variability):

Before placement, student must be given complete, valid, and appropriate evaluation; IEP must include objectives, services to be provided, criteria for determining achievement; students with disabilities must be educated in least restrictive environment; students with learning disabilities, speech impairments, intellectual disability, or emotional disturbances most likely to be served under IDEA; multidisciplinary assessment team determines whether student needs special services; classroom teacher, parents, and several specialists prepare IEP.

Triadic reciprocal causation model

Behavior is the result of interactions among personal characteristics, behavior, and environmental factors.

Triadic Reciprocal Causation Model

Behavior is the result of interactions among personal characteristics, behavior, environmental factors

Psychomotor Domain (Physical Skills): Mechanism

Being able to perform a task habitually with some degree of confidence and proficiency.

Psychomotor Domain (Physical Skills): Set

Being ready to perform a particular action

Ethnocentrism

Belief that one's own culture is superior to other cultures

Ethnocentrism (Cultural/Socioeconomic Diversity):

Belief that one's own culture is superior to other cultures

Piaget's work in moral development suggests that the typical 12 yr old - Cannot consider the intentions behind an act - determines guilt by the amount of damage - takes a single, absolute moral stand -Believes that extenuating circumstances should be considered

Believes that extenuating circumstances should be considered -Moral relativism (morality of cooperation)

Types of ability groups

Between class ability, within class grouping.

Which of the following describes a behavioral event that primarily involves the affective domain? (13-1)

Bobby is angry about being kept inside during recess. (13-1) *The affective domain concentrates on attitudes and values. (13-1)

Cerebellum

Body control & motion memory Coordination & balance

Elementary School (Grades 4-5; 9-10 Years Old)

Boys are slightly better at sports-related motor skills; girls are better at flexibility, balance, rhythmic motor skills; peer group norms for behavior begin to replace adult norms; self-image becomes more generalized and stable-is based primarily on comparisons with peers; delinquents have few friends, are easily distracted, are not interested in schoolwork, lack basic skills; elementary grade students reason logically but concretely

The brain and learning to read

Brain imagining research is revealing interesting differenced among skilled and poor readers as they learn

steps of taxonomy for the cognitive domain Step 4 *Analysis

Breaking down ideas into simpler parts and seeing how the parts relate and are organized

Self-Questioning-A comprehension-directed tactic (Social Cognitive Theory):

Can be a valuable learning tactic; improves comprehension, knowledge integration. (helping students become self-regulated learners)

Norm-referenced grading (14)

Can be used to evaluate advanced levels of learning. It can also be used to select the highest- or lowest-scoring students for limited enrollment or remedial programs. It cannot be used to determine whether students have achieved specific objectives: this is the role of criterion-referenced grading. (14)

Spatial

Capacities to perceive the visual-spatial world accurately and to perform transformations on one's initial perceptions. Sculptor/navigator

Taxonomy

Categories arranged in hierarchical order

Taxonomy (Approaches to Instruction):

Categories arranged in hierarchical order (being familiar with the different taxonomies of objectives, such a as the one for cognitive domain, help teachers plan lesson plans & create tests that require students to use different types of cognitive processes).

Taxonomy

Categories arranged in hierarchical order. E.g. Domain, kingdom, phylum, class , order , family , genus and species .

Adolescent development and the brain

Changes in the brain increase individuals abilities to control their behaviour in both low-stress and high-stress situations, to be more purposeful and organized, and to inhibit impulsive behaviours

Goals are to objectives as: (13-1)

Chapter overviews are to chapter pages. (13-1) *Goals are general, and contain specific and measurable objectives within their sphere. (13-1)

Classroom Reward Structures (Approaches to Instruction) Competitive:

Characterized by: one's grade determined by how well everyone else in the group performs (norm-referenced) Basis for Motivation: leads students to focus on ability Reflective Statement: "Am I smart enough to accomplish this task?" Result: may decrease motivation to learn

Classroom Reward Structures (Approaches to Instruction) Individualistic:

Characterized by: students working alone & earning rewards solely on the quality of their own efforts. Basis for Motivation: task effort Reflective Statement: "I can do this if I try." Result: depends on how successful they have been with that type of task in the past.

Well-Structured Problems

Clearly stated, known solution procedures; known evaluation standards

Classroom Reward Structures (Approaches to Instruction): Cooperative:

Characterized by: students working together to accomplish shared goals (positive interdependence). Basis for Motivation: leads students to focus on effort & cooperation. Reflective Statement: "We can do this if we try hard & work together." Result: students are motivated out of a sense of obligation.

Pre-Operational Stage

Child forms many new schemes but does not think logically

Piaget: Pre-Operational Stage (Cognitive Development Theory -Stage 2):

Child forms many new schemes but does not think logically.

Formal Operational Stage

Child is able to deal with abstractions, form hypotheses, engage in mental manipulations

Piaget: Formal Operational Stage (Cognitive Development-Stage 4) (Psychosocial Development Theory):

Child is able to deal with abstractions, form hypotheses, engage in mental manipulations

Concrete Operational Stage

Child is capable of mentally reversing actions but generalizes only from concrete experiences

Piaget: Concrete Operational Stage (Cognitive Development-Stage 3) (Psychosocial Development Theory):

Child is capable of mentally reversing actions but generalizes only from concrete experiences.

gifted and talented children and youth

Children and youth who give evidence of high performance capability in areas such as intellectual, creative, artistic, or leadership capacity, or in specific academic fields, and who require services or activities not ordinarily provided by the school in order to fully develop such capabilities.

According to Vygotsky... -Peer interactions do more to stimulate cognitive development than do interactions with adults -Children benefit greatly from information handed down to them by those who are more cognitively advanced -Piaget was incorrect in asserting that the formal operational stage was the highest level of cognitive development -Genetically determined factors predispose how effectively children assimilate, accommodate, and equilibrate new information.

Children benefit greatly from information handed down to them by those who are more cognitively advanced.

Egocentrism

Children find it difficult to take another person's point of view

Clarence is a fifth-grade student with a learning disability. He and his classmates recently took a standardized reading achievement test. Clarence's percentile rank for that test was 20. The norm group for this test did not include any students with learning disability. What inference can be made on the basis of Clarence's test scores? (15)

Clarence's scores cannot be meaningfully interpreted, given the standards for evaluation. (15) *The norm group clearly does not represent Clarence. It is not appropriate to compare Clarence's scores to the scores of this particular norm group. Unless the norm group is representative of the students who take the test, scores cannot be meaningfully interpreted because there is no available standard for their evaluation. (15)

Classroom Atmosphere: Ethnicity & Social Class: (Cultural/Socioeconomic Diversity):

Classroom atmosphere, teachers' approaches are connected with achievement levels of low-SES (socioeconomic status) students; teacher expectancy effect: students behave in ways that are consistent with expectations that teachers communicate; strong effect of teacher expectancy on achievement, participation; teacher expectancies are influenced by social class, ethnic background, achievement, attractiveness, gender. (As a teacher, you need to know how your students' ethnicity can affect student-teacher relationships-textbook)

3 methods for improving technical flaws

Classroom observations by colleague, self-recorded lessons to observe, student evaluations

Skinner's Approach to Instruction

Clear goals, logical sequencing of material, self-pacing

Delazer et at., 2005

Compared student brain activity as they learned new arithmetic operations either just by memorizing or learn an algorithm strategy. Memorized - greater activity in the area of the brain that specializes in retrieving verbal info Strategy - greater activation in the visual-staptial processing portion

Criterion-referenced grading

Compares individual student performance with stated criteria

Evaluation

Comparing and contrasting sets of data to rank them and make a choice to develop a plan. the making of a judgement about the amount, number or value of something

Explain the 3 types of classroom reward structures

Competitive structures-structures in which one's grade is determined by how well everyone else in the group performs Individualistic structures-Characterized by students working alone and earning rewards solely on the quality of their own efforts Cooperative structures- structures characterized by students working together to accomplish shared goals

Shaping (gradually acquired behaviors) (Behavioral Learning Theory):

Complex behaviors are shaped by reinforcing closer approximations to terminal behavior (how complex responses are learned). Examples: reinforcing actions to the desired terminal behavior; ignore actions that do not represent closer approximations to the terminal behavior (playing sports, writing a term paper).

Integrated Learning System (ILS)

Comprehensive, self-paced learning system

Integrated Learning System (ILS) (Behavioral Learning Theory):

Comprehensive, self-paced learning system.

Standardized Testing & Technology (Understanding Standardized Assessment):

Computer adaptive testing: computers determine sequence & difficulty level of test items.

Using Technology to Promote Self-Regulated Learning

Computer programs that include models can improve students' problem-solving skills; computer programs that let students control access to information work best with those who have some self-regulatory skills

problem-based or project-based learning

Computer programs which typically provide students with story problems, laboratory problems, or investigation problems.

affective domain taxonomy

Concentrates on Attitudes and values

affective domain

Concentrates on attitudes and values. It consists of six hierarchically ordered levels. Receiving (attending). Willingness to receive or attend. Responding. Active participation indicating positive response or acceptance of an idea or policy. Valuing. Expressing a belief or attitude about the value or worth of something. Organization. Organizing various values into an internalized system. Characterization by a value or value complex. The value system becomes a way of life.

A student who is at the stage of conventional morality (as described by Kohlberg) makes moral decisions on the basis of ... -concern about what others might think -Avoiding punishment to receive benefits -self-chosen moral principles -staying out of trouble

Concern about what others might think -conform to the conventions of society

Attribution theory

Concerned with how and why ordinary people explain events as they do. Heider (1958) believed that people are naive psychologists trying to make sense of the social world. People tend to see cause and effect relationships, even where there is none!

Content validity. (15)

Concerns regarding how well a test's items reflect a particular body of knowledge or skill. (15)

Other Health Impairments (OHI) (IDEA) (Accommodating Student Variability):

Conditions such as asthma, hemophilia, sickle cell anemia, epilepsy, heart disease, & diabetes that so limit the strength, vitality, or alertness of a child that educational performance is significantly affected.

Reliability of an Assessment

Consistency of test results

Self-regulation (Social Cognitive Theory):

Consistently using self-control skills in new situations.

Self-Regulation

Consistently using self-control skills in new situations; important because students are expected to become increasingly independent learners as they progress through school

shaping

Consists of the reinforcement of closer and closer approximations of desired responses. Actions that move progressively closer to the desired end behavior are reinforced. Actions that do not represent closer approximations of the end behavior are ignored. It is key to train animals to do tricks.

Piaget's 7 Contrasts between Morality of Constraint vs Morality of Cooperation (Moral Development Theory):

Constraint (younger children/ typical of 6 yr olds) Cooperation (adults, older children/ typical of 12 yr olds) (1) Constraint: holds single, absolute moral perspective (right or wrong). Cooperation: is aware of different viewpoints regarding rules. (2) Constraint: believes rules are unchangeable Cooperation: believes rules are flexible. (3) Constraint: determines extent of guilt by amount of damage. Cooperation: considers the wrongdoers' intentions when evaluating guilt. (4) Constraint: defines moral wrongness in terms of what is forbidden or punished Cooperation: defines moral wrongness in terms of spirit of cooperation. (5) Constraint: believes punishment should stress atonement & does not need to "fit the crime." Cooperation: believes punishment should involve either restitution or suffering the same fate as one's victim. (6) Constraint: believes peer aggression should be punished by external authority. Cooperation: believes peer aggression should be punished by retaliatory behavior on the part of the victim. (7) Constraint: believes children should obey rules because they are established by those in authority. Cooperation: believes children should obey rules because of mutual concerns for rights of others.

The Cognitive Approach to Teaching: Facilitating Meaningful & Self-Regulated Learning (Approaches to Instruction):

Constructivist Approach: Help students construct meaningful knowledge schemes; meaningful learning aided by exposure to multiple points of view; technology supports a cognitive approach to Instruction by helping students code, store, & retrieve information.

Portfolio

Contain one or more pieces of a students work

Classroom observation checklist

Contains six brief checklists that reflects learning environment, good teaching, teacher behavior, student learning, on-task students, not-on-task students

Describe how technology may be used to increase learning according to information processing theory(Information Processing Theory):

Contemporary computer-based technology supports Information processing by helping students to organize & mentally represent ideas, write more clearly, better comprehend text, interpret scientific & mathematical data, understand musical patterns, & solve problems.

Types of Validity

Content Predictive Construct

When you review a US history exam, you notice that several of the items reflect European history. You have reason to suspect that the test may have low: (15)

Content validity. (15) *Concerns regarding how well a test's items reflect a particular body of knowledge or skill relate to content validity. (15)

Situational Interest

Context dependent and short term

Self-Control

Controlling one's behaviors in a particular setting in the absence of reinforcement or punishment

Self-Control (Social Cognitive Theory):

Controlling one's behaviors in a particular setting in the absence of reinforcement or punishment (aka self-discipline).

Whitney is preparing an oral presentation & plans to explain why cooperative learning often leads to widespread positive results. What explanation will most likely not be provided? (13-2)

Cooperative learning encourages students to follow the teacher's detailed lesson plan. (13-2) *Detailed lesson plans are not supported by cooperative learning because this type of learning often leads to more expansive or deeper learning than planned. (13-2)

Name an instructional objective that would be preferred by Norman Gronlund? (13-1)

Demonstrates the ability to set up a light microscope. (13-1) *Gronlund recommended that a teacher formulate general objectives of instruction that describe types of behavior students should exhibit. (13-1) *Gronlund's general objectives indicate that under each general instructional objective, the teacher should list up to 5 specific learning outcomes that provide a representative sample of what students should be able to do when they have achieved the general objective. (13-1)

Problem Finding

Depends on curiosity, dissatisfaction with status quo

Problem Framing

Depends on knowledge of subject matter, familiarity with problem types

Problem Framing (Constructivist Learning Theory):

Depends on knowledge of subject matter, familiarity with problem types.

Self-Actualization

Depends on satisfaction of lower needs, believe in certain values

Self-Actualization (Motivation/Perception of Self):

Depends on satisfaction of lower needs, believe in certain values

Mager (Specific Objectives)

Describe what you want learners to be doing when demonstrating achievement and indicate how you will know they are doing it. In your description, identify and name the behavioral act that indicates achievement, define the conditions under which the behavior is to occur, and state the criterion of acceptable performance. Write a separate objective for each learning performance.

Fischer, 2009

Describes 2 children who each has one hemisphere moved as treatment for epilepsy

Information-Processing/Social Cognitive Approach

Design lessons around principles of meaningful learning, teach students how to learn more effectively; tell students what you want them to learn, why, and how they will be tested; present organized and meaningful lessons; present new information in small chunks

Diagnostic Achievement Tests

Designed to identify specific strengths and weaknesses

Diagnostic Achievement Tests (Understanding Standardized Assessment):

Designed to identify specific strengths and weaknesses

Civic Character

Desire and willingness to use one's knowledge and skills to become a responsible citizen.

What instructional objectives is best suited to criterion-referenced evaluations rather than norm-referenced evaluations? (14)

Determine how well students have learned specific terminology. (14) *Criterion-referenced assessment deals with a definable standard that can be measured. (14)

Competency Tests

Determine whether potential graduates possess basic skills

Competency Tests (Understanding Standardized Assessment):

Determine whether potential graduates possess basic skills.

Norm-referenced grading can NOT be used for what purpose? (14)

Determining which students have achieved specific objectives. (14) *Norm-referenced grading can be used to evaluate advanced levels of learning. It can also be used to select the highest- or lowest-scoring students for limited enrollment or remedial programs. It cannot be used to determine whether students have achieved specific objectives: this is the role of criterion-referenced grading. (14)

objectives (goals)

Developed in the planning stage, these reflect the direction and desired outcomes of certain courses of action.

Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development

Developing children progress through a predictable sequence of stages of moral reasoning (preconventional, conventional, postconventional).

Piaget's theory of cognitive development

Devised a model describing how humans go about making sense of their world by gathering and organizing information

Taking action

reexamine solutions you thought were permanent as well as forge solutions to new problems.

Amygdala

Directs emotions

Bruner׳s Discover Learning (Constructivist Learning Theory):

Discover how ideas relate to each other & to existing knowledge; construction of ideas is strongly influenced by the student's prior knowledge.

Bruner

Discover how ideas relate to each other and to existing knowledge

Learning disability

Disorders in basic processes (memory, auditory perception, and visual perception) that lead to learning problems (deficits in perception, attention, memory encoding and storage, and metacognition) not due to other causes such as visual or hearing impairments, motor disabilities, mental retardation, emotional disturbance, or economic, environmental, or cultural disadvantage.

Learning Disabilities

Disorders in basic processes that lead to learning problems not due to other causes

Learning Disabilities (Accommodating Student Variability):

Disorders in basic processes that lead to learning problems not due to other causes.

Inert Knowledge

Due to learning isolated facts under limited conditions

Inert Knowledge-Understand the Nature of the Problem (Constructivist Learning Theory):

Due to learning isolated facts under limited conditions

Specific Transfer

Due to specific similarities between two tasks

Specific Transfer (Constructivist Learning Theory):

Due to specific similarities between two tasks.

General Transfer

Due to the use of the same cognitive strategies

Ability Group: Between-class (tracking) (Accommodating Student Variability):

Each class is made up of students who are homogeneous in standardized Intelligence/achievement test scores. At high school level this approach is called tracking.

Transfer of Learning

Early view of transfer based on degree of similarity between two tasks; low-road and high-road transfer produced by varied practice at applying skills, rules, memory retrieval cues

Transfer of Learning-Transfer of Learning (Constructivist Learning Theory):

Early view of transfer based on degree of similarity between two tasks; low-road and high-road transfer produced by varied practice at applying skills, rules, memory retrieval cues.

Short-Answer Tests

Easy to write but measure lower levels of learning

Short-Answer Tests (Ways to Measure Student Learning):

Easy to write but measure lower levels of learning.

What is Educational Psychology?

Educational psychologists study how students learn in classrooms

What is Educational Psychology? (Applying Psychology to Teaching):

Educational psychologists study how students learn in classrooms.

Emotional and Behavioral Disorders (IDEA) (Accommodating Student Variability):

Emotional states and behaviors that consistently and significantly disrupt academic learning and performance.

Emotions, learning and the brain

Emotions can become paired with particular situations, anxiety interfere with learning.... but if not challenged or interested, learning suffers too

Vygotsky's Sociocultural Perspective

Emphasized the role in development of cooperative dialogues between children and more knowledgeable members of society

Criticisms of Traditional Tests

Emphasizes recall of facts rather than thinking and problem solving

social constructivism

Emphasizes the development of meaningful learning by focusing on cultural and social interactions. IOW, meaningful learning occurs when people are explicitly taught how to use the psychological tools of their culture (such as language, mathematics, and approaches to problem solving) and are then given the opportunity to use these tools in authentic, real-life activities to create a common, or shared, understanding of some phenomenon.

Cooperative leaning works because

Explaining something to someone else makes learning easier to recall from memory, and students model more advanced thinking for each other.

Teachers should be knowledgeable about stages of development in human behavior because this information

Explains why behavior changes over time -is useful in creating lesson plans -tells teachers what students will and will not be able to understand

cognitive constructivism

Emphasizes the development of meaningful learning by focusing on the cognitive processes that take place within individuals. IOW, an individual's conception of the truth of some matter (for example, that both birds and airplanes can fly because they use the same aeronautical principles) is based on her ability, with guidance, to assimilate information effectively into existing schemes and develop new schemes and operations (the process Piaget called accommodation) in response to novel or discrepant ideas.

critical constructivism

Emphasizes the effects of teachers' assumptions about students from various racial, ethnic and SES backgrounds on students' knowledge construction. With the teacher's help, learners select and transform information, construct hypotheses, and make decisions.

Cognitive Constructivism

Emphasizes the role of cognitive processes in meaningful learning

Critical Constructivism

Emphasizes the role of cultural myths and how they influence learning environments

Critical Constructivism(Constructivist Learning Theory):

Emphasizes the role of cultural myths and how they influence learning environments.

Social Constructivism

Emphasizes the role of culture and social interaction in meaningful learning

Social Constructivism (Constructivist Learning Theory):

Emphasizes the role of culture and social interaction in meaningful learning

Erikson's Psychosocial Development Theory

Encompasses the life span; highlights the role of the person and culture in development; personality development based on epigenetic principle; personality grows out of successful resolution of psychosocial crises

Erikson's Psychosocial Development Theory

Encompasses the life span; highlights the role of the person and culture in development; personality development based on epigenetic principle; personality grows out of successful resolution of psychosocial crises.

Problem-based or project-based learning

Encourages active learners, reflection on experience, provides complex tasks, requires stated learning goals, decisions, strategies, and answers, requires work in cooperative groups.

Constructivist-Oriented Teaching

Encourages creating new views; uses scaffolding, realistic tasks, and class discusion

Constructivist-Oriented Teaching (Constructivist Learning Theory):

Encourages creating new views; uses scaffolding, realistic tasks, and class discusion

Free Appropriate Public Education (FAPE) (Accommodating Student Variability):

Ensures that all individuals from birth-21 who have an identifiable disability, regardless of how severe, receive at public expense supervised special education & related services that meet their unique educational needs.

Psychologists:

Erik Erikson, James Marcia (extended onto Erikson) , Jean Piaget, Lawrence Kohlberg (extended onto Piaget), Lev Vygotsky, Carol Gilligan (gender differences), Charles Spearman, David Wechsler, Robert Sternberg, Howard Gardner, Jerome Kagan, Herbert Witkin, B.F. Skinner, Albert Bandura, Jerome Bruner, Abraham Maslow, Robert F. Mager, Carl Rogers,

Rogers

Establish conditions that allow self-directed learning

Benjamin Bloom

Established a hierarchy of educational objectives that attempted to divide cognitive objectives into subdivisions ranging from simplest to most complex behavior. Bloom's Taxonomy

Ethnicity and Social Class (Cultural/Socioeconomic Diversity):

Ethnic group members differ in verbal and nonverbal communication patterns; ethnic group members may hold different values; poverty rates are higher for ethnic families of color than for Whites; children of color often score lower on tests, drop out of school sooner; achievement gap between slow-SES minority students and White students can be due to living conditions, family environment, characteristics of the student, and classroom environment; low-SES children are more likely to live in a stressful environment that interferes with studying.

Affective Domain (Values): Valuing

Expressing a belief or attitude about the value or worth of something

Ethnicity and Social Class

Ethnic group members differ in verbal and nonverbal communication patterns; ethnic group members may hold different values; poverty rates are higher for ethnic families of color than for Whites; children of color often score lower on tests, drop out of school sooner; achievement gap between slow-SES minority students and White students can be due to living conditions, family environment, characteristics of the student, and classroom environment; low-SES children are more likely to live in a stressful environment that interferes with studying; classroom atmosphere, teachers' approaches are connected with achievement levels of low-SES students

ERP

Event related potential

Gender Differences In The Classroom (Intelligence Theories-Understanding Student Differences):

Evidence that boys score higher and on tests of visual-spatial ability & math Reasoning & girls score higher on tests of memory & language skills are being called into question.

Gender Differences and Gender Bias

Evidence that boys score higher on tests of visual-spatial ability and math reasoning and that girls score higher on tests of memory and language skills is being called into question; academic success, encouragement, and models influence women to choose careers in science, math; females and males have equal access to computers, but differences in anxiety still exist

Kohlberg's stages of moral development

Ex: student court asks the offender if there are any extenuating circumstances that they parked in a teacher's spot. Members of the student court understand that under certain circumstances, rules may need to be disgarded and individual rights should be protected: social contract law and order good boy/nice girl

Emulation: Self-Regulating Skills (Social Cognitive Theory):

Exhibit the general form of the modeled behavior. Source of Motivation: Direct; feedback from the model/and or others. People learn to inhibit or make responses by observing others.

Mr. Lee wants to assess his student's ability to use and apply concepts they learned in their science class. Prior to the assessment, students have completed science experiments for the class. For the assessment, students have created a visual presentation of some sort to show what they learned. Which type of performance assessment is Mr. Lee using? (14)

Exhibition. (14) *Exhibitions are simply a showing of student's learning or ability, and are evaluated based on a predetermined set of criteria. If the students were actively completing science experiments during the assessment, it would be a Demonstration. (14)

Direct Instruction: Presentation

Explaining and demonstrating new material

steps of taxonomy for the affective domain step 3 valuing

Expressing a belief or attitude about the value or worth of something

High School (Grades 9-12; 14-18 Years Old)

Factors related to initiation of sexual activity vary by gender, race; parents influence values, plans; peers influence immediate status; girls are more likely than boys to experience anxiety about friendships; depression is most common among females, students of color; depression and unstable family situations place adolescents at risk for suicide; political thinking becomes more abstract, less authoritarian, more knowledgeable

Computer adaptive testing (CAT) has been endorsed by NCLB as a way to accurately capture student mastery. a). True b.) False

False

The No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act requires adequate yearly progress (AYP) to be demonstrated by all students except those with documented disabilities. a.) True b.) False

False

The need to make AYP focuses attention on instruction and improves motivation in nearly all cases. a.) True b.) False

False

Gender Differences & Technology(Intelligence Theories-Understanding Student Differences):

Females & males have equal access to computers, but differences in anxiety still exist.

Witkin's Learning Styles(Intelligence Theories-Understanding Student Differences):

Field-dependent students: prefer to work within the existing structure. Field-independent students: prefer their own structure.

Assisted Learning (Vygotsky)

First you learn what the student needs then guide them at the right time and amount Let them learn on their own

Law - and - order orientation

Fixed rules must be established and obeyed. Essential to respect authority Kohlberg - conventional Morality

Token Economy

Flexible reinforcement system

Token Economy (Behavior Modification) (Behavioral Learning Theory):

Flexible reinforcement system

Flow & Engagement (Motivation/Perception of Self):

Flow is the mental state of high engagement in an activity; experienced as intense engagement or absorbed concentration.

Direct Instruction

Focus on learning basic skills, teacher makes all decision, keep students on-task, provide opportunities for practice, give feedback; involves structured, guided, and independent practice; helps students learn basic skills

The Behavioral Approach to Teaching: Direct Instruction Approach (Approaches to Instruction):

Focus on learning basic skills, teacher makes all decision, keep students on-task, provide opportunities for practice, give feedback; involves structured, guided, and independent practice; helps students learn basic skills

Components of direct instruction

Focus on learning, teacher makes all the decisions, keep students on-task, provide opportunities for practice, gives feedback

psychomotor domain taxonomy

Focuses on physical abilities and skills

Gronlund (General Objectives)

Formulate general objectives of instruction that describe types of behavior students should exhibit. Under each general instructional objective, list up to five specific learning outcomes that provide a representative sample of what students should be able to do when they have achieved the general objective.

High-Road Transfer

Formulate rule from one task and apply to related task

High-Road Transfer(Constructivist Learning Theory):

Formulate rule from one task and apply to related task.

psychomotor domain

Focuses on physical abilities and skills. 1.0 Perception. Using sense organs to obtain cues needed to guide motor activity. 2.0 Set. Being ready to perform a particular action. 3.0 Guided response. Performing under the guidance of a model. 4.0 Mechanism. Being able to perform a task habitually with some degree of confidence and proficiency. For example, demonstrating the ability to get the first serve in the service area 70 percent of the time. 5.0 Complex or overt response. Performing a task with a high degree of proficiency and skill. For example, typing all kinds of business letters and forms quickly with no errors. 6.0 Adaptation. Using previously learned skills to perform new but related tasks. For example, using skills developed while using a word processor to do desktop publishing. 7.0 Origination. Creating new performances after having developed skills. For example, creating a new form of modern dance.

Attention

Focusing on a portion of currently available information

Attention (Information Processing Theory):

Focusing on a portion of currently available information.

Sarah, though she prefers dance to medicine, is a medical student because her parents have always dreamed of having a "Dr. Daughter" She is certain that medicine is the right career for her because her parents have supported that notion. Sarah would be classified by Marcia as....

Foreclosure Do not experience doubt about identity issues because they accept and endorse the choices and values of their parents. No Crisis - Yes

Foreclosure "type" - an identity status (Marcia)

Foreclosure types do not experience doubt about identity issues because they accept and endorse the choices and values of their parents

Two Functions for Assessment

Formative Summative

If you decided to give many homework assignments in order to determine student progress, but did not count them toward a final grade, you would be using: (14)

Formative Assessment. (14) *The purposes of formative assessments are to assess periodically how well students are progressing toward mastery of objectives and to provide useful information for designing subsequent instruction. (14)

Formative Assessment

Formative assessment: monitor progress and plan instruction accordingly

High-road transfer

Formulate a rule from one task and apply to a related task.

Validity

How accurately a test measures what users want to measure

Explain the 7 elements of cooperative learning

Group heterogeneity-4-5 students who differ in gender, ethnicity, and social class Group goals/positive interdependence-students must support one another's learning efforts for group to achieve goal Promotive interaction- students taught how to help one another complete their assigned tasks Individual accountability- each group member must make own contribution to group's goal Interpersonal skills-teach students how to make decisions, communicate clearly, build trust, manage conflict Equal opportunities for success-all students have equal opportunity to contribute to group's efforts Team competition- groups, if well-matched, may compete with one another

Tanika is learning a new algorithm for solving math word problems. She works at her desk but the teacher walks by from time to time, checking her work and helping her correct errors. Which of the following terms best describes this instructional situation?

Guided practice. (13-2) *The student is working on problems with teacher assistance. (13-2)

4 methods for insight into effective instructional techniques

Guided reflection protocol, reflective journal, portfolio, lesson study with a team

Students with Learning Disabilities

Have problems with perception, attention, memory, metacognition; symptoms of ADHD include inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity; help students with learning disabilities to reduce distractions, attend to important information

Students with Learning Disabilities (Accommodating Student Variability):

Have problems with perception, attention, memory, metacognition; symptoms of ADHD include inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity; help students with learning disabilities to reduce distractions, attend to important information.

Vygotsky: we learn best when instruction is pitched just above the lower limit of our zone of proximal development

He believed that learning should be focused just above the level a child is able to manage on their own - their zone of proximal development. By focusing on one level above, we challenge the student to learn more, and provide scaffolding to support the student in the process.

Constructivist Approach

Help students construct meaningful knowledge schemes

Maslow

Help students develop their potential by satisfying their needs

Validity: Test's Accuracy (Understanding Standardized Assessment):

How accurately a test measures what users want to measure.

Normed Excellence

How accurately the norm group represents the population of students for whom the test is intended

If you were interested in using technology to support a social approach to teaching, you would be draw to applications that lend themselves to: (13-2)

Helping students negotiate ideas with one another. (13-2) *The social approach to teaching focuses on interactions between students, where students model effective forms of thinking for each other. (13-2)

The formal operational stage

High school and university Mental tasks involving abstract thinking and coordination of a number of variables

Why should teachers use taxonomies to formulate goals for learning? a.) Students will be better prepared for standardized tests. b.) Lessons and assessments will include only measurable skills. c.) Each student will receive individual attention and direct instruction. d.) Higher cognitive, affective, and psychomotor objectives will be reached.

Higher cognitive, affective, and psychomotor objectives will be reached.

Vygotsky's Scaffolding Techniques (Cognitive Development Theory):

Hints or asking questions to support learning during early phases; as students become more capable of working independently, supports are withdrawn (difference between what can be done on our own & with some assistance).

Maintenance Rehearsal

Hold information for immediate use

Maintenance Rehearsal (Information Processing Theory):

Hold information for immediate use.

Culture

How a group of people perceives, believes, thinks, behaves

Culture (Cultural/Socioeconomic Diversity):

How a group of people perceives, believes, thinks, behaves.

Normed Excellence

How accidentally the norm group represents the population of students for whom the test is intended Students scores gain meaning by being compared to scores of a norm group

Construct Validity

How accurately a test measures a internal attribute This is appropriate for IQ tests and Personality Tests

Construct Validity

How accurately a test measures a theoretical attribute

Construct Validity Evidence (Understanding Standardized Assessment):

How accurately a test measures a theoretical attribute.

Construct validity

How accurately a test measures theoretical attributes

Validity

How accurately a test measures what users want it to measure

Validity

How accurately a test measures what users want it to measure Accurately of inferences we draw about the test taker

Self-Efficacy

How capable one feels to handle particular kinds of tasks; influence use of self-regulating skills; influenced by past performances, verbal persuasion, emotions, observing models; influences goals and activities, cognitive processes, perseverance, emotions

Self-Efficacy (Social Cognitive Theory):

How capable one feels to handle particular kinds of tasks; influence use of self-regulating skills; influenced by past performances, verbal persuasion, emotions, observing models; influences goals and activities, cognitive processes, perseverance, emotions

Self-efficacy

How capable or prepared we believe we are for handling particular kinds of tasks.

Reliability

How consistently test takers respond to test items - Split half - Test retest - Alternate form

Practically of a Test

How easily the test can be developed, administered, graded How expensive it is to print/grade the test (think Scantron) How much time is used to administer the test - time being taken away from other activities

Z-Score

How far a raw score is from the mean in standard deviation units

Z-Score (Understanding Standardized Assessment):

How far a raw score is from the mean in standard deviation units

Neurological efficiency and adaptability

How fast does your processor work, how quick are you on the uptake?

Information Processing

How humans attend to, recognize, transform, store, retrieve information

Information Processing Theory:

How humans attend to, recognize, transform, store, retrieve information.

What does Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development describe?

How knowledge develops

Vygotsky's Cognitive Development Theory

How we think influenced by current social forces and historical cultural forces; psychological tools aid and change thought processes; cognitive development strongly influenced by those more intellectually advanced; teachers should help students learn how to use psychological tools; cognitive development promoted by instruction in zone of proximal development; scaffolding techniques support student learning

Vygotsky's Cognitive Development Theory:

How we think influenced by current social forces and historical cultural forces; psychological tools aid and change thought processes; cognitive development strongly influenced by those more intellectually advanced; teachers should help students learn how to use psychological tools; cognitive development promoted by instruction in zone of proximal development; scaffolding techniques support student learning.

Construct (Types of Validity)

How well a test measures some internal attribute of a person

Predictive (Types of Validity)

How well a test predicts a students future behavior

Predictive Validity

How well a test score predicts later performance

Predictive validity

How well a test score predicts later performance

Predictive Validity

How well a test score predicts later performance This is appropriate for the ACT and SAT

Predictive Validity Evidence (Understanding Standardized Assessment):

How well a test score predicts later performance.

Content (Types of Validity)

How well a tests items reflects a particular body of knowledge and skill

Content Validity

How well test items cover a body of knowledge and skill

Content validity

How well test items cover a body of knowledge and skill

Content Validity Evidence (Understanding Standardized Assessment):

How well test items cover a body of knowledge and skill.

Content Validity

How well tests items cover a body of knowledge and skills Appropriate on all tests

Issues

Ill-structured problems that arouse strong feelings. These problems tend to divide people into opposing camps because of the emotions they arouse. And the primary goal, at least initially, is not to determine a course of action but to identify the most reasonable position. Examples are capital punishment, gun control, and nondenominational prayer in classrooms.

Orthopedic Impairment (IDEA) (Accommodating Student Variability):

Impairment on a child's ability to use arms, legs, hands, or feet, that significantly affects that child's educational performance.

Deaf-Blindness (IDEA) (Accommodating Student Variability):

Impairments of both hearing/vision, the combination of which causes severe communication, development, & educational problems.

Conventional Morality

Impress others, respect authority

Conventional Morality (Moral Development Theory):

Impress others, respect authority. (Piaget, Kohlberg, Gilligan: Moral Development)

Self-Questioning

Improves comprehension, knowledge integrations

Kagan's Learning Styles (Intelligence Theories-Understanding Student Differences):

Impulsive students: prefer quick action. Reflective students: prefer to collect/analyze information before acting.

fixed-interval schedule

In operant conditioning, a schedule of reinforcement that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed.

You have decided that the students in your kindergarten class will no longer be allowed to participate in unstructured play or imagination activities. These, in your opinion, are a waste of learning time and have no place in a solid curriculum. Your thoughts largely ignore the need to resolve which of the following psychosocial crises? -Play vs. work -Initiative vs. guilt - Integrity vs. despair - Trust vs. mistrust

Initiative vs. Guilt - Children should participate in self chosen physical activities and use language to discover and explore in order to develop a sense of initiative.

what is the basic idea behind mastery learning? a.) Students adopt mastery goals to obtain higher grades than other students. b.) Instruction, time, and motivation determine achievement. c.) People deserve a second chance when they make mistakes in life. d.) Life involves competition among equally proficient individuals.

Instruction, time, and motivation determine achievement.

Kohlberg's 6 Stages of Moral Reasoning: Stage 2: (Pre-Conventional-all about me) (Moral Development Theory):

Instrumental Relativist Orientation: An action is judged to be right if it is instrumental in satisfying one's own needs or involves an even exchange. Obeying rules should bring some sort of benefit in return.

Erikson Elderly (Psychosocial Development)

Integrity vs Despair (acceptance/fear)

Multiple Intelligences Theory

Intelligence is composed of eight distinct forms of intelligence

Multiple Intelligences Theory (Gardner) (Intelligence Theories-Understanding Student Differences):

Intelligence is composed of eight distinct forms of intelligence. (1) Logical-Mathematical: sensitivity to & capacity to discern, logical/numerical patterns; ability to handle long chains of reasoning-scientist/mathematician. (2) Linguistic: sensitivity to the sounds, rhythm, & meaning of words; sensitivity to the different functions of language-Poet/Journalist. (3) Musical: abilities to produce/appreciate rhythm, pitch & timbre; appreciation of the forms of musical expression-Violinist/Composer. (4) Spatial: capacities to perceive the visual-spatial world accurately & to perform transformations on one's initial perception-Sculptor/Navigator. (5) Bodily-kinesthetic: abilities to control one's body movements & handle objects skillfully-Dancer/Athlete. (6) Interpersonal: capacities to discern & respond appropriately to the moods, temperaments, motivations, & desires of other people-Therapist/Salesperson. (7) Intrapersonal: access to one's own feelings & the ability to discriminate among them & draw on them to guide behavior, knowledge of one's own strengths, weaknesses, desires, & intelligence- Person w/detailed, accurate self-knowledge. (8) Naturalist: ability to recognize & classify the numerous plants/animals of one's environment & their relationship on a logical, justifiable basis; talent of caring for, taming, & interacting w/various living creatures-Botanist/Entomologist.

The Nature and Measurement of Intelligence (Theories of Intelligence:Understanding Student Differences):

Intelligence test scores are most closely related to school success, not job success, marital happiness, or life happiness (Spearman); IQ scores can change with experience, training; Intelligence involves more than what intelligence tests measure (Wechsler); individuals with a high level of a particular intelligence may use it in different ways; factors other than high levels of a particular intelligence influence interests, college major, career choice.

The Nature and Measurement of Intelligence

Intelligence test scores are most closely related to school success, not job success, marital happiness, or life happiness; IQ scores can change with experience, training; Intelligence involves more than what intelligence tests measure; individuals with a high level of a particular intelligence may use it in different ways; factors other than high levels of a particular intelligence influence interests, college major, career choice

Summative. (14)

Intended to sum up how much students have learned over an extended period of time & various tasks. (14) A cumulative exam at the end of a college course is and example because it is intended to sum up how much students have learned over an extended period of time and various tasks. (14)

Grade equivalent scores (standardized testing scores)

Interprets test performance in terms of grade level

Erikson Young Adults (Psychosocial Development):

Intimacy vs Isolation (intimate relationships/failure)

Selected-Response Tests

Objectively scored and efficient but usually measure lower levels of learning and do not reveal what students can do

Describe ability groupings in general (Accommodating Student Variability):

Involved the use of standardized mental ability/achievement tests to create groups of students who were considered very similar to each other in learning ability.

Presentation

Involves explaining, illustrating, and demonstrating the new material

Ability Group: Within-class groupings (Accommodating Student Variability):

Involves the division of a single class of students into 2 or 3 groups for reading & math instruction. This is the most popular form of ability grouping; occurs in almost all elementary school classes.

Why is it important to look at standard error of measurement?

It helps to indicate how much scores differ due to error

socioeconomic status

It is determined by such factors as annual income, occupation, amount of education, place of residence, types of organizations to which family members belong, manner of dress, and material possessions.

Test Errors

It is important to note that no test is perfect

Ephraim, a student at Central State University, where parking spaces for students are few and far between, refuses to attempt to park in the spaces designated for students. Further, he will not buy a student parking sticker for his car. Though he receives numerous tickets, he continues to blatantly ignore all parking rules an regulations. Which of the following answers would describe postconventional justification for his behavior? -He parks where he wants because his mom told him to do so -he is not aware of his actions may harm the student body -It is wrong for the university to make students pay for a service they can't guarantee -campus security is oblivious to the needs of the students and should not be part of the parking division.

It is wrong for the university to make students pay for a service they can't guarantee

What reflects a decided advantage of criterion-referenced grading over norm-referenced grading? (14)

It provides information about individual strengths & weaknesses. (14) *Criterion-referenced grading gives information about individual strengths & weaknesses because it assesses whether the examinee has achieved specific instructional objectives. (14)

How should teachers approach the use of computerized grading tools? a.) Scanning tests saves time and results are always correct. b.) Electronic grading provides unquestionable objectivity. c.) It takes professional judgment to fairly assign grades. d.) It is relatively simple for students to cheat on scanned test forms

It takes professional judgment to fairly assign grades.

Standardized tests

Items presented and scored in standard fashion; results reported with reference to standards

Standardized Tests

Items presented and scored in standard fashion; results reported with reference to standards; used to identify strengths and weaknesses, plan instruction, select students for programs

Standardized Tests (Understanding Standardized Assessment):

Items presented and scored in standard fashion; results reported with reference to standards; used to identify strengths and weaknesses, plan instruction, select students for programs; meaningfulness of standardized test scores depends on representativeness of norm group; formal testing of young children is inappropriate because of rapid development changes.

Preschool and Kindergarten (3-5 Years Old)

Large-muscle control is better established than small-muscle control and hand-eye coordination; free play provides multiple benefits to young children; gender differences in toy preferences and play activities are noticeable by kindergarten; by age four, children have a theory of mind: aware of their own mental processes and that others may think differently; peer comparisons help 4-5 year olds more accurately judge their capabilities

Kohlberg's 6 Stages of Moral Reasoning: Stage 4 (Conventional-all about rules) (Moral Development Theory):

Law and Order Orientation: To maintain the social order, fixed rules must be established and obeyed. It is essential to respect authority.

Self-Regulation: Self-Regulating Skills (Social Cognitive Theory):

Learn to adapt the behavior changes in internal & external conditions (such as the reaction to others). Source of Motivation: Self-efficacy beliefs; degree of the intrinsic interest in the skill.

Self-Control: Self-Regulating Skills (Social Cognitive Theory):

Learn to exhibit the modeled behavior automatically through self-directed practice (focus on the underlying rule or process that produces the behavior & compare the behavior with personal standards) Source of Motivation: Self-satisfaction; from matching the standards & behavior of the model.

Direct instruction has been found to be most effective for: (13-2)

Learning basic reading & writing skills. (13-2) *Direct instruction has been shown to produce moderately positive increases in math & reading achievement in urban middle school. (13-2)

Learning Styles (Intelligence Theories/Understanding Student Differences):

Learning styles are preferences for dealing with intellectual tasks in a particular way.

Learning Styles

Learning styles are preferences for dealing with intellectual tasks in a particular way; teachers should use various instructional methods to engage all styles of learning at one time or another; teachers should use various test formats to expand students' repertoire of learning styles and measure accurately what students have learned

How does Erikson's theory define industry vs. inferiority as a stage of psychosocial development?

Learning to be intellectually productive

Teaching phase

Lesson is taught by one member of the research team and observed by others.

Kohlberg's 6 Stages of Moral Reasoning (3 levels) (Moral Development Theory):

Level 1: Preconventional Morality (Typical of children up to age of nine.) Called preconventional because young children do not really understand the conventions or rules of a society/all about me.) Level 2: Conventional Morality (Typical of nine to twenty year olds.) Called conventional since most nine to twenty year olds conform to the conventions of society because they are the rules of a society/all about rules.) Level 3: Post-Conventional Morality (Usually reached only after the age of twenty and only by a small proportion of adults. Called postconventional because the moral principles that underlie the conventions of a society are understood/all about others.)

Computer adaptive testing

Level of difficulty of test items geared to student's ability level

What types of tests are more reliable: long or short?

Longer tests are generally more reliable as they give a more accurate assessment of performance

Evaluation

Making judgements about the value of a measure

Evaluation (The Role of Assessment in Teaching):

Making judgements about the value of a measure. Example: Student answering 80/100 questions correctly.

Cognitive Domain (Thinking Skills): Evaluation

Making judgements based on internal evidence or external criteria.

Evaluation

Making judgments about the value of a measure.

Personal Interest

Marked by an intrinsic desire to learn that persists over time

Personal Interest (Motivation/Perception of Self):

Marked by an intrinsic desire to learn that persists over time; situational interest is context dependent & short term.

emotional disturbance (AKA behavior disorder)

Marked by poor relationships, inappropriate behavior, depression, fears. A condition exhibiting one or more of the following characteristics over a long period of time and to a marked degree that adversely affects a child's educational performance: An inability to learn that cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory, or health factors; An inability to build or maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships with peers and teachers; Inappropriate types of behavior or feelings under normal circumstances; A general pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression; or A tendency to develop physical symptoms or fears associated with personal or school problems.

Examples of Objective Testing

Matching Item True/False Fill in the Blank Multiple Choice

Piaget's influence's on development

Maturation Activity Social transmission

Students with Intellectual Disability (Formerly Called Mental Retardation)

May frustrate easily, lack confidence and self-esteem; tend to oversimplify, have difficulty generalizing; give students with intellectual disability short assignments that can be completed quickly

Students with Intellectual Disability (Formerly Called Mental Retardation) (Accommodating Student Variability):

May frustrate easily, lack confidence and self-esteem; tend to oversimplify, have difficulty generalizing; give students with intellectual disability short assignments that can be completed quickly.

Prior Knowledge-Key Idea of Constructivism (Constructivist Learning Theory):

Meaningful learning is the active creation of knowledge structures from personal experience. Each learner builds a personal view of the works by using existing knowledge, interests, attitudes, goals, to select/interpret the information they encounter.

Constructivist Approach

Meaningful learning occurs when individuals construct a personal interpretation of the world by filtering new ideas and experiences through existing knowledge structures.

Mnemonic Devices

Meaningfully organize information, provide retrieval cues

Written tests

Meant to assess how much people know about a certain topic. These tests are used to assess such things as knowledge about concepts, facts, and principles. While a pop quiz can be in written form, it can also be a verbal quiz. The final options is an example of a performance assessment (verbally quizzing her students; holding a science fair.) (14)

Performance. (14)

Measure a student's ability to use a wide range of knowledge and skills, over an extended period of time to solve realistic problems. (14)

Performance Assessments

Measure ability to use knowledge and skills to solve realistic problems, create products; may vary in degree of realism; pose several challenges for teachers; reliability and validity not yet firmly established

Performance Assessments (Ways to Measure Student Learning):

Measure ability to use knowledge and skills to solve realistic problems, create products; may vary in degree of realism; pose several challenges for teachers; reliability and validity not yet firmly established.

Summative Assessment-A type of evaluative judgment; (The Role of Assessment in Teaching):

Measure achievement; assign grades; assessments (OF) learning.

Summative Assessment

Measure achievement; assign grades; assessments of learning

Written Tests

Measure degree of knowledge about a subject

Written Tests (Ways to Measure Student Learning):

Measure degree of knowledge about a subject; mostly composed of selected response & constructed response.

Essay Tests

Measure higher levels of learning but are hard to grade consistently

Essay Tests (Ways to Measure Student Learning):

Measure higher levels of learning but are hard to grade consistently.

Achievement Tests

Measure how much of a subject or skill has been learned

Achievement Tests (Understanding Standardized Assessment):

Measure how much of a subject or skill has been learned.

Aptitude Tests

Measure predisposition to develop additional capabilities in specific areas

Aptitude Tests (Understanding Standardized Assessment):

Measure predisposition to develop additional capabilities in specific areas.

Achievement Test

Measures how much a pupil has learned in a particular field of study. Accordingly, it would be appropriate to use such a test to determine whether students were ready to take an advanced course. The other options describe situations where aptitude tests or affective inventories would be more appropriate. (15)

What does criterion referenced testing measure?

Measures mastery of specific objectives Telling teachers what a student can/cannot do

Aptitude Test (15)

Measures what a student already knows about a subject; (15) Estimates potential for achievement. The correct option describes a situation where the potential ability of learners needs to be known in order for a decision to be made. (15)

Long-Term Memory

Permanent storehouse of unlimited capacity; organized as schemata

Formative Assessment-A type of evaluative judgment; (The Role of Assessment in Teaching):

Monitor progress and plan instruction accordingly; assessments (FOR) learning; requires both teacher and student to learn.

Formative Assessment

Monitor progress and plan instruction accordingly; assessments for learning; requires both teacher and student to learn

Universal ethical principle orientations

Moral decisions should be made in terms of self chosen ethical principles. Should be applied in consistent ways. Kohlberg postconentional morality.

Criticisms of Kohlberg's Theory

Moral development difficult to accelerate, moral dilemmas not relevant to daily life, relies on macromoral issues, ignores characteristics other than moral reasoning

Mastery Learning

Most students can master the curriculum

Mastery Learning (Multicultural Education Programs) (Cultural/Socioeconomic Diversity):

Most students can master the curriculum

Explain why cooperative learning works

Motivational effect- Students are motivated by desire to support groups and receive reinforcement form group members Cognitive-developmental effect- Students model effective forms of thinking for each other, peer interaction hastens to decline of egocentrism Cognitive elaboration effect- Group interactions encourage more advanced encodings of information

Getting the most out of practice

Move from structured practice to guided practice to independent practice *Have short but intense practice sessions *Monitor students' responses during structured practice *require minimum performance of 85% correct before moving to independent practice *spread practice sessions over several months *space practice sessions close together at first, then further apart for guided and independent practice

Howard Gardner

Multiple Intelligences Theory

objective testing

Multiple-choice, matching, true/false, short-answer, and fill-in tests; scoring answers does not require interpretation. simple and set scoring system

Individualized Education Program (IEP) (Accommodating Student Variability):

Must include objectives, services to be provided criteria for determining achievement.

Post-Conventional Morality

Mutual agreements, consistent principles

Post-Conventional Morality (Moral Development Theory):

Mutual agreements, consistent principles. (Piaget, Kohlberg, Gilligan: Moral Development)

The Need for Achievement (Motivation/Perception of Self):

Need for achievement is revealed by the desire to attain goals that require skilled performance; need for achievement difficult to assess on basis of short-term observations; faulty attributions difficult to change.

Assimilation

New experience is fitted into existing scheme

Piaget Basic Theory Principle (Cognitive Development Theory) Assimilation:

New experience is fitted into existing scheme

In discussing instruction, why do the authors use the term "approaches"? a.) Less successful teachers use different theories to inform their teaching. b.) No one theory or approach can be used for all instructional purposes. c.) One theory may suffice to create all instructional approaches. d.) A general approach to teaching is better than a specific one.

No one theory or approach can be used for all instructional purposes.

Norm Reference Testing and Curve Grading

Norm Refernce Tests include any time a student is graded on a curve (grading a poster assignment, comparing eac students posters). These tests can be very unstructured.

A teacher who announces that only 10% of the class will be able to earn A's for the course is indicating his/her intention to use: (14)

Norm-Referenced Evaluation. (14) *Norm-referenced grading is being used when teachers determine grades by comparing one student with other students & awarding grades on the basis of relative performance. (14)

Rote Rehearsal

Not a very effective memory tactic

<0.80 Reliability Score =

Not reliable

Recognition

Noting key features and relating them to store information

Recognition (Information Processing Theory):

Noting key features and relating them to stored information.

Instrumental relativist orientation

Obeying rules should bring some sort of benefit in return Kohlberg - Preconventional Morality

Scheme

Organized pattern of behavior or thought

Piaget Basic Theory Principle (Cognitive Development Theory): Schemes:

Organized pattern of behavior or thought (knowledge framework)

A Model of Information Processing

Organizing material reduces the number of chunks, provides recall cues; meaningful learning occurs when organized material is associated with stored knowledge; information in long-term memory influences what we attend to; students remember much of what they learn in school, especially if mastery and active learning are emphasized

Affective Domain (Values): Organization

Organizing various values into an internalized system.

5 components of direct instruction

Orientation-Introduction and overview of the lesson *Presentation-Explaining and demonstrating new material *Structured practice-Teacher leads class through problem *Guided Practice- students work on problems with teacher assistance *Independent Practice- Students practice on their own

Metacognition (Information Processing Theory):

Our own knowledge of how we think; insight into one's learning processes improve with age.

Metacognition

Our own knowledge of how we think; insight into one's learning processes improves with age

Psychomotor Taxonomy

Outlines steps that lead to skilled performance

Psychomotor Taxonomy (Approaches to Instruction):

Outlines steps that lead to skilled performance.

Areas of disagreement piaget and vygotsky

P - cognitive development comes before learning V - learning is an active process that does not have to wait for readiness

Dual Coding Theory (Information Processing Theory):

Paivio's theory: concrete material & concrete words are remembered better than abstract words.

Triarchic View

Part of intelligence is the ability to achieve personal goals

Triarchic View (Sternberg) aka "Successful Intelligence" (Intelligence Theories-Understanding Student Differences):

Part of intelligence is the ability to achieve personal goals. Has three parts: (1) Practical ability: involves applying knowledge to everyday situations, using knowledge & tools, seeking relevance. (2) Creative ability: involves inventing, discovering, imagining, & supposing. (3) Analytic ability: involves breaking ideas & products into their component parts, making judgments, evaluating, comparing & contrasting, & critiquing.

Humanistic View of Motivation

People are motivated to satisfy deficiency needs only when those needs are unmet; when deficiency needs are not satisfied, a person is likely to make bad choices; encourage growth choices by enhancing attractions, minimizing dangers; teachers may be able to satisfy some deficiency needs but not others

Humanistic View of Motivation (Motivation/Perception of Self)

People are motivated to satisfy deficiency needs only when those needs are unmet; when deficiency needs are not satisfied, a person is likely to make bad choices; encourage growth choices by enhancing attractions, minimizing dangers; teachers may be able to satisfy some deficiency needs but not others.

Percentile Rank

Percentage of scores at or below a given point

Percentile Rank (Understanding Standardized Assessment):

Percentage of scores at or below a given point.

Psychomotor Domain (Physical Skills)

Perception Set Guided Response Mechanism Complex or overt response Adaptation Origination

Psychomotor domain objectives

Perception, set, guided response, mechanism, complex or overt response, adaptation, origination

Criterion-referenced assessment

Performance is determined in terms of defined criteria

Mrs. DuBose wants to know how well her students can independently create a color wheel. This type of knowledge would be best measured by a(n) __________ test. (14)

Performance. (14) *Performance tests measure a student's ability to use a wide range of knowledge and skills, over an extended period of time to solve realistic problems. (14)

Psychomotor Domain (Physical Skills): Guided Response

Performing under the guidance of a model

Hearing Impairment (IDEA) (Accommodating Student Variability):

Permanent or fluctuating difficulty in understanding speech that adversely affects educational performance.

Long-Term Memory (Information Processing Theory):

Permanent storehouse of unlimited capacity; Information in long-term memory organizes as schemata; students remember much of what they learn in school, especially if mastery & active learning are emphasized.

Primary Grades Characteristics (Grades 1-3; 6-8 Years Old) (Age-Level Characteristics):

Physical: still extremely active, energy is often released in the form of nervous habits (pencil-chewing, nail biting, fidgeting) still need rest periods due to physical & mental exertion, large-muscle is still superior to fine coordination, many boys have difficulty manipulating pencil, many students may have difficulty focusing on small print or objects, tend to be extreme in physical activities, excellent control of their bodies, accident rate peaks in third grade because of confidence in physical skills, bone growth not yet complete Social: become somewhat more selective in their choice of friends, likely to have a best friend, like organized games in small groups, overly concerned with rules, quarrels still frequent, words used more than physical aggression, boys may still get physical (rigid interpretation of rules in primary grades/to encourage industry, use praise, not criticism) Emotional: sensitive to criticism & ridicule, difficulty adjusting to failure, eager to please the teacher, becoming sensitive to the feelings of others Cognitive: understand that there are different ways to know things & that some ways are better than others, understand that learning & recall are caused by particular cognitive processes that they cannot control, because of neurological development & limited experience, primary grade children do not learn as efficiently as older children do, talking aloud to oneself reaches a peak between the ages of 6-7 & then rapidly declines

chunking information into smaller pieces

Piaget stated that as children interact with their environment, parents, teachers, and age-mates, they form organized, generalizable patterns of behavior or thought known as schemes. Lesson plans should include activity, manipulation, exploration, discussion and application of the information

Give two examples of how technology can be applied to Piaget & Vygotsky's theories (Moral Development Theory):

Piaget: (1) Microworlds/collaboration with other students via the internet. (2) Microcomputer-based labs (MBL). Vygotsky: (1) Cognitive apprenticeship with technology (telementoring) (2) Interaction with peers as well as experts on the web (multi-user virtual environment)

Which of the following classroom practices would be most appropriate for children at Eirkson's stage of Industry vs. inferiority? -Displaying charts listing the best students in various activities -Awarding extra points for students who finish assignments quickly -Stressing the importance of earning high grades -Placing completed assignments in each student's successful Work folder

Placing completed assignments in each student's Successful Work folder -Elementary stage - experiences that make children feel inadequate are likely to lead to inferiority.

Strategy

Plan to achieve a long-term goal

Learning Strategy (Social Cognitive Theory):

Plan to achieve a long-term goal; a strategic learner is a mindful learner. ( helping students become self-regulated learners).

Mainstreaming

Policy of placing students with disabilities in regular classes

Mainstreaming (Inclusion) (Accommodating Student Variability):

Policy of placing students with disabilities in regular classes.

Emotional Disturbance

Poor relationships, inappropriate behavior, depression, fears

Emotional Disturbance (Accommodating Student Variability):

Poor relationships, inappropriate behavior, depression, fears.

Robert Sternberg's Triarchic View: The Theory of Successful Intelligence

Practical ability involves applying knowledge to everyday situations, using knowledge and tools, and seeking relevance. Creative ability involves inventing, discovering, imagining, and supposing. Analytical ability involves breaking ideas and products into their component parts, making judgments, evaluating, comparing and contrasting, and critiquing. Intelligence should be viewed as a broad characteristic of people that is evidenced not only by how well they answer a particular set of test questions but also by how well they function in different settings.

Triarchic Theory

Practical ability; adapting to one's environment, shaping one's environment, selecting a different environment. Creative ability; solving novel and unfamiliar problems. Analytical ability; using prior knowledge and cognitive skills to solve problems and learn new information.

Initiative vs. guilt is a stage of psychosocial development in which

Pre-school and kindergarten children should explore experiment.

I would love to run across my mom's new white carpet after playing in the mud just to see what cool designs I could make. I won't though because I am afraid that she would get mad at me" These thoughts reflect which level of Kohlberg's theory of moral development? -Preconventional -Postconventional -Primary -Conventional

Preconventional -Punishment is to be avoided

One reason why school psychologists use intelligence tests to help the determine whether a student is eligible for special education services is because such tests have evidence of: (15)

Predictive validity. (15) *A test that is used to make probabilistic statements about how well students will perform in the future should have high predictive validity. For intelligence test scores to have high predictive validity, those scoring high should perform significantly better academically the follow year or two than those who earn lower scores. (15)

High-Need Achievers

Prefer moderately challenging tasks

High-Need Achievers (Motivation/Perception of Self):

Prefer moderately challenging tasks

Impulsive Students

Prefer quick action

Field-Independent Students

Prefer their own structure

Reflective Students

Prefer to collect and analyze information before acting

Field-Dependent Students

Prefer to work within the existing structure

Low-Need Achievers

Prefer very easy or very hard tasks

Low-Need Achievers (Motivation/Perception of Self):

Prefer very easy or very hard tasks

Legislative Style

Prefers to create and plan

Judicial Style

Prefers to evaluate and judge

Executive Style

Prefers to follow explicit rules

Information Processing/Social Cognitive (Meaningful Learning): Present information in chunks.

Present Information in Learnable Amounts and Over Realistic Time Periods

Information Processing/Social Cognitive (Meaningful Learning): Facilitate long-term coding.

Present information through such different media as pictures, videotape, audiotape, live models, and manipulation of physical objects. Use lots of examples and analogies (to foster elaboration). Prompt students to elaborate by asking them to put ideas in their own words, relate new ideas to personal experience, and create their own analogies.

According to the information-processing/social cognitive approach to learning, one way to help students meaningfully process information is to: (13-2)

Present new information in relatively small amounts and over a reasonable period of time because of the limits of students' working memory capacity. (13-2) *This approach indicates teachers should present information in learnable amounts and over realistic time periods. (13-2)

Information Processing/Social Cognitive (Meaningful Learning): Emphasize organization and meaningfulness.

Present organized and meaningful lessons

In what way can technology be most helpful in fostering cognitive development?

Presenting virtual environments in which to solve problems

Negative Transfer

Previous learning interferes with later learning

Negative Transfer (Constructivist Learning Theory):

Previous learning interferes with later learning

Negative transfer

Previous learning interferes with later learning. I've learned to downhill ski, where one leans forward, but when learning to water ski, one leans backward.

Positive Transfer

Previous learning makes later learning easier

Positive Transfer-Transfer of Learning (Constructivist Learning Theory):

Previous learning makes later learning easier

Positive transfer

Previous learning makes later learning easier. I've learned to speak Spanish, so French should be easier to learn.

Far Transfer

Previously learned knowledge and skills used much later on dissimilar tasks and under different conditions

Far Transfer (Constructivist Learning Theory):

Previously learned knowledge and skills used much later on dissimilar tasks and under different conditions

Far transfer

Previously learned knowledge and skills used much later on dissimilar tasks and under different conditions.

Near Transfer

Previously learned knowledge and skills used relatively soon on highly similar task

Near Transfer (Constructivist Learning Theory):

Previously learned knowledge and skills used relatively soon on highly similar task.

Near transfer

Previously learned knowledge and skills used relatively soon on highly similar task.

Low-Road Transfer

Previously learned skill automatically applied to similar current task

Low-Road Transfer (Constructivist Learning Transfer):

Previously learned skill automatically applied to similar current task.

Low-road transfer

Previously learned skill automatically applied to similar current task. For example, a student who has mastered the skill of two-column addition and correctly completes three-column and four-column addition problems with no prompting or instruction.

Primary Grades (Grades 1-3; 6-8 Years Old)

Primary grade children have difficulty focusing on small print; accident rate peaks in third grade because of confidence in physical skills; rigid interpretation of rules in primary grades; to encourage industry, use praise, avoid criticism; awareness of cognitive processes begins to emerge

Problem Representation-Understand the Nature of the Problem (Constructivist Learning Theory):

Problem finding depends on curiosity, dissatisfaction with status quo.

Two Types of Portfolios

Process and Best Work

Adaptation

Process of creating a good fit between one's conception of reality and one's experiences

Behavior Modification (Behavioral Learning Theory):

Shape behavior by ignoring undesirable responses, reinforcing desirable responses.

Why should teachers be cautious when using computerized grading tools? a.) Scanning tests saves valuable time in tracking performance. b.) Professional judgment is necessary to fairly compute grades. c.) Computerized grading programs calculate scores objectively. d.) Computerized grading programs may not detect cheating.

Professional judgment is necessary to fairly compute grades.

maintenance programs

Programs in this approach try to maintain or improve students' native-language skills. Instruction in the students' native language continues for a significant time before transitioning to English.

transitional programs

Programs that this approach teach students wholly (in the case of non-English-proficient students) or partly (in the case of limited-English-proficient students) in their native language so as not to impede their academic progress, but only until they can function adequately in English. At that point, they are placed in regular classes, in which all of the instruction is in English.

Standardized Tests in Canada are ___________________, not nationwide.

Province-Wide

Split-Half Reliability (Understanding Standardized Assessment):

Psychologists administer a single test to a group of students, create two scores by dividing the test in half, & measure the extent to which the rankings change from one half to the other. This method gauges the internal consistency of a test.

Test-Retest Reliability (Understanding Standardized Assessment):

Psychologists administer the same test to the same people on two occasions & measure the extent to which the rankings change over time.

Alternate-Form Reliability (Understanding Standardized Assessment):

Psychologists administer two equivalent forms of a test to the same group of students at the same time & compare the results.

Applying Theories of Development to the High School Years (Age-Level Characteristics):

Psychosocial development: identity vs role confusion. Concerns arise about gender roles & occupational choice. Different identity statuses become apparent. Cognitive development: formal operational thought for many students. There is increasing ability to engage in mental manipulations, understand abstractions, & test hypothesis. Moral development: morality of cooperation, conventional level. There is an increasing willingness to think of rules as mutual agreements & to allow for intentions & extenuating. General factors to keep in mind: Achievement iOS sexual maturity has a profound effect on many aspects of behavior. Peer group & reactions of friends are extremely important. There is concern about what will happen after graduation, particularly for students who do not intend to continue their education. Awareness grows out of the significance of academic ability & importance of grades for certain career patterns. There is no need to make personal value decisions regarding use of drugs, premarital sex, & code of ethics.

Applying Theories of Development to the Elementary Grade Years (Age-Level Characteristics):

Psychosocial development: industry vs. inferiority. Keep students constructively busy; try to play down comparisons between best and worst learners. Cognitive development: concrete operational. Except for the most intellectually advanced students, most will need to generalize from concrete experiences. Moral development: morality of constraint; transition from preconventional to conventional. A shift to viewing rules as mutual agreements is occurring, but "official" rules are obeyed out of respect for authority or out of a desire to impress others. General factors to keep in mind: Initial enthusiasm for learning may fade as the novelty wears off and as the process of perfecting skills becomes more difficult. Differences in knowledge and skills of fastest and slowest learners become more noticeable. "Automatic" respect for teachers tends to diminish. Peer group influences become strong.

Organizing material ( Information Processing Theory):

Reduces the number of chunks, provides recall cues; meaningful learning occurs when organized material is associated with stored knowledge.

Complex Behaviors

Shaped by reinforcing closer approximations to terminal behavior

Applying Theories of Development to the Primary Grade Years (Age-Level Characteristics):

Psychosocial development: industry vs. inferiority. Students need to experience a sense of industry through successful completion of tasks. Try to minimize and correct failures to prevent development of feelings of inferiority. Cognitive development: transition from preoperational to concrete operational stage. Students gradually acquire the ability to solve problems by generalizing from concrete experiences. Moral development: morality of constraint, preconventional. Rules are viewed as edicts handed down by authority. Focus is on physical consequences, meaning that obeying rules should bring benefit in return. General factors to keep in mind: Students are having first experiences with school learning, are eager to learn how to read and write, and are likely to be upset by lack of progress. Initial attitudes toward schooling are being established. Initial roles in a group are being formed, roles that may establish a lasting pattern (e.g., leader, follower, loner, athlete, or underachiever).

Applying Theories of Development to the Preschool & Kindergarten Years (Age-Level Characteristics):

Psychosocial development: initiative vs. guilt. Children need opportunities for free play and experimentation, as well as experiences that give them a sense of accomplishment. Cognitive development: preoperational thought. Children gradually acquire the ability to conserve and decenter but are not capable of operational thinking and are unable to mentally reverse operations. Moral development: morality of constraint, preconventional. Rules are viewed as unchangeable edicts handed down by those in authority. Punishment-obedience orientation focuses on physical consequences rather than on intentions. General factors to keep in mind: Children are having their first experiences with school routine and interactions with more than a few peers and are preparing for initial academic experiences in group settings. They need to learn to follow directions and get along with others.

Applying Theories of Development to the Middle School Years (Age-Level Characteristics):

Psychosocial development: transition from industry vs. inferiority to identity vs. role confusion. Growing independence leads to initial thoughts about identity. There is greater concern about appearance and gender roles than about occupational choice. Cognitive development: beginning of formal operational thought for some. There is increasing ability to engage in mental manipulations and test hypotheses. Moral development: transition to morality of cooperation, conventional level. There is increasing willingness to think of rules as flexible mutual agreements, yet "official" rules are still likely to be obeyed out of respect for authority or out of a desire to impress others. General factors to keep in mind: A growth spurt and puberty influence many aspects of behavior. An abrupt switch occurs (for sixth graders) from being the oldest, biggest, most sophisticated students in elementary school to being the youngest, smallest, least knowledgeable students in middle school. Acceptance by peers is extremely important. Students who do poor schoolwork begin to feel bitter, resentful, and restless. Awareness grows of a need to make personal value decisions regarding dress, premarital sex, and code of ethics.

Kohlberg's 6 Stages of Moral Reasoning: Stage 1 (Pre-Conventional-all about me) (Moral Development Theory):

Punishment-Obedience Orientation: The physical consequences of an action determine goodness or badness. Those in authority have superior power & should be obeyed. Punishment should be avoided by staying out of trouble.

2 things done consistently to be effective in the classroom

Questions asked & data collected and reflecting on what has been learned

T-Score

Raw score translated to a scale of 1-100 with a mean of 50

T-Score (Understanding Standardized Assessment):

Raw score translated to a scale of 1-100 with a mean of 50

General approach to problem-solving

Realize that a problem exists. Understand the nature of the problem. Compile relevant information. Formulate and carry out a solution. Evaluate the solution.

steps of taxonomy for the cognitive domain Step 5 *synthesis

Rearranging component ideas into a new whole

Cognitive Domain (Thinking Skills): Synthesis

Rearranging component ideas into a new whole.

Affective Domain (Values)

Receiving Responding Valuing Organization Characterization by a value or value complex

Affective domain objectives

Receiving, responding, valuing, organization, characterization

within-class ability grouping.

Refers to a teacher's practice of forming groups of students of similar ability within an individual class.

Full Inclusion Policy (Accommodating Student Variability):

Refers to the practice of eliminating all pullout programs & special education teachers & providing regular classroom teachers with training in teaching special-needs students so that they can teach students in the regular classroom.

Kagan

Reflectivity and impulsivity

Reliability (15)

Reflects the degree to which a test is free of measurement error, thereby producing similar scores from one test administration to another. (15) If student's scores on one test were very different from scores on subsequent tests, you would question it. (15)

Variable Ratio Schedules

Reinforce after a different number of responses each time

Variable Ratio Schedules(Behavioral Learning Theory):

Reinforce after a different number of responses each time.

Fixed Ratio Schedules

Reinforce after a set number of responses

Fixed Ratio Schedules(Behavioral Learning Theory):

Reinforce after a set number of responses.

Variable Interval Schedules

Reinforce after random time intervals

Variable Interval Schedules (Behavioral Learning Theory):

Reinforce after random time intervals

Fixed Interval Schedules

Reinforce after regular time intervals

Fixed Interval Schedules (Behavioral Learning Theory):

Reinforce after regular time intervals.

Behavioral View of Motivation

Reinforce desired behavior

Behavioral View of Motivation (Motivation/Perception of Self):

Reinforce desired behavior

Variable ratio reinforcement schedule

Reinforcement after a different number of responses from one time to the next, according to a predetermined average. Because the occurrence of reinforcement is so unpredictable, learners tend to respond fairly rapidly for long periods of time. If you need proof, just watch people play the slot machines in gambling casinos.

Contingency Contracting

Reinforcement supplied after student completes mutually agreed-on assignment

Contingency Contracting (Behavior Modification) (Behavioral Learning Theory):

Reinforcement supplied after student completes mutually agreed-on assignment.

Contingency contracting

Reinforcement supplied after student completes mutually agreed-on assignments. A more formal method of specifying desirable behaviors and consequent reinforcement.

0.80-0.90 Reliability Score =

Relatively reliable

Reliability and Validity

Reliability does not always predict validity

If you were using a standardized test to determine your students' aptitude for science and found that students who took the test a second time got scores quite different from those they received on the first attempt, you would question the test's: (15)

Reliability. (15) *Reliability reflects the degree to which a test is free of measurement error, thereby producing similar scores from one test administration to another. If student's scores on one administration of a test were very different from scores on subsequent administrations, you would question that test's reliability. (15)

Cognitive Domain (Thinking Skills): Knowledge

Remembering previously learned information such as facts, terms, and principles.

What does not exemplify a constructivist approach to learning?

Require students to learn new material largely by repetition. (13-2) *Rote repetition is an element of direct instruction. (13-2)

Premack Principle

Required work first, then chosen reward

Premack Principle (Shaping Technique/Behavior Modification) (Behavioral Learning Theory):

Required work first, then chosen reward (aka Grandma's Rule)

No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act

Requires standards; annual testing in math, reading, science, annual progress for all students; public reports; accountability system; changes how teachers teach

No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act (Understanding Standardized Assessment):

Requires standards; annual testing in math, reading, science, annual progress for all students; public reports; accountability system; changes how teachers teach.

Complicating Factors in the Study of Behavior and Thought Processes

Research focuses on a few aspects of a problem • Complexity of teaching and learning limits uniform outcomes • Differences of opinion result from selection and interpretation of data • Accumulated knowledge leads researchers to revise original ideas

Complicating Factors in the Study of Behavior and Thought Processes (Applying Psychology to Teaching):

Research focuses on a few aspects of a problem • Complexity of teaching and learning limits uniform outcomes • Differences of opinion result from selection and interpretation of data • Accumulated knowledge leads researchers to revise original ideas

Information Processing/Social Cognitive (Meaningful Learning): Characteristics

Research shows that, for information to be meaningfully learned, it must be attended to, its critical features must be noticed, it must be coded in an organized and meaningful way so as to make its retrieval more likely, and strategies must be devised that allow this process to occur for a variety of tasks and in a variety of circumstances

Reliability, Validity, and generalizability

Research suggests that reliability improves when raters are experienced and scoring rubrics are well developed and refined

Gender Bias (Intelligence Theories-Understanding Student Differences):

Responding differently to male and female students without having sound educational reasons for doing so.

Gender Bias

Responding differently to male and female students without having sound educational reasons for doing so; can affect course selection, career choice, and class participation of male and female students

Discrimination

Responding in different ways to similar stimuli

Discrimination (Operant Conditioning) (Behavioral Learning Theory):

Responding in different ways to similar stimuli. Examples: teachers reinforcing desired behaviors (attention, obedience, cooperation) & withholding reinforcement following undesired behaviors (inattention, disobedience).

Generalization

Responding in similar ways to similar stimuli

Generalization (Operant Conditioning) (Behavioral Learning Theory):

Responding in similar ways to similar stimuli. Examples: students ignoring or questioning a teacher's every request/direction because they have been reinforced for responding that way to parents at home.

How may quizzes and exams be considered formative assessments? a.) Scores are averaged for report cards. b.) Results are used to form rankings in classrooms. c.) Scores indicate students' study habits. d.) Results are used to improve instruction and learning

Results are used to improve instruction and learning

Aptitude test (type of standardized test)

Reveal how much knowledge and skill a student could acquire with effective instruction

Achievement tests (type of standardized test)

Reveal how much of a subject or skill has been learned

Achievement tests (standardized test)

Reveal how much of a subject or skill has been learned Examples- Single Subject Achievement Tests Achievement Battery Diagnostic Test Competency Test

Aptitude Test (standardized test)

Revel how much knowledge and skill a student would acquire with effective instruction (Ability tests)

Token economy

Rewarding behavior with something that has little or no inherent value but that can be used to "purchase" things that do have inherent value.

The student will, in class and in thirty minutes, correctly solve twelve of the fifteen problems on page of the text. This objective would most likely suit the needs of

Robert Mager Mager recommended specific objectives in which the teacher will describe what you want learners to be doing when demonstrating achievement and indicate how you will know they are doing it.

The students will, in class and in 30 minutes, correctly solve 12 of the 15 problems on page 10 of the text. This objective would most likely suit the needs of: (13-1)

Robert Mager. (13-1) *Mager recommended specific objectives in which the teacher will describe what you want learners to be doing when demonstrating achievement and indicate how you will know they are doing it. (13-1)

The Humanistic Approach to Teaching: Student-Centered Instruction (Approaches to Instruction):

Rogers: Establish conditions that allow self-directed learning

Morality of Cooperation (Moral Relativism)

Rules are flexible, intent important in determining guilt

Morality of Cooperation (Moral Relativism) (Moral Development Theory):

Rules are flexible, intent important in determining guilt. (Piaget, Kohlberg, Gilligan:Moral Development)

Morality of Constraint (Moral Realism)

Rules are sacred, consequences determine guilt

Morality of Constraint (Moral Realism) (Moral Development Theory):

Rules are sacred, consequences determine guilt (Piaget, Kohlberg, Gilligan:Moral Development)

Test-retest reliability

Same test given on two separate occasions to measure changes in scores

scaffolding based on Vygotsky's theory of cognitive development

Scaffolding is the technique used by teachers help move their students through their Zone of Proximal Development by giving hints, examples or asking leading questions

Accommodation

Scheme is created or revised to fit new experience

Piaget Basic Theory Principle (Cognitive Development Theory Accommodation:

Scheme is created or revised to fit new experience

Piaget: Sensorimotor Stage (Cognitive Development Theory-Stage 1):

Schemes reflect sensory and motor experiences

Sensorimotor Stage

Schemes reflect sensory and motor experiences

Measuring Construct Validity

Scores should be relatable to scores achieved on more well-established tests

Distributed Practice

Short study periods at frequent intervals

Constructed Response Tests (Ways to Measure Students Learning):

Short-Answer & Essay: short-answer tests require a brief written response from the student; essay require students to organize a set of ideas & write a somewhat lengthy response to a broad question. Examples: short-answer: student asked to supply from a memory a brief answer(name, word, phrase, or symbol). Essay: reveal how well students can recall, organize, & clearly communicate previously learned material.

As it relates to identity development, a psychosocial moratorium -creates a negative identity state - should be a period of postponing commitment -refers to a wish to be alone -refers to a symptom of emotional instability

Should be a period of postponing commitment -young person feels threatened by having to make many important choices at once, a psychosocial moratorium may be appropriate. This delay of commitment should ideally be a period of exploration.

Students Who Are Gifted and Talented

Show high performance in one or more areas; students of color are underrepresented in gifted classes because of over-reliance on test scores; students differ from their non-gifted peers intellectually and emotionally; separate classes for gifted and talented students aid achievement but may lower academic self-concept of some students

Autism (IDEA) (Accommodating Student Variability):

Significant difficulty in verbal/nonverbal communication & social interaction that adversely affects educational performance.

Intellectual Disability (ID) (IDEA) (Accommodating Student Variability)

Significant subaverage general intellectual functioning accompanied by deficits in adaptive behavior (how well a person functions in social environments). Formerly called mental retardation.

Response Cost (Behavior Modification)(Behavioral Learning Theory):

Similar to time-out in that it involves the removal of a stimulus (often used w/token economy-losing tokens).

Reliability

Similarity between two rankings of test scores obtained from the same individual

Reliability: Stability in Test Performance (Understanding Standardized Assessment):

Similarity between two rankings of test scores obtained from the same individual.

Reliability

Similarity between two rankings of test scores ontained from the same individual How consistently test takers respond to test items

Rote Rehearsal-A memory -directed tactic (Social Cognitive Theory):

Simplest form of rehearsal; one of the earliest tactics to appear during childhood; not very effective memory tactic; not for long-term storage. (helping students become self-regulated learners)

Exhibition. (14)

Simply a showing of student's learning or ability, and are evaluated based on a predetermined set of criteria. If the students were actively completing science experiments during the assessment, it would be a Demonstration. (14)

Diagnostic test (Type of Achievement standardized test)

Single subject test designed to identify specific strengths and weaknesses

Diagnostic Tests

Single subject tests designed to identify specific strengths and weaknesses

Split-half reliability

Single test divided in half and given two scores for each section (compared to each other to check consistency)

knowledge

Skills, experience, and expertise coupled with information and intelligence that creates a person's intellectual resources

Gronlund

State general objectives, list sample of specific learning outcomes

Gronlund's approach to developing objectives

State general objectives, list sample of specific learning outcomes

The Social Approach to Teaching: Teaching Students How to Learn from Each Other (Approaches to Instruction):

Social (Cooperative) Learning: Competitive reward structures may decrease motivation to learn; cooperative learning characterized by heterogeneous groups, positive interdependence, promote interaction, individual accountability; cooperative learning effects likely due to stimulation of motivation, cognitive development, meaningful learning; students with low/average ability in mixed-ability groups outperform peers in homogeneous groups on problem-solving tests; students with high ability on homogeneous groups score slightly higher than peers in mixed-ability groups; successful technology applications are embedded in an active social environment.

Kohlberg's 6 Stages of Moral Reasoning: Level 3-Stage 5 (Post-Conventional-all about others) (Moral Development Theory):

Social contact orientation. Rules needed to maintain the social order should be based not on blind obedience to authority but on mutual agreement. At the same time, the rights of the individual should be protected.

Multiple Perspectives-Key Idea of Constructivism (Constructivist Learning Theory):

Social interaction & negotiation of understanding with others can help learners construct knowledge. Interacting w/others, learners have the opportunity to gain a perspective different from their own.

Technology to prepare students for assessments

Some state web sites provide content and performance standards, examples of items, practice tests, and test prep programs of for-profit companies

Reflectivity and Impulsivity

Some students seem to be characteristically impulsive, whereas others are characteristically reflective. In problem-solving situations, the impulsive student collects less information, does so less systematically, and gives less thought to various solutions than do more reflective students. Reflective students, in contrast, prefer to spend more time collecting information (which means searching one's memory as well as external sources) and analyzing its relevance to the solution before offering a response.

Tactic

Specific technique that helps achieve the immediate objective

Learning Tactic (Social Cognitive Theory):

Specific technique that helps achieve the immediate objective.

Instructional objective

Specify observable, measurable student behaviors that make it possible to acheive learning goals

Instructional Objectives

Specify observable, measurable student behaviors; work best when students are aware of them

Instructional Objectives (Approaches to Instruction):

Specify observable, measurable student behaviors; work best when students are aware of them (Often confused with educational goals).

Types of Reliability

Split Half Test Retest Alternate Form

Egocentric level

Stage 0. Interpersonal reasoning.

Social information role taking

Stage 1. Interpersonal reasoning.

Self reflective role taking

Stage 2. Interpersonal reasoning.

Multiple role taking

Stage 3. Interpersonal reasoning.

Social and conventional system taking

Stage 4. Interpersonal reasoning.

Standard Error of Measurement

Standard errors you would get if the test was repeated over and over again

Positive Reinforcement (Operant Conditioning) (Behavioral Learning Theory):

Strengthen a Target behavior by presenting a positive reinforcer after the behavior occurs. Examples: praise, recognition, awards, free play

Positive Reinforcement

Strengthen a target behavior by presenting a positive reinforcer after the behavior occurs

Negative Reinforcement

Strengthen a target behavior by removing an aversive stimulus after the behavior occurs

Negative Reinforcement (Operant Conditioning) (Behavioral Learning Theory):

Strengthen a target behavior by removing an aversive stimulus after the behavior occurs. Examples: punishment, time-out, extinction

cognitive domain taxonomy

Stresses Knowledge and intellectual skills

Taxonomy of Affective Objectives

Stresses attitudes and values

Taxonomy of Affective Objectives (Approaches to Instruction):

Stresses attitudes and values

cognitive domain

Stresses knowledge and intellectual skills. It consists of six hierarchically ordered levels of instructional outcomes: knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation.

Cognitive Development View of Motivation

Strive for equilibration; master the environment

Cognitive Development View of Motivation (Motivation/Perception of Self):

Strive for equilibration; master the environment.

Enthusiastic agents of generative change

Strong ability to continually add to their understanding by connecting their personal and professional knowledge with the knowledge they gain from their students which they can use in pedagogical problem solving and in meeting the educational needs of their students.

Perceptual centration

Strong tendency to focus attention on only one character of an object or aspect of a problem or event at a time.

Construction of Ideas

Strongly influenced by the student's prior knowledge; aided by multiple perspectives, self-regulation, and authentic tasks

According to Vygotsky, one's culture -Plays a weak role in cognitive development -Plays no role in cognitive development -Affects how we relate to one another but not how we think -Strongly influences what we learn and how we think.

Strongly influences what we learn and how we think.

Dr. Valentine is explaining the art of writing a good love poem. He stands at the front of the classroom and writes key phrases and transitions on the board. He works very deliberately in hopes that every student will be able to follow his instruction. What term best describes this instructional situation? (13-2)

Structured practice. (13-2) *In this example, the teacher is leading the class through the project. Structured practice is a key component of direct instruction. (13-2)

individualistic structures

Structures characterized by students working alone and earning rewards solely on the quality of their own efforts. The success or failure of other students is irrelevant. All that matters is whether the student meets the standards for a particular task.

cooperative structures

Structures characterized by students working together to accomplish shared goals. What is beneficial for the other students in the group is beneficial for the individual and vice versa.

competitive structures

Structures in which one's grade is determined by how well everyone else in the group performs. E.g. grading on the curve.

Sources of Assessment Error (2)

Student Test

Stanine Score

Student performance indicated with reference to a 9-point scale based on normal curve

Stanine Score (Understanding Standardized Assessment):

Student performance indicated with reference to a 9-point scale based on normal curve

What makes the information-processing/social cognitive approach unique as an instructional approach? a.) Students have choices about what they learn and when they participate. b.) Students are made aware of how they learn and how they can improve. c.) Students are introduced to a new topic only after showing prior learning. d.) Lessons are broken into manageable parts to be learned sequentially.

Students are made aware of how they learn and how they can improve.

Essay Testing

Students are responsible for creating answers on their own

Teacher Expectancy Effect

Students behave in ways that are consistent with expectations that teachers communicate; strong effect of teacher expectancy on achievement, participation; influenced by social class, ethnic background, achievement, attractiveness, gender

Teacher Expectancy Effect (Cultural/Socioeconomic Diversity):

Students behave in ways that are consistent with expectations that teachers communicate; strong effect of teacher expectancy on achievement, participation; teacher expectancies are influenced by social class, ethnic background, achievement, attractiveness, gender.

flipped classroom

Students do their basic reading and practice exercises at home and use class time to discuss concepts, solve problems, or work on projects.

complexity of teaching

Students have different characteristics and need to be understood and taught as individuals and many decisions have to be made before, during and after instruction

One of the defining features of cooperative learning is the use of heterogeneous groups: small groups of students who vary in ability, gender, and socioeconomic status. What does the research say about the effectiveness of heterogeneous vs homogeneous ability groups? (13-2)

Students in mixed ability groups do better on tests of problem solving than students in homogeneous ability groups. (13-2) *Students in heterogeneous groups do better in general than students in homogeneous ability groups. (13-2)

Reciprocal Teaching

Students learn comprehension skills by demonstrating them to peers

Reciprocal Teaching (Social Cognitive Theory):

Students learn comprehension skills by demonstrating them to peers.

Ability Group: Regrouping (Accommodating Student Variability):

Students of the same age, ability, & grade, but from different classrooms come together for instruction in a specific subject, usually reading or math.

Direct Instruction: Independent Practice

Students practice on their own.

What is an example of direct instruction? (13-2)

Students practice solving 2-digit multiplication problems while the teacher circulates among them, offering assistance and preventing off-task behavior when necessary. (13-2) *This is guided practice, a key component of direct instruction. (13-2)

Independent practice

Students practive one their own in class or at home, feedback is delayed

Loss of Voice

Students suppress true beliefs about various topics in the presence of parents, teachers, and classmates of the opposite sex

What is an example of the application of the information-processing/social cognitive approach to instruction? (13-2)

Students use wet sand & measuring cups to study volume & measure. (13-2) *Information-processing/social cognitive approach suggests that teachers design lessons around principles of meaningful learning & teach students how to learn more effectively. (13-2)

What is not an instructional objective? (13-1)

Students who are graduated from the 8th grade will be sufficiently literate. (13-1) *This is an educational goal, not a specific instructional objective. (13-1)

Why are teachers advised to give students a pep talk before administering a standardized test? a.) Students need to know they are cared for. b.) Students who have a positive attitude score higher. c.) Teachers use scores to help improve instruction. d.) Scores are responsive to teachers' suggestions.

Students who have a positive attitude score higher.

Which of the following is a good example of the type of objective that would be included in the affective domain of the taxonomy of educational objectives? (13-1)

Students will be able to express a willingness to identify with and support a particular point of view regarding conservation and the environment. (13-1) *This goal belongs in the "valuing" category of the affective domain. (13-1)

What goal could belong in the cognitive domain of educational objectives? (13-1)

Students will be able to summarize and defend a personally held belief regarding the appropriate role of women in contemporary society. (13-1) *

Why do states provide web-based copies of the state performance standards, samples of test items, and practice tests? a.) Students using the Internet take tests before anyone else. b.) Faculty at the state universities grade all the tests. c.) The online copies solicit feedback from the public. d.) Students will be better prepared for the test.

Students will be better prepared for the test.

Entity Beliefs (Motivation/Perception of Self):

Students with entity beliefs tend to have performance goals and are motivated to get high grades, avoid failure.

Incremental Beliefs (Motivation/Perception of Self):

Students with incremental beliefs tend to have mastery goals and are motivated to learn meaningfully, improve skills.

Direct Instruction: Guided Practice

Students work on problems with teacher assistance.

Guided practice

Students work on their own problems while teacher circulates and corrects errors

Cooperative Learning

Students work together in small groups; fosters better understanding among ethnically diverse students

Cooperative Learning (Multicultural Education Programs) (Cultural/Socioeconomic Diversity):

Students work together in small groups; fosters better understanding among ethnically diverse students

Individualistic structures

Students working alone and earning rewards solely on the quality of their own efforts

Cooperative structures

Students working together to accomplish shared goals

Constructed-response assessment

Students write their own answers to the questions

The Nature of Problem Solving

Studying worked examples is an effective solution strategy; solve the simpler version of a problem first-then transfer the process to a harder problem; break complex problems into manageable parts; work backward when the goal is clear but the beginning state is not; solve a similar problem and then apply the same method; create an external representation of the problem; evaluate solutions to well-structured problems by estimating or checking

The Nature of Problem Solving (Constructivist Learning Theory):

Studying worked examples is an effective solution strategy; solve the simpler version of a problem first-then transfer the process to a harder problem; break complex problems into manageable parts; work backward when the goal is clear but the beginning state is not; solve a similar problem and then apply the same method; create an external representation of the problem; evaluate solutions to well-structured problems by estimating or checking; comprehension of subject matter critical to problem solving.

Assessment of learning. (14)

Summative assessment & assessment of learning as essentially the same. (14) The essence of formative assessment, or assessment for learning, is making assessment a more or less continuous process during an instructional unit by using both formal and informal assessment techniques. The basic purpose of this approach is to generate information that can be used to determine whether or not to reteach parts of a unit or move on to the next one. (14)

A cumulative final exam at the end of a college course would be best categorized as an example of a _____ assessment. (14)

Summative. (14) *A cumulative exam at the end of a college course is representative of a summative assessment because it is intended to sum up how much students have learned over an extended period of time and various tasks. (14)

Guidelines for test preparation

TEXTBOOK *IMPORTANT*

Note Taking-A comprehension-directed tactic (Social Cognitive Theory):

Taking notes & reviewing notes aid retention & comprehension. (helping students become self-regulated learners)

Helping Students Become Self-Regulated Learners

Taking notes and reviewing notes aid retention and comprehension; a strategic learner is a mindful learner; self-regulation skills are learned best in a four-level process: observation, emulation, self-control, self-regulation; people learn to inhibit or make responses by observing others

Be able to recognize characteristics of the social learning approach to teaching

Teach students to learn from each other

Direct Instruction: Structured Practice

Teacher leads class through problem

Structured practice

Teacher leads entire class through each step in a problem or lesson

Orientation

Teacher provides overview of the lesson, explains why, relates material, and tells student what to do

Guided Learning Environments (Approaches to Instruction):

Teachers help students set goals, ask questions, encourage discussions & provide models of problem-solving processes.

meaningful learning

The active creating of knowledge structures from personal experience.

Affective Domain Levels of Learning

The affective domain includes the manner in which you deal with things emotionally, such as feelings, values, appreciation, enthusiasms, motivations, and attitudes. for the purpose of this course: receiving, responding, and valuing

Norm

The average performance of others

situated learning

The concept that knowledge is closely linked to the environment in which it is acquired. The more true to life the task is, the more meaningful the learning will be.

According to Erikson, personality growth occurs in eight stages that are characterized by -Dichotomies that lack any prescribed order, though these stages are nonetheless experienced by most individuals -a perfect balance between positive and negative personality characteristics -The acceptance of desirable qualities and the rejection of negative ones; a preponderance of desirable qualities is what determines how well adjusted someone is -The confrontation and resolution of various crises for better or worse.

The confrontation and resolution of various crises for better or worse

Self-regulation

The consistent and appropriate application of self-control skills to new situations. These individuals set their own performance standards, evaluate the quality of their performance, and reinforce themselves when their performance meets or exceeds their internal standards.

Differentiation

The degree to which guidance or help is based on an individual student's ability, rate of learning, and interests

Equity

The degree to which students are treated equally by the teacher

Cooperation

The degree to which students work with one another on the learning tasks they have been assigned and teachers work with colleagues

content validity

The degree to which the content of a test is representative of the domain it's supposed to cover.

Need for achievement

The desire to attain goals that require skilled performance. Individuals with high degrees of this quality have a stronger expectation of success than they do a fear of failure for most tasks and therefore anticipate a feeling of pride in accomplishment. They also prefer moderately challenging tasks. Individuals with a low degree of this quality avoid such tasks because their fear of failure greatly outweighs their expectation of success, and they therefore anticipate feelings of shame.

Vygotsky: Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) (Cognitive Development Theory):

The difference between what a child can do on his own & what can be accomplished with some assistance.

What doe the piagetian term "egocentrism" refer

The difficulty of understanding another person's perspective

self-description

The disclosure of nonthreatening information such as age, address, major, or organization for which you work the way in which people describe themselves to others - factual

orientation

The first component of direct instruction. The teacher provides an overview of the lesson, explains why students need to learn the upcoming material, relates the new subject either to material learned during earlier lessons or to their life experience, and tells students what they will need to do to learn the material and what level of performance they will be expected to exhibit.

guided practice

The fourth component of direct instruction. Students work at their own desks on problems of the type explained and demonstrated by the teacher. The teacher circulates among the students, checking for and correcting any errors.

David Wechsler's Global Capacity View of Intelligence

The global capacity of the individual to act purposefully, think rationally, and deal effectively with the environment. (Note that it is not just a measure of academic performance in academics).

Student Autonomy

The goal of having the students take as much control over and responsibility for their own learning choices and processes as possible. student autonomy is a key element of self-regulated learning

Identify and explain the 5 elements of a humanistic approach

The humanistic approach pays particular attention to the role of noncognitive variables in learning - very student centered - look at the whole child *Specifically, students' needs, emotions, values, and self-perceptions Assumes that motivation to learn is based on: *material that is personally meaningful *understanding the reasons for one's behavior *a classroom environment that support efforts to learn

Problem solving

The identification and application of knowledge and skills that result in goal attainment.

teacher expectancy effect

The impact that a teacher's expectations about a student's performance may have on the student's actual achievements. the teacher expectancy effect aka which is also referred to as the self-fulfilling prophecy, relates to the finding that teacher expectations can lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy in the classroom. Teachers can, consciously or unconsciously, communicate their expectations to students; students in turn, may behave in the expected fashion.

Identity Achievement Status

The individual has attained a coherent and committed identity based on personal decisions.

what is an example of information processing/social cognitive approach to instruction

The information-processing/social cognitive approach suggests that teachers design lessons around principles of meaningful learning and teach students how to learn more effectively

curiosity and dissatisfaction.

The keys to problem recognition, or problem finding as it is sometimes called, are:

Variable interval reinforcement schedule

The length of time between reinforcements is essentially random but averages out to a predetermined interval. Teachers who give surprise quizzes or call on students to answer oral questions on the average of once every third day are invoking a variable interval schedule.

Areas of agreement Piaget and vygotsky

The magic middle

A child with a face covered in cookie crumbs was asked if he ate a cookie before dinner. He responded "No, because it is against the rules to eat cookies before dinner." In piagetian terms what is this child demonstrating?

The morality of constraint

When teachers are using a norm-referenced grading system, why should a broad base of typical student performance be used rather than a single class? a.) The performance levels within a single class are too homogeneous. b.) The normal level of performance is usually too low. c.) A single class lets weak students too easily earn high grades. d.) Weak students will inevitably fail.

The performance levels within a single class are too homogeneous.

presentation

The second component of direct instruction. This phase initially involves explaining, illustrating, and demonstrating the new material. The last step of the presentation phase is to evaluate students' understanding. This is typically done through a question-and-answer session in which the questions call for specific answers, as well as explanations of how students formulated their answers.

zone of proximal development

The stage when a child can complete a task with help from a parent (or other adult)

A standardized test score that is reported as having a percentile rank of 67 indicates that: (15)

The student did as well as or better than 67% of the students in the norm group. (15) *Percentile ranks indicate the percentage of scores at and below a given score point. A percentile rank of 67 represents a score that is better than or equal to the scores achieved by 67% of the students in the norm group. (15)

Guided practice. (13-2)

The student is working on problems with teacher assistance. (13-2)

predictive validity

The success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict; it is assessed by computing the correlation between test scores and the criterion behavior.

Which of the following best reflects the concept of scaffolding? - students are required to retake tests or work on papers until a minimum passing grade is achieved - Students are asked to write a summary of the previous day's lesson - The teacher ends each lesson with fifteen minutes of drill and practice exercises - The teacher breaks a large project down into smaller pieces and provides an outline to students.

The teacher breaks a large project down into smaller pieces and provides an outline to students - Scaffolding - providing students with various types of aides to help them learn a concept or skill.

A teacher has students write a historical newspaper article as a creative writing assignment to demonstrate their understanding of the causes of the Civil War, and uses a rubric to assess this understanding. Why might there be concern with this assessment's validity? a.) There should be no concern because rubrics prevent extraneous factors from affecting the scoring. b.) The teacher's attention to the creative writing may distract from assessing the students' understanding of history. c.) The validity of the assessment is increased because both history and creative writing are relevant for journalism. d.) This assessment may cause students to change their writing style on the next assignment.

The teacher's attention to the creative writing may distract from assessing the students' understanding of history.

generalization

The tendency for a learned behavior to occur in situations different from the one in which the behavior was learned. When an individual learns to make a particular response to a particular stimulus and then makes the same or a similar response in a slightly different situation.

discrimination

The tendency for a learned behavior to occur in situations that closely resemble the one in which the behavior was learned but not in situations that differ from it. When an individual begins to recognize the unique aspects of seemingly similar situations and thus responds differently.

Students with Emotional Disturbance

The term behavior disorder focuses on behavior that needs to be changed, objective assessment; students tend to be either aggressive or withdrawn; foster interpersonal contact among withdrawn students; use techniques to forestall aggressive or antisocial behavior

Students with Emotional Disturbance (Accommodating Student Variability):

The term behavior disorder focuses on behavior that needs to be changed, objective assessment; students tend to be either aggressive or withdrawn; foster interpersonal contact among withdrawn students; use techniques to forestall aggressive or antisocial behavior

information-processing theory

Theory which seeks to explain how humans attend to, recognize, transform, store, and retrieve information; how people acquire new information, create and store mental representations of information, recall it from memory, and how what they already know guides and determines what and how they will learn.

Howard Gardner's Multiple Intelligences Theory

There are multiple intelligences including logical-mathematical, linguistic, musical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal (understanding of others), intrapersonal (understanding of self), and naturalist (the ability to notice the characteristics that distinguish one plant, mineral, or animal from another and to create useful classification schemes called taxonomies).

Evaluations of ability grouping

There is little to no support for between calss ability grouping. Research on the effect of regrouping for reading or math is invonclusive. Joplin plan yields moderately positive effects compared with instruction in heterogeneous classes. Within class grouping in math and science produced modestly positive results compared to other instructional approaches. Students in homogeneously and hterogeneously grouped classes score similarly on measures of self esteem. Students in high ability classes had more positive attitudes about school and higher education aspirations than students in low ability classrooms. Between class grouping affected the quality of instruction received by students.

Despite the advantages of performance assessments, they pose several challenges for teachers. Name one of those challenges. (14)

They may not be seen as appropriate for high-stakes testing purposes. (14) *For the purpose of high-stakes testing, meaning tests that are used to determine if students have met state learning standards, objective tests are almost always used. Given how much time & effort goes into preparing students for these exams, educators are likely to be reluctant to give up more time for performance assessments. (14)

What is an advantage of short-answer tests? (14)

They require students to recall information. (14) *An advantage of short-answer tests is that they requires students to recall, rather than recognize, information. (14)

psychometric perspective

This approach views intelligence as the use of broad mental abilities to successfully respond to various types of test items.

Joplin Plan

This grouping plan assigns students to heterogeneous classes for most of the day but regroups them across grade levels for reading instruction.

Formative assessment

Transform effect on teaching, shining a light on teaching decisions and see the difference between the intent and effect of their teaching

Bilingual Education (Cultural/Socioeconomic Diversity):

Transition programs focus on rapid shift to English proficiency; maintenance programs focus on maintaining native-language competence; two-way bilingual (TWB) education programs feature instruction in both languages; produce moderate learning gains.

Bilingual Education

Transition programs focus on rapid shift to English proficiency; maintenance programs focus on maintaining native-language competence; two-way bilingual education programs feature instruction in both languages; produce moderate learning gains

Robert Sterberg

Triarchic Theory

Using the New Views of Intelligence to Guide Instruction(Intelligence Theories-Understanding Student Differences):

Triarchic view (Sternberg) suggests that instruction and assessment should emphasize all types of ability; various technology tools may strengthen different intelligences.

Using the New Views of Intelligence to Guide Instruction

Triarchic view suggests that instruction and assessment should emphasize all types of ability; various technology tools may strengthen different intellegiences

Children's academic and personal growth is enhanced when teachers create a classroom environment that satisfies students' social and emotional needs. a. True b. False

True

Computer adaptive testing (CAT) allows students to take tests dynamically geared to their own individual ability levels. a.) True b.) False

True

Humanistically oriented teachers create an environment in which students believe that the teacher understands their needs and wants to help them learn. a. True b. False

True

Technology may be used to prepare students and administer and score standardized tests. a.) True b.) False

True

When properly used, technology is an acceptable tool to both cognitive constructivists and social constructivists. a. True b. False

True

Erikson Birth-2 years-Infants (Psychosocial Development):

Trust vs Mistrust (needs not met/inadequate care)

Psychosocial Crisis - Erikson's theory

Turning points; conflict between opposing psychological qualities

Alternate form reliability

Two equivalent forms given to the same group of students at the same time (compare results)

Multiple Disabilities (IDEA) (Accommodating Student Variability):

Two or more impairments (such as mental retardation-blindness & mental retardation-orthopedic, but not deaf-blindness) that causes such severe educational problems that a child's needs cannot be adequately met by programs designed solely for one of the impairments.

dual-or two-way bilingual program

Two-way bilingual programs (two-way immersion) provide instruction in the language of both the majority and the minority culture.

Three Types of Enrichment for Accelerated Students (Accommodating Student Variability):

Type 1 Enrichment: Exploratory activities that are designed to expose students to topics, events, books, people, & places not ordinarily covered in the regular curriculum. Type 2 Enrichment: Instructional methods & materials aimed at the development of such thinking & feeling processes as thinking creatively, classifying/analyzing data, solving problems, appreciating, & valuing. Type 3 Enrichment: Activities in which students investigate & collect data about a real topic or problem.

Educational Applications of Operant Conditioning

Types of computer-based instruction (CBI) programs include drill and practice, tutorials, simulations, and games; tutorial and simulation programs produce higher achievement than conventional instruction; CBI is no substitute for high-quality teaching; research is unclear about strength of negative effects of corporal punishment

Internalizing students

Typically shy, timid, anxious, and fearful. They are often depressed and lack self-confidence.

Role Confusion

Uncertainty as to what behaviors others will react to favorably;

kohlberg's description of moral development: law and order

Under certain circumstances, rules may have to be disregarded and individual rights should be protected.

regrouping

Under this grouping plan, students are assigned to heterogeneous homeroom classes for most of the day, but are regrouped according to achievement level for one or more subjects.

Teachers who adopt a humanistic approach to instruction are primarily interested in: (13-2)

Understand & addressing students' needs, values, and motives. (13-2) *The humanistic approach pays particular attention to the role of noncognitive variables in learning, specifically students needs, emotions, values, and self-perceptions. (13-2)

2 Forms of Bias

Unfair Penalization Offensiveness

Kohlberg's 6 Stages of Moral Reasoning: Stage 6 (Post-Conventional-all about others) (Moral Development Theory):

Universal Ethical Principle Orientation: Moral decisions should be made in terms of self chosen ethical principles. Once principles are chosen, they should be applied in consistent ways.

Using Technology to Assist Exceptional Students

Universal design for learning (UDL) treats diversity as a strength in learning environments; federal legislation has led to development of various assistive technologies

Using Technology to Assist Exceptional Students (Accommodating Student Variability):

Universal design for learning (UDL) treats diversity as a strength in learning environments; federal legislation has led to development of various assistive technologies.

Suggestions for Teaching

Unpredictable changes in environment usually command attention; attention span can be increased with practice; concrete analogies can make abstract information meaningful

Suggestions for Teaching (Information Processing Theory):

Unpredictable changes in environment usually command attention; attention span can be increased with practice; concrete analogies can make abstract information meaningfulness.

Preconventional Morality

Up to age 9 Young children do not understand the conventions or rules of a society Kohlber

A fourth-grade teacher notices that his students are struggling with understanding science concepts that require basic problem=solving skills. What strategy might the teacher use, based on Piaget's theory of cognitive development?

Use concrete materials or props to solve problems. The students are in Piaget's concrete operational stage, which is characterized by reacting to situations in terms of concrete experiences.

Ill-Structured Problems (Constructivist Learning Theory):

Vaguely stated, unclear solution procedures; vague evaluation standards.

Response cost

With this procedure, a certain amount of positive reinforcement (for example, 5 percent of previously earned tokens) is withdrawn every time a child makes an undesired response.

Technology to assess mastery of students

Use of supplemental educational services computer-based testing programs

Elaborative Rehearsal

Use stored information to aid learning

Elaborative Rehearsal (Information Processing Theory):

Use stored information to aid learning.

Normed excellence

Use the performance of a normed group at the measure against which all other scores are compared

Criterion-referenced tests (15)

Used to determine whether students have achieved sets of objectives at a given level of performance. (15)

when to use criterion referenced tests

Used when it is important to determine what standard of performance is necessary Not appropriate for every situation Sometimes it is more valuable to compare students to others

Norm-Referenced Evaluation. (14)

Used when teachers determine grades by comparing one student with other students & awarding grades on the basis of relative performance. (14)

What is a major advantage of criterion-referenced grading systems? a.) Useful information about students' strengths and weaknesses is provided. b.) Parents learn how well their child compares to other students. c.) The standards for assigning letter grades are objectively determined. d.) Roughly equal percentages of students receive letter grades A through F.

Useful information about students' strengths and weaknesses is provided.

It is Benjamin Bloom's opinion that many contemporary teachers fail to: (13-1)

User higher order objectives that require students to analyze and evaluate. (13-1) *Bloom stated, "Our instructional material, our classroom teaching methods, and our testing methods rarely rise above the lowest category of the Taxonomy - knowledge." (13-1)

Psychomotor Domain (Physical Skills): Perception

Using sense organs to obtain cues needed to guide motor activity.

High-Stakes Testing

Using test results to hold students and educators accountable for achievement; criticized because of structural limitations, misinterpretations/misuse of results, narrow view of motivation, inflexible performance standards

High-Stakes Testing (Understanding Standardized Assessment):

Using test results to hold students and educators accountable for achievement; criticized because of structural limitations, misinterpretations/misuse of results, narrow view of motivation, inflexible performance standards.

alternate-form reliability

Using two interchangeable forms to determine the consistency of a test is checking for alternate-form reliability

A high-school language arts teacher has a student who has emotional and behavioral disabilities that qualify for special education services. This student is quite often disruptive in class, and has to be removed from the classroom and sent to the counselor or principal's office. What non-academic support can the teacher use to assist this student to progress in his learning.

Utilize behavior management strategies to prevent inappropriate actions Although of these supports can be beneficial to learning for students with EBD, only the use of behavior strategies is non-academic

Ill-Structured Problems

Vaguely stated, unclear solution procedures; vague evaluation standards

accommodation

adapting one's current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information

Ill-structured problems

Vaguely stated, unclear solution procedures; vague evaluation standards. Examples are how to identify and reward good teachers, how to improve access to public buildings and facilities for persons with physical disabilities, and how to increase voter turnout for elections.

0.90 Reliability Score =

Very Reliable

According to Erikson, fi Robert has successfully resolved the psychological crisis of adolescent he is now able to -Form a strong romantic attachment to another person, marry, and plan to begin a family -View himself as having a meaningful role in life -Think abstractly about philosophical issues -Understand and group dynamics and get along well with others.

View himself as having a meaningful role in life -Identity vs. role confusion

Technology As An Information-Processing Tool (Information Processing Theory):

Virtual environments provide rich content & context that can support collaborative learning (Information Processing).

Technology as an Information-Processing Tool

Virtual environments provide rich content and context that can support collaborative learning

guided learning environments

Virtual environments where teachers help students set goals, ask questions, encourage discussions, and provide models of problem-solving processes.

Using Technology to Promote Cognitive Development

Virtual learning environments can introduce disequilibrium, promote exploration and visual representations of abstract ideas, and help students construct knowledge; technology can act as and provide expert collaborative partners

Using Technology to Promote Cognitive Development (Psychosocial Development Theory):

Virtual learning environments can introduce disequilibrium, promote exploration and visual representations of abstract ideas, and help students construct knowledge; technology can act as and provide expert collaborative partners.

Loci Method

Visualize items to be learned stored in specific locations

Keyword Method

Visually link the pronunciation of a foreign word to the English translation

Operant Conditioning

Voluntary response strengthened or weakened by consequences that follow

Operant Conditioning (Skinner's Theory) (Behavioral Learning Theory):

Voluntary response strengthened or weakened by consequences that follow.

Why should you ask leading questions to foster discussion?

Vygotsky believed that questioning, one form of scaffolding, is a way to develop mediation. Mediation occurs when a knowledgeable individual interprets a child's thought process or behavior and helps transform it into a mutually accepted understanding.

Intellectual Character

Ways of thinking that direct and motivate productive behavior

Vygotsky was a contemporary of Piaget's whose research in the area of cognitive development in children indicates that.... -The narrower the zone of proximal development, the easier it is to capitalize on instruction and grasp difficult concepts -We learn best when instruction is pitched just above the lower limit of our zone of proximal development -Social interactions and experiences play no role in cognitive development -Problem solving skills and strategies tend to transcend cultural differences.

We learn best when instruction is pitched just above the lower limit of our zone of proximal development

Extinction

Weaken a target behavior by ignoring it

Extinction (Operant Conditioning) (Behavioral Learning Theory):

Weaken a target behavior by ignoring it. Examples: ignoring crying, ignoring disruptive behavior,

Punishment

Weaken a target behavior by presenting an aversive stimulus after the behavior occurs

Punishment (Operant Conditioning) (Behavioral Learning Theory):

Weaken a target behavior by presenting an aversive stimulus after the behavior occurs; research is unclear about strength of negative effects of corporal punishment. Examples: scolding, paddling, ridiculing, writing Strengthen a Target behavior by presenting a positive reinforcer after the behavior occurs.

Time-Out (Operant Conditioning) (Behavioral Learning Theory):

Weaken a target behavior by temporarily removing a positive reinforcer after the behavior occurs; works best with disruptive aggressive children. Examples: removing from reinforcing environment, sitting alone in a room, suspended athlete

Time-Out

Weaken a target behavior by temporarily removing a positive reinforcer after the behavior occurs; works best with disruptive, aggressive children

Weschler's Global Intelligence

Weschler's theory describes the ability to think rationally, act purposefully, and deal effectively in one's setting Ex: a family planning a vacation - they have a task with an engaging purpose and must work logically within various constraints being sure to use sound reasoning -- The family is using rational thought processes for the purpose of solving a complex problem.

between-class ability grouping.

When a school or teacher groups students "based on their ability or achievement," the school is practicing this type of ability grouping. The goal of type of grouping is for each class to be made up of students who are homogeneous in standardized intelligence or achievement test scores.

Direct Reinforcement (Motivation/Perception of Self):

When a student observes a model (classmate, sibling) reaping benefits strive to do the same with the expectation of receiving the same/similar benefits.

Piaget defined the preoperational stage of cognition as prelogical

While children at this age have begun to learn symbols and mental schemes, their actions defy logic

Affective Domain (Values): Receiving

Willingness to receive or attend

WICS Model (Sternberg) (Intelligence Theories-Understanding Student Differences):

Wisdom, Intelligence, Creativity, Sucess

Fixed ratio reinforcement schedule

Within this schedule, reinforcement is provided whenever a predetermined number of responses are made. These schedules tend to produce high response rates because the faster the learner responds, the sooner the reinforcement is delivered.

Acronym

Word made from the first letters of items to be learned

As an example of mastery of formal operations, a teacher might ask a student to -List the advantages and disadvantages of the use of plastic products -Calculate the area of a triangle - name all fifty states - Write an adventure story in which they play the role of the main character

Write an adventure story in which they play the role of the main character -hypothesize

Norman Gronlund

Wrote "Writing Instructional Objectives." - a complete guide for helping future teachers master the task of creating and using instructional objectives in teaching. It shows ways to determine if learning has occurred.

Do neurological changes influence sleep?

YES

Are normal distributions more interpretable compared to other types of tests?

Yes

In his work on the development of moral reasoning in children, Piaget found that....

Young children tend to be much more literal than adolescent in their interpretation of rules -moral realism - see rules as ready made, imposed by an outside authority, and applied to a wrongdoer regardless of the circumstances of the crime

ZPD

Zone of Proximal Development -difference between what a child can do on his own and what can be accomplished with some assistance

Integrated learning systems (ILS)

a computerized system that combines tutorial programs with programs that track student performance and provide feedback to both student and teacher.

intrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior for its own sake and to be effective

extrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment

Response to intervention (RTI)

a diagnostic method to determine if students require the types of services provided by IDEA. When students first begin to demonstrate learning problems, provide research based instruction and see how they respond (a teach-test-teach pattern).

Characteristics of students with learning disabilities

a disorder in one or more basic psychological processes (such as memory, auditory, perception, visual perception). Difficulty with tasks that involve speaking, listening, writing, reading, spelling, mathematics. Problem is not due primarily to other causes. More poorly developed social skills.

Mastery approach

a form of criterion referenced grading in which students are given multiple opportunities to master a set of objectives. Assumes all students can achieve if given good quality instruction, sufficient time to learn and are motivated to learn.

Major provisions of IDEA

a free and appropriate public education. A pre-placement evaluation prior to being placed in a special education program. An individualized education program (IEP) if one receives special education services. Educational services must be provided in the lease restrictive environment. Use of response to intervention (RTI) methods to identify students with learning problems and provide research based instruction.

A learning strategy is

a general plan for achieving a long term academic goal.

Learning strategy

a general plan that a learner formulates for achieving a somewhat distant academic goal.

Piaget's Theory

a general, unifying story of how biology and experience sculpt cognitive development. that we build mental structures to help us adjust to new environmental demands.

test-retest

a method for determining the reliability of a test by comparing a test taker's scores on the same test taken on separate occasions

test-retest reliability

a method for determining the reliability of a test by comparing a test taker's scores on the same test taken on separate occasions

exhibition

a performance test or demonstration of learning that is public and usually takes an extended time to prepare

Motivation is influenced by

a person's inherent need to master his/her environment and to work towards equilibration.

Field-independence

a person's perception of and thinking about a task or problem are influenced more by the person's knowledge base than by the presence of additional information or other people's behavior.

Field-dependence

a person's perception of and thinking about a task or problem are strongly influenced by such contextual factors as additional information and other people's behavior.

alternate forms reliability

a procedure for testing the reliability of a test by comparing two equivalent versions of a test - makeup exams, similar in content but varying in form - it can be very difficult to create exactly equivalent tests

alternate forms reliability

a procedure for testing the reliability of responses to survey questions in which subjects' answers are compared after the subjects have been asked slightly different versions of the questions or when randomly selected halves of the sample have been administered slightly different versions of the questions

Normed Excellence

a sample of individuals carefully chosen so as to reflect the larger population of students for whom the test is intended

fixed-ratio schedule

a schedule of reinforcement that is regular and not based on amount of time between reinforcers

Low road transfer

a situation in which a previously learned skill or idea is almost automatically retrieved from memory and applied to a highly similar current task.

General transfer

a situation in which prior learning aids and subsequent learning due to the use of similar cognitive strategies.

Specific transfer

a situation in which prior learning aids subsequent learning because of specific similarities between two tasks.

Positive transfer

a situation in which prior learning aids subsequent learning.

Zero transfer

a situation in which prior learning has no effect on new learning.

Negative transfer

a situation in which prior learning interferes with subsequent learning.

High road transfer

a situation involving the conscious, controlled, somewhat effortful formulation of an "abstraction" that allows a connection to be made between two tasks.

Vygotsky's Theory

a sociaocultural cognitive theory that emphasizes how culture and social interaction guide cognitive development.

Cultural pluralism

a society should strive to maintain the different cultures that reside within it. Each culture should be respected by others. Individuals within a society have the right to participate in all aspects of that society without having to give up their cultural identity.

Learning tactic

a specific technique that a learner uses to accomplish an immediate learning objective.

reflective teaching

a teacher's habit of examining and evaluating his or her teaching on a regular basis using different approaches for different students , with an open-minded attitude of commitment and enthusiasm, is a reflective quality without which effective teaching is unlikely

Concept mapping

a technique for identifying, visually organizing and representing the relationships among a set of ideas.

culture-fair/culture-free test

a test without cultural bias

social learning

a theory that suggests we learn social behaviors by watching and imitating others

What are the major advantages of computer-based testing (CBT)? a. Scores are readily available for student feedback. b. Randomizing sequences of test items reduces cheating. c. Computers are affordable for school districts. d. Computer capabilities include graphics to create novel test items. e. Students can take multiple practice tests online.

a. Scores are readily available for student feedback. b. Randomizing sequences of test items reduces cheating. d. Computer capabilities include graphics to create novel test items. e. Students can take multiple practice tests online.

What are the benefits of using scoring rubrics? a. Scoring objectivity, consistency, and efficiency increase. b. The rubric fully and objectively defines all required tasks. c. Instruction more closely matches the performance measured. d. Students become aware of the range of performance standards. e. Students may monitor progress and make changes to products.

a. Scoring objectivity, consistency, and efficiency increase. c. Instruction more closely matches the performance measured. d. Students become aware of the range of performance standards. e. Students may monitor progress and make changes to products.

What types of technology tools assess performance? a. Simulation programs show scientific inquiry skills. b. Digital portfolios extend the types of products that show mastery. c. GLOBE assesses students' abilities to perform scientific inquiry. d. Adventure learning demonstrates real world problem solving. e. Websites that provide rubrics can substitute for teachers' professional judgment.

a. Simulation programs show scientific inquiry skills. b. Digital portfolios extend the types of products that show mastery. c. GLOBE assesses students' abilities to perform scientific inquiry. d. Adventure learning demonstrates real world problem solving.

Under what conditions do instructional objectives help students learn best? a. Students are aware of objectives. b. Objectives are clearly written. c. Information is intentionally learned. d. Information is incidentally learned. e. The learning task is neither too difficult nor too easy.

a. Students are aware of objectives. b. Objectives are clearly written. c. Information is intentionally learned. e. The learning task is neither too difficult nor too easy.

What are the major characteristics of performance assessments? a. They show what students can do. b. They require less time to administer and score than other tests. c. They use realistic and authentic tasks. d. They are similar to how students were taught. e. They are responsive to cultural diversity.

a. They show what students can do. c. They use realistic and authentic tasks. d. They are similar to how students were taught. e. They are responsive to cultural diversity.

What has research found about the effects of high-stakes testing on the school curriculum? a. What is taught and what is tested are better aligned to state standards. b. The curriculum has narrowed to make room for more reading and math. c. State tests cover specific aspects of reading and math that teachers emphasize. d. Social studies, science, art, and music curricula receive greater attention. e. Instructional time for reading increased at the expense of recess.

a. What is taught and what is tested are better aligned to state standards. b. The curriculum has narrowed to make room for more reading and math. c. State tests cover specific aspects of reading and math that teachers emphasize. e. Instructional time for reading increased at the expense of recess.

A constructivist approach to teaching: a. avoids the use of direct instruction. b. does not satisfy state learning standards. c. emphasizes the role of physical and social activity in learning. d. emphasizes the importance of multiple viewpoints. e. avoids rigorous assessment practices.

a. avoids the use of direct instruction. c. emphasizes the role of physical and social activity in learning. d. emphasizes the importance of multiple viewpoints.

What elements are contained in a rubric? a. content standards b. performance standards c. scoring levels d. work samples e. selected responses

a. content standards b. performance standards c. scoring levels

What school-related outcomes are associated with satisfying students' need to belong? a. increased intrinsic motivation to learn b. willingness to follow classroom rules and norms c. greater interest in socializing than learning d. higher expectations of success and achievement e. positive attitudes toward school, teachers, and classwork

a. increased intrinsic motivation to learn b. willingness to follow classroom rules and norms d. higher expectations of success and achievement e. positive attitudes toward school, teachers, and classwork

What outcomes may result from cooperative classroom goal structures? a. obtaining rewards by meeting shared group goals b. believing that what is beneficial for the group is good for the individual c. positive interdependence in which students obtain rewards for group effort d. viewing classmates' shortcomings as personally advantageous e. focusing on effort and cooperation as the primary basis of motivation

a. obtaining rewards by meeting shared group goals b. believing that what is beneficial for the group is good for the individual c. positive interdependence in which students obtain rewards for group effort e. focusing on effort and cooperation as the primary basis of motivation

The reliability of a standardized test is demonstrated when scores show similar rankings: a. on two halves of the test. b. with a different age group. c. on a retest. d. from two classrooms. e. on an alternate test form.

a. on two halves of the test. c. on a retest. e. on an alternate test form.

What are key elements of approaches to cooperative learning? a. promotive interaction with opportunities for team success b. individual accountability for contributions to group success c. negative interdependence of goals and rewards d. team competition to encourage students toward greater effort e. interpersonal skills of communication, trust, and conflict management

a. promotive interaction with opportunities for team success b. individual accountability for contributions to group success d. team competition to encourage students toward greater effort e. interpersonal skills of communication, trust, and conflict management

The Common Core State Standards: a. provide a common set of content standards for all school districts. b. were designed to prepare students for college and the workplace. c. require rigorous standardized tests in grades K-2. d. measure student achievement by standardized tests. e. have been adopted by all 50 states.

a. provide a common set of content standards for all school districts. b. were designed to prepare students for college and the workplace. d. measure student achievement by standardized tests.

What roles does computer-based technology play in standardized testing programs? a. providing practice tests b. assessing student mastery of state standards c. familiarizing students with programming languages d. providing remedial online instruction e. creating tests geared to a student's ability level

a. providing practice tests b. assessing student mastery of state standards d. providing remedial online instruction e. creating tests geared to a student's ability level

What does technology contribute to students' thinking and sharing? a. quick access to information b. guaranteed quality of information c. convenience of sharing d. learning without teacher mediation e. social networks appropriate to children

a. quick access to information c. convenience of sharing e. social networks appropriate to children

How do teachers commonly measure learning? a. quizzes or exams b. standardized tests c. homework exercises d. written essays e. oral presentations

a. quizzes or exams c. homework exercises d. written essays e. oral presentations

How have standardized tests been used historically? a. to identify general strengths and weaknesses in student achievement b. to inform parents of their child's general level of achievement c. to plan instructional lessons for the content covered by the test d. to demonstrate what students could do with the information they learned e. to recommend students for placement in special programs

a. to identify general strengths and weaknesses in student achievement b. to inform parents of their child's general level of achievement c. to plan instructional lessons for the content covered by the test e. to recommend students for placement in special programs

How might electronic gradebooks be used for classroom assessment? a. to store records of student test performance b. to objectively compute and accumulate averages c. to indicate instrument validity and reliability d. to note students with particular characteristics e. to accurately substitute for professional judgment

a. to store records of student test performance b. to objectively compute and accumulate averages d. to note students with particular characteristics

What are Robert Mager's recommendations for preparing specific instructional objectives? a.) Describe how learners will demonstrate achievement. b.) Name the behavioral act that indicates achievement. c.) Group learning performances together for simplicity. d.) Define the conditions under which behavior will occur. e.) State criteria for acceptable performance of the behavior.

a.) Describe how learners will demonstrate achievement. b.) Name the behavioral act that indicates achievement. d.) Define the conditions under which behavior will occur. e.) State criteria for acceptable performance of the behavior.

What general components of direct instruction are identified by Joyce and Weil? a.) orientation b.) inquiry c.) structured practice d.) guided practice e.) presentation

a.) orientation c.) structured practice d.) guided practice e.) presentation

Bodily-kinesthetic

abilities to control one's body movements and to handle objects skillfully. Dancer/athlete

Adaptation Psychomotor Learning

ability to change motor response when unexpected problems occur

Self-control

ability to control one's actions in the absence of external reinforcement or punishment.

Naturalist

ability to recognize and classify the plants and animals of one's environment and their relationships on a logical, justifiable basis. Botanist/entomologist

Piaget: Conservation: (Preoperational Stage: Preschool/Primary Grades) (Cognitive Development Theory):

ability to recognize properties stay the same despite change in shape or size of quantity, mass, volume, etc.

decentration (Piaget)

ability to think of more than one quality at a time

Intrapersonal

access to one's own feelings and the ability to discriminate among them and draw upon them to guide behavior. Person with detailed accurate self-knowledge

New findings mean revised ideas

accumulated knowledge leads researchers to revise original ideas.

Sampling

act of selecting sample for analyzing.

What does the Piagetian term "operation" describe

actions carried out through logical thinking

Schemes (Piaget)

actions or mental representations that organize knowledge; mental patterns that guide behavior

Written tests are used to

assess how much people know about a certain topic. These tests are used to assess such things as knowledge about concepts, facts, and principles. While a pop quiz can be in written form, it can also be a verbal quiz - this is also an example of performance assessment

Testing for a diverse group (learning skills and motivation) should

assess what students have learned everyday with a variety of brief assessments

criterion-referenced grading

assessment of each student's mastery of course objectives

Criterion-referenced grading

assessment of each students mastery of course objectives (criteria is set out in advance (preferred grading system, relates students accomplishment to the original objectives and goals of the course) everyone can do well in this type of system

summative assessment is synonymous with the phrase

assessment of learning

Norm-referenced grading

assessment of students' achievement in relating to one another. Grading on the curve.

norm-referenced grading

assessment of students' achievement in relation to one another

authentic assessments

assessment procedures that test skills and abilities as they would be applied in real-life situations

Mastery learning

assumes most children can master the curriculum if certain conditions are established.

What is measured in a criterion-referenced grading system? a.) achievement in comparison to other students b.) attainment of a defined standard performance c.) student motivation to learn content and skills d.) cognitive and affective ability levels

attainment of a defined standard performance

cognitive processes that occur as we process information

attention recognition transformation storage retrieval

Sequence of cognitive processes

attention, recognition, transformation, storage, retrieval.

Mr. Jones wants his third grade students to add and subtract integers, so he sets up a store in his classroom in which students purchase candy bars and one student acts as the store cashier. What type of assessment is Mr. Jones conducting as he observes the interactions of cashier and customers? a.) portfolio b.) exhibition c.) authentic d.) summative

authentic

Albert Bandura

author of Social Cognative Theory

By providing time for free play, a preschool teacher is helping children develop a sense of

autonomy

Erikson 2-3 Years

autonomy vs shame and doubt

mean

average

Metacognition

awareness and monitoring of ones learning processes. At 7-8 they realize that learning and memory arise from cognitive processes under their control. They begin to realize when they are not comprehending material.

Trust vs Mistrust

birth to 1 year. Erikson

What consequences are associated with competitive classroom goal structures? a. seeking challenging subjects and persisting on difficult tasks b. expecting grades to be allocated on a curve c. believing that ability is the reason for success or failure d. students trying to outdo each other e. helping struggling classmates better understand lessons

b. expecting grades to be allocated on a curve c. believing that ability is the reason for success or failure d. students trying to outdo each other

What are the major purposes of teacher-made assessments? a. keeping students motivated b. highlighting students' strengths and weaknesses c. providing feedback about effectiveness of study habits d. assessing mastery of specific learning objectives e. providing information about instructional decisions

b. highlighting students' strengths and weaknesses c. providing feedback about effectiveness of study habits d. assessing mastery of specific learning objectives e. providing information about instructional decisions

What are the major criteria used to evaluate standardized tests? a. cost per examinee b. reliability c. validity d. normed excellence e. examinee appropriateness

b. reliability c. validity d. normed excellence e. examinee appropriateness

What are the major advantages of essay tests? a. are easy and objective to score b. require higher-level cognitive skills c. encourage meaningful learning of material d. reveal organization and communication skills e. can be graded consistently

b. require higher-level cognitive skills c. encourage meaningful learning of material d. reveal organization and communication skills

What factors create measurement errors in standardized tests? a. students' socioeconomic backgrounds b. test anxiety c. motivation d. correct guesses e. items worded vaguely

b. test anxiety c. motivation d. correct guesses e. items worded vaguely

Technology for Classroom Assessment (Assessment of Classroom Learning):

be aware of & avoid faulty measurement & grading practices; technological environments allow for a wide array of performances; special rubrics are available to asses digital portfolios & presentations.

Skinner's basic principles

be clear about what is to be taught, teach first things first, present material in small/logical steps, allow students to learn at their own rate.

Intelligence test scores can

be improved with systematic instruction.

Social characteristics of grades 1-3

become somewhat more selective in their choice of friends and are likely to have a more permanent best friend, like organized games but may become overly concerned with rules, quarrels are still frequent.

7 steps of taxonomy for the psychomotor domain step 4 *mechanism

being able to perform a task habitually with some degree of confidence and proficiency

7 steps of taxonomy for the psychomotor domain step 2 *set

being ready to perform a particular action

A child who is concrete operational is... -able to imagine what his friends would think of him if he could lift four hundred pounds -Able to generalize from experiences to a broad range of situations -unable to feel sympathy for a classmate who has broken an arm -Believes that extenuating circumstances should be considered

believes that extenuating circumstances should be considered

Note taking

benefits retention and comprehension when students take notes and review notes.

Global

big overall view of the task before you get started on the work.

What is thee last part of the brain to develop

cerebral cortext

NCLB (No child left behind act)

changes how teachers teach

Intelligence tests do not measure several

characteristics that contribute to academic and life success.

Evaluating portfolios and performance

checklists or eating scales. Scoring rubrics

Lev Vygotsy

children cognitive development is heavily influenced by social and cultural factors; children's thinking develops through dialogues with more capable people

classroom assessments

classroom assessments are selected and created by teachers and can take many different forms

Anything that enhances

classroom performance will likely have a positive effect on intelligence test performance.

instructional objectives

clear statement of what students are intended to learn through instruction

Well structured problems

clearly formulated, solved by specific procedure, solution evaluated against agreed-upon standard.

Foreclosure

close-minded, authoritarian, low in anxiety, has difficulty solving problems under stress, feels superior to peers, more dependent on parents for approval and guidance.

Limitations of cognitive views

cognitive development, need for achievement, attribution theory and beliefs about ability.

Vygotsky's Psychological Tools (Cognitive Development Theory):

cognitive devices & procedures with which we communicate & explore the world around us (speech, writing, gestures, diagrams, numbers, chemical formulas, musical rotation, rules, memory techniques).

Norm-Referenced Testing

testing in which scores are compared with the average performance of others

Self regulation refers to

consistently using self control skills in new situations.

Banks basic approaches

contributions approach, ethnic additive approach, transformative approach, decision-making and social action approach.

A student who applies a constructivist approach in their assignment would

create a story about building a snowman to help him learn the water cycle

Hippocampus

critical in recalling new information

High stakes tests

criticized because of structural limitations, misinterpretation/misuse of results, narrow view of motivation, inflexible performance standards

Standard Deviation

degree of deviation from the mean of a distribution

Variability

degree of difference or deviation from the mean

Mager's recommendations for use of specific objectives

describe what you want learners to be doing when demonstrating achievement and indicate how you will know they are doing it. In your description, identify and name the behavioral act that indicates achievement, define the conditions under which the behavior is to occur and state the criterion of acceptable performance. Write a separate objective for each learning performance.

Objective development

describes an approach that describes what students should be able to do at the end of the lesson

Sternberg's triarchic theory of successful intelligence

design lessons and assessments that call for the use of analytical ability, creative ability, practical ability and memory ability for all subjects.

Gardner's multiple intelligences theory

design lessons and assessments that call for the use of several intelligences for all subjects.

Premack Principle (Grandma's Rule)

desired activity reinforced by allowing the individual to engage in a more desirable activity Students are allowed to engage in an activity of their own choice as soon as they finish a workbook assignment "you can have dessert after you eat your vegetables" = grandma's rule

Competency test (Type of Achievement standardized test)

determines whether potential graduates possess basic skills; often taken to graduate.

Emotional characteristics of grades 4-5

develop a more global, integrated and complex self-image that is composed of a self-description, self-esteem and self-concept, disruptive family relationships, social rejection and school failure may lead to delinquent behavior.

Social characteristics of middle school

development of interpersonal reasoning leads to greater understanding of the feelings of others. The desire to conform reaches a peak at this age.

Limbic system

develops early

Selection and interpretation of data

differences of opinion result from this.

alternate forms

different versions of the same test or measure

Piaget: Egocentrism (Preoperational Stage: Preschool/Primary Grades) (Cognitive Development Theory):

difficult for a child to take another's point of view.

Visual Encoding (Information Processing Theory):

directing students to generate visual images as they read; produces higher level of comprehension & recall (short-term memory).

Group Option 3

discontinue all forms of ability grouping. (detracking)

Group Option 1

discontinue full-day between-class ability grouping. (tracking)

Identifying students with learning disabilities

discrepancy between achievement and standardized achievement tests.

Permissive

disorganized and inconsistent, allow children to make own decisions, make few demands of children.

Range

distance between the highest and the lowest scores in a group

Erikson's psychosocial theory

encompasses the life span, highlights the role of the person and culture in development.

Verbal persuasion

encouragement from others.

Late maturing boys

energetic, bouncy, given attention-getting behavior, not popular, lower aspirations for educational achievement. As adults, impulsive, assertive, insightful, perspective, creatively playful, able to cope with new situations.

Authoritative

establish limits and explain reasons for restrictions, encouraging, warm and affectionate.

Contributions approach

ethnic historical figures whos values and behaviors are consistent with American mainstream culture are studied while individuals who have challenged the dominant view are ignored.

Analytic approaches to grading

evaluating varying aspects of their performance separately

Self-concept

evaluative judgements people make of themselves in specific domains (academics, athletics, social interactions, physical appearance).

Credible research evidence

evidence that may not be true but is evidence worthy of belief or worthy to be considered.

preconventional morality

first level of Kohlberg's stages of moral development in which the child's behavior is governed by the consequences of the behavior; before age 9, children show morality to avoid punishment or to gain rewards

Twice-Exceptional Students (Accommodating Student Variability):

exceptional because they are gifted & talented & they are exceptional because they are challenged in some intellectual, social, physical, or emotional way.

Mastery performance

experience of success.

Physical characteristics of grades 1-3

extremely active and need breaks (recess) which enhance cognitive functioning, need rest and become fatigued easily, large muscle control is still superior to fine coordination, may have difficulty focusing on small print or objects, tend to be extreme in their physical activities, bone growth is not yet complete.

Informal feedback

facial expressions, yawning, restlessness, disruptive behavior.

What is the main purpose of formative assessment? a.) assigning a letter or numeric grade to student work b.) reporting student progress to parents c.) comparing the performance of one school to others in a district d.) facilitating learning and improving achievement

facilitating learning and improving achievement

The nature of recognition, noting key

features of a stimulus and relating them to already stored information.

Witkin

field-dependence and field-independence

Assimilation

fitting new info into existing schemes

Compile relevant information (step 3)

for well structured problems, recall relevant information from LTM. For ill structured problems, seek external sources of information.

What kind of evaluation is being used when a teacher provides critical comments to students as a means of shaping their next oral presentations? a.) formative assessment b.) summative assessment c.) portfolio assessment d.) standardized assessment

formative assessment

Assessment as learning

formative assessment, properly done, helps teachers become more effective and helps students become better learners.

pretest

formative test for assessing students' knowledge, readiness, and abilities

Gronlund's recommendations for use of general objectives

formulate general objectives of instruction that describe types of behavior students should exhibit. Under each general instructional objective, list up to five specific learning outcomes that provide a representative sample of what students should be able to when they have achieved the general objective.

The Value of Frequent Testing

frequent testing encourages learning and retention

fMRI

functional magnetic resonance magining

Spearman's two factor theory of intelligence

general factor, affects performance on all intellectual tests. Specific factor, affects performance only on specific intellectual tests.

Visual imagery encoding

generating images in your mind of objects, ideas and actions. Dual coding theory explains memory effect.

Maturation

genetically programmed naturally occurring changes over time

Item discriminating

gives you the relative proportion of high scoring and low scoring student getting a particular item/question correct

Situated learning

giving learning tasks situated in realistic contexts.

a kindergarten teacher can help her students develop in a healthy fashion by

giving them the freedom to explore and taking the time to answer questions according to Erikson, children who are encouraged by adults and given the freedom to explore and experiment will develop the desire to initiate these undertakings. Children who are not encouraged, or who are made to feel guilty for their initiative, may have a problem successfully resolving this stage.

steps of taxonomy for the cognitive domain Step 2* Comprehension

grasping the meaning of information by putting it into one's own words

Age graded classrooms

grouping students of similar age for the purpose of instruction. Made necessary by large influx of children due to compulsory attendance laws, child labor laws, large numbers of immigrant children.

Ability grouping

grouping students of similar intellectual ability for the purpose of instruction.

Team competition

groups, if well matched, may compete with one another.

Multiple perspectives, students should

have the opportunity to view ideas and problems from multiple ways.

Before introducing new material, teachers should

have their students thorough understand the existing material (problems they are working on) Understanding how to work an unfamiliar problem requires knowledge of the subject matter and familiarity with the problem type.

Instructional goals

help low-achieving minority and/or low-SES students master both basic and higher-level skills.

Reflection

how and why are you teaching this way.

Self-efficacy

how capable or prepared we believe we are for handling particular kinds of tasks.

Z score

how far a raw score is from the mean in standard deviation units

self-esteem

how much you value, respect, and feel confident about yourself how you feel about yourself self-judgement, and negative/positive feelings based on how you feel about yourself

Metacognitive skills

how those operations are used to achieve a learning goal.

Epigenetic principles - Erikson's Theory

idea that develpment progresses through a series of interrelated stages and that each stage has a critical period of development

Knowledge integration

identifies a process which helps the learner make connections between prior and current learning.

Concept mapping helps students

identify, visually organize and represent relationships among a set of ideas and helps aid recall and comprehension.

According to Marcia, what identity status is usually the last to emerge developmentally

identity achievement - this type of adolescent seeks out interpersonal relationships is capable of making mature, informed decisions after carefully considering all potential alternatives

Marcia's four identity statuses

identity diffusion, foreclosure, moratorium, identity achievement.

Erikson 12-18 Years

identity vs role confusion

Issues

ill structured problems that arouse strong feelings and drive people into opposing camps as to the nature of and solution to the problem.

Stanfor-Binet intelligence test

in 1904 Alfred Binet creat a test to predict which children would need special education and which would not. In 1916, Lewis Terman revised Binet's test and included a summary score called the intelligence quotient or IQ.

Irreversibility

in Piaget's theory, the inability of the young child to mentally reverse an action (cannot mentally pour water from a tall glass into a shorter wide glass and know it is the same amount of water

Egocentrism

in Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view

formal operational

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts

Reflectivity

in a problem-solving situation the student prefers to spend more time collecting information and analyzing its relevance to the solution before offering a response.

Impulsivity

in a problem-solving situation the student responds quickly with the little collection or analysis of information.

Visual imagery encoding, generating images

in your mind of objects, ideas and actions. Dual coding theory explains memory effect.

Definition of emotional disturbance

inability to learn not due to intellectual, sensory or health factors. Inability to build or maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships with peers and teachers. Inappropriate types of behaviors or feelings under normal circumstances. Tendency to develop physical symptoms or fears associated with personal or school problems.

Behavioral patters

include self-observations, self-evaluations, making changes in behavior to overcome or reduce perceptions, and creating productive study environments.

Decision-making and social action approach

incorporates components of all the other approaches and adds the requirement that making decisions and taking actions concerning a concept, issue or problem being studied.

Norman Gronlund instructional objectives

indicate that under each general instructional objective, the teacher should list up to five specific learning outcomes that provide a representative sample of what students should be able to do when they have achieved the general objective

Meaningful learning occurs when

individuals construct a personal interpretation of the world by filtering new ideas and experiences through existing knowledge structures (schemes).

Global Capacity View

individuals to act purposefully, think rationally and deal effectively with the environment in which they find themselves.

one assumption of constructivism is that meaningful learning is the result of

individuals using their knowledge and experience to create a personal view of the world Constructivist theory assumes that individuals must draw on their own knowledge and experience to construct their own interpretation of new knowledge as opposed to simply accepting the ideas of others.

Flow and engagement

individuals who experience periodic states of intense concentration, sustained interest and enjoyment of an activity's challenge are said to be in a flow state.

Marcia's Four Identity Statuses (Psychosocial Development) Identity Achievement Status:

individuals who have made their own commitments (introspective, more planful, logical, high self-esteem, works well under stress, forms close relationships).

Erikson 6-11 Years

industry vs inferiority; students' sense of industry hampered by unhealthy competition for grades

Information held in long term memory can

influence what we selectively perceive and find meaningful.

Maintenance rehearsal is to hold

information for immediate use.

Assumption of information processing

information is processed in steps or stages. There are limits on how much information can be processed at each stage. The human information processing system is interactive.

Maintenance rehearsal

information is repeated over and over again with no effect on long term memory storage.

Maintenance rehearsal (rote rehearsal)

information is repeated over and over again with no effect on long term memory.

Lack of retrieval cues

information that was part of the original material is not available later.

Erikson 4-5 Years

initiative vs guilt

Concept Mapping (Approaches to Instruction):

instructional strategy that requires learners to identify, graphically display, and link key concepts; popular method for organizing & spatially representing the relationship among a set of ideas.

Intelligence tests sample

intellectual capabilities that relate to classroom achievement better than they relate to anything else.

Psychometric

intelligence is something that we can measure.

Robert Sternberg

intelligence; devised the Triarchic Theory of Intelligence (academic problem-solving, practical, and creative) ex: Teacher is using instructional and assessment methods that take into account the different ability patterns of her students. She has incorporated memory, analytical, creative and practical tasks in her instruction and assessment of student achievement.

Situational interest

interest in a subject is more temporary and based on unusualness of information or personal relevance.

Assimilation

interpreting one's new experience in terms of one's existing schemas

Schemata

interrelated networks of associated ideas into which new knowledge is assimilated.

Teaching as inquiry is described as a systematic process that includes:

it is to use formative assessment, which is a type of assessment that can be used before the end of a lesson or unit, to collect data on students' comprehension and progress. Results from formative assessments can be used on a daily basis to modify a lesson to allow for gaps in understanding, or to adapt to alternate teaching methods that might better support students.

behavior view of motivation

it suggests that students are motivated to complete a task by the desire to obtain an extrinsic reinforcement

For a teacher, the most difficult part of essay testing is...

judging the quality of the answers

Asking questions

keeping your eyes and ears open as students deal with the lessons and tasks, if one ore more students are not making progress, start asking yourself questions about why.

When a student is able to repeat facts and terms that appear in the textbook, what level of Bloom's taxonomy for the cognitive domain has been met? a.) knowledge b.) synthesis c.) application d.) analysis

knowledge

Taxonomies of objectives for the cognitive domain:

knowledge comprehension application analysis synthesis evaluation

Far transfer

knowledge domains and settings are judged to be dissimilar and the time between the original learning and transfer tasks is relatively long.

Near transfer

knowledge domains are highly similar, the settings in which the original learning and transfer tasks occur are basically the same and the elapsed time between the two tasks is relatively short.

Schemes

knowledge framework

Inert knowledge

knowledge that can be accessed only under conditions that mimic the original conditions under which it was learned. Knowledge is not seen as related to other knowledge.

Bloom's Taxonomy

knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, evaluation

Bloom's taxonomy (cognitive taxonomy)

knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, evaluation.

norm group

large sample of students serving as a comparison group for scoring tests

central tendency

typical score for a group of scores

mnemonics

learning aids, strategies, and devices that improve recall through the use of retrieval cues

Social learning, cognitive, theory

learning result from interactions among personal characteristics, behavioral patters, environmental factors.

Social Cognative Theory

learning results from interactions among three different areas; behavioral patterns, personal characteristics and environmental factors.

concept mapping

learning tactic that helps students help students identify, visually organize, and represent relationships among a set of ideas, and helps aid recall and comprehension

A parent wonders whether it would be beneficial for his child to attend preschool. According to Vygotsky the best reason for attending would be that a young child:

learns most in the company of peers and interested adults.

Mental self-government styles (Sternberg)

legislative, executive, judicial, monarchic, hierarchic, oligarchic, anarchic, global, local, internal, external, liberal, conservative.

The appraisal of intelligence is

limited by the fact that it cannot be measured directly.

Inadequate consolidation

new material that was not adequately learned.

Multiple Intelligences Theory

logical-mathematical, linguistic, musical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalist.

Gathering data

look over the questions you have asked and look at previous experiences.

Pretests

low pressure situations that provide students practice with test taking, giving teachers and understanding of the previous knowledge

Authoritarian

make demands and wield power, failure to take into account child's view, lack of warmth.

Rejecting-neglecting

make no demands, do not respond to emotional needs of children.

Evaluation

making judgement about the adequacy or acceptability of each student's level of learning.

steps of taxonomy for the cognitive domain Step 6 Evaluation

making judgments based on internal evidence or external criteria

Accountability

making teachers and schools responsibility for student learning.

accountable

making teachers and schools responsible for student learning, usually by monitoring learning with high-stakes tests

Emotional characteristics of high school

many psychiatric disorders either appear or become prominent during adolescence (eating disorders, substance abuse, schizophrenia, depression, suicide). The most common type of emotional disorder during adolescence is depression (more common among female and students of color).

Non-meaningful learning

material that cannot be related to existing schemes.

Few opportunities for retrieval

material that is subject to too few tests.

grade-equivalent score

measure of grade level based on comparison with norming samples from each grade

Grading equivalent score

measure of grade level based on comparison with norming samples from each grade (usually listed as a number, a period, then another number)

Performance assessment

measure students ability to use knowledge and skills to solve realistic problems

Standard deviation

measures of how widely scores cry from the mean

mnemonic devices

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices strategies for retrieving memory

Females outscore males on

memory, language use.

Generativity vs stagnation

middle age. Erikson

information processing model

model of memory that assumes the processing of information for memory storage is similar to the way a computer processes memory in a series of three stages: encoding storage retrieval

Formative assessment

monitor progress and plan instruction accordingly.

Universal ethical principle orientation

moral decisions should be based on consistent applications of self-chosen ethical principles.

Carol Gilligan

moral development studies to follow up Kohlberg. She studied girls and women and found that they did not score as high on his six stage scale because they focused more on relationships rather than laws and principles. Their reasoning was merely different, not better or worse

Postconventional Morality

moral principles that underlie the conventions of a society are understood Kohlberg

morality of constraint (Piaget)

moral realism up to age 10 absolute moral perspective (right or wrong) level of guilt determined by damage done rules are unbreakable rules should be obeyed because they are handed out by older authorities

morality of cooperation (Piaget)

moral relativism age 10 and up believes rules are flexibles, understands different viewpoints considers intentions when determining guilt punishment = restitution or facing same fate as victim peer aggression should be punished by retaliatory behavior rules should be followed because of mutual concerns for rights of others

Self-image of grades 4-5

more developed, integrated and stable than in the primary years and is a self-portrait of oneself.

Lev Vygotsky

most famous for social development theory (of child cognitive development)

Physical characteristics of high school

most students reach physical maturity and virtually all attain puberty. Many are sexually active but the long-term trend is down. Birthrate for unmarried adolescents has fallen in recent years but is still high. Rate of sexually transmitted diseases is also high.

Maslow's theory of growth motivation

motivation is influenced by fulfilling different levels of need, deficiency needs must be met in order for a student to be motivated to learn and fulfill his/her potential (self-actualization), teachers should do what they can to satisfy students deficiency needs.

Intrinsic motivation

motivation that comes from the inside.

Extrinsic motivation

motivation that comes from the outside.

objective testing

multiple-choice, matching, true/false, short-answer, and fill-in tests; scoring answers does not require interpretation

Cognitive characteristics of middle school

need a classroom environment that is open, supportive and intellectually stimulating. Self efficacy becomes and important influence on intellectual and social behavior.

What non-academic support can a teacher give to students who are struggling to keep up with the rest of the class

negotiate a private signal with each student to remind them to refocus

Neuron

nerve cell that store and transfer information

Elaborative rehearsal

new information is related to knowledge already stored in long term memory.

Elaborative rehearsal (elaborative encoding)

new information is related to knowledge already stored in long term memory.

Interference from other material

new material that is very similar to old material.

grading on the curve

norm-referenced grading that compares students' performance to an average level

unknown

not known or familiar

Early maturing girls

not popular or likely to be leaders, indifferent in social situations, lacking in poise. As adults, self possessed, self directed, able to cope, likely to score high in ratings of psychological health.

Identity diffusion

not self-directed, disorganized, implusive, low self-esteem, alienated from parents, avoids schoolwork and interpersonal relationships.

The nature of recognition

noting key features of a stimulus and relating them to already stored information.

Instrumental relativist orientation

obediences to laws should involve and even exchange.

What is a major characteristic of selected-response tests? a.) objective scoring b.) rubric scoring c.) measuring student performance d.) assessing higher-level critical thinking

objective scoring

Guided response

objectives that ask students to reproduce an action are at the early stages of learning a particular skill under the guidance of an instructor. It involves imitation and practice of a demonstrated act

Aligning assessment with objectives and instruction

objectives, instruction and assessment should be thought of as an integral unit. Objectives provide blueprint for the content of a teacher's instruction. Classroom assessments based on teacher's objectives and what is actually covered in class.

Vicarious learning

observation of others' success.

Fixed interval reinforcement schedule

occur in education when teachers schedule exams or projects at regular intervals. The grade or score is considered to be a reinforcer. As you are certainly aware, it is not unusual to see little studying or progress occur during the early part of the interval. However, several days before an exam or due date, the pace quickens considerably.

Adaptations

occurs through the processes of assimilation and accommodation.

Meaningful learning

occurs when individuals construct a personal interpretation of the world by filtering new ideas and experiences through existing knowledge structures.

Realize that a problem exists (step 1)

often called problem finding, depends on curiosity and dissatisfaction with the status quo, particularly useful when working with ill structured problems.

self-efficacy

one's sense of competence and effectiveness an individual's belief that they can complete a task

what can give students a sense of industry

organize an instructional approach that communicates reasonable performance standards to students factors that are known to have a negative effect on one's sense of industry include competition for a limited number of rewards and grading on results without taking effort into account

Taxonomies

organized categorization systems, by statistical techniques for personality

Long term memory (LTM) is

organized in terms or schemata abstract structures of frameworks of information.

steps of taxonomy for the affective domain step 4 organization

organizing various values into an internalized system

5 components of direct instruction

orientation, presentation, structured practice, guided practice, independent practice.

Gardner's Multiple Intelligences

our abilities are best classified into 8 independent intelligences, which include a broad range of skills beyond traditional school smarts linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, visual-spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, and intrapersonal

self-concept

our understanding and evaluation of who we are a sense of one's identity and worth

Social characteristics of high school

parents and other adults are likely to influences long-range plans; peers are likely to influence immediate status. Girls seem to experience greater anxiety about friendships than boys. Many students are employed after school.

Social characteristics of grades 4-5

peer group becomes powerful and begins to replace adults as the major source of behavior standards, friendships become more selective and gender based, organized play continues to contribute to social, emotional and cognitive development.

pairing teachers up to conduct peer observations for improvement

peer observations with established checklists are a useful way for to become aware of areas that could be improved and ideas for improving tjem.

Instructional methods

peer tutoring, cooperative learning, mastery learning

Reciprocal teaching involves

peers alternately playing the role of teacher and student, is based on Vygotsky's zone of proximal development and allows students opportunities to learn to summarize, clarify and predict information.

Percentile rank

percentage of those in the normal sample who scored at or below an individual's score.one or two answers make a big difference for those students I the middle of the distribution

percentile rank

percentage of those in the norming sample who scored at or below an individual's score

Disequilibrium

perception of a discrepancy between existing scheme and new information that one is driven to resolve.

Psychomotor taxonomy

perception, set, guided response, mechanism, complex or overt response, adaptation, origination.

the ability to solve everyday problems through skilled reasoning that relies on tacit knowledge the ability to use information to get along in life and become successful ex: student is highly creative and intelligent but not doing well in school - unable to conform to teacher's methods of instruction and evaluation. Student approaches parents about alternative learning - using Sternberg's practical intelligence. Sternberg' triarchic theory of intelligence suggests that one aspect of intelligence suggests behavior involves applying knowledge to everyday situations, using knowledge and tools, and seeking relevance.

practical intelligence

Ms. Smith uses direct instruction to teach subtraction to second grade students. She provides an overview of the lesson relating subtraction to their lives and demonstrates subtraction using pictures and numbers. Students then answer questions that indicate understanding. What is the next instructional phase? a.) orientation b.) presentation c.) practice d.) evaluation

practice

Drill and Practice

practice knowledge and skills learned earlier to produce fast and accurate responses.

Gilligan's view of identity and moral development

preconventional, conventional and post conventional. the transitions between the stages are fueled by changes in the sense of self rather than in changes in cognitive capability.

Oligarchic

prefer to have several task to work on they are all treated equally.

Hierarchic

prefer to have several tasks to work on and they decide what they want to do first.

Monarchic

prefer to work on one task at a time or to use a single approach to tasks.

Anarchic

prefers completely unstructured random approach to learning.

Judicial

prefers to compare things, make evaluations about quality, worth and effectiveness.

Conservative

prefers to do things according established rules procedures.

Executive

prefers to follow already established rules and guidelines.

Liberal

prefers to work out their own solutions to a problem.

Cognitive characteristics of

preschool and kindergarten begin to develop a theory of mind, becoming quite skillful with language, overestimate competence for particular tasks, competence is encouraged by interaction, interest, opportunities and signs of affection.

Physical characteristics of

preschool and kindergarten extremely active, frequent rest periods, large muscles are more developed than those that control hands/fingers, eye/hand coordinationis developing, flexible and resilient, gender differences do not emerge until kindergarten.

Social characteristics of

preschool and kindergarten friendships form and dissolve quickly, play activities contribute, show preferences for gender of play peers and pair vs group play, awareness of gender roles and typing is evident.

Emotional characteristics of

preschool and kindergarten tend to express their emotions freely and openly, jealousy among classmates is common.

positive reinforcement

presenting a stimulus (called a positive reinforcer) immediately after the behavior has occurred. Praise, recognition, and the opportunity for free play are positive reinforcers for many (but not all) students.

Key concepts of constructivism

prior knowledge, multiple perspectives, self-regulation, and authentic learning.

ill-structured problems

problems that lack well-defined paths to solution

conservation

problems that test a child's ability to recognize that certain properties stay the same despite a change in appearance or position.

Authentic Assessments

procedures that test skills and abilities as they would be applied in real-life situations

assessment

procedures used to obtain information about student performance

Assessment

procedures used to obtain information about student performance - reserved for the process of gathering information -Sampling and observing students improvements and abilities

Myelination

process by which neural fibres are coated with a fatty sheath, makes message transfer more efficient

which teaching practice is consistent with a constructivist approach to teaching

provide students with real-world problems that are challenging to complete real-world, authentic problems with open-ended solutions tend to lead to deeper and more meaningful learning

scientific concepts

psychological tools that allow us to manipulate our environment consciously and systematically

Kohlberg's 6 stages of moral reasoning

punishment-obedience, instrumental relativist, good boy-nice girl, law and order, social contract, universal ethical.

construct validity

refers to how accurately a test measures a theoretical attribute

metacognition

refers to knowledge about how we think and learn. Ex. a student who thinks about her failure to comprehend is therefore concerned about metacognition

Performance character

refers to personal qualities that facilitate the achievement of one's goals.

Empirical Learning

refers to the way in which young children acquire spontaneous concepts.

Cognitive organization

refers to thinking and memory processes.

Intellectual character

refers to ways of thinking that direct and motivate what a person does when faced with a learning task and that often leads to a meaningful outcome.

social media for emotional support

reflective techniques are effective if they critically examine what one does, and to what effect for the express purpose of raising the achievement levels of all students, or to learn from teaching

Types of learning styles

reflectivity and impulsivity, field-dependence and field-independence, mental self-government styles.

Fixed interval schedule

reinforcement of a desired behavior occurs only after a specific amount of time has elapsed.

Fixed ratio schedule

reinforcement of a desired behavior occurs only after a specific number of those responses are made.

Variable interval schedule

reinforcement of a desired behavior occurs only after variable intervals of time have elapsed.

Variable ratio schedule

reinforcement of a desired behavior occurs only after variable numbers of responses are made.

What is a major advantage of selected-response tests? a.) reliability and ease of scoring b.) measuring higher level thinking c.) assessing verbatim memorization d.) measuring meaningful learning

reliability and ease of scoring

steps of taxonomy for the cognitive domain Step 1 *Knowledge

remembering previously learned information such as facts, terms and principles

Replication

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances

objective development approach

requires observable, measureable student behaviors to provide students with expectations for success

No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB)

requires standards; annual testing in math, reading, science, annual progress for all students; public reports; accountability stystem

learning objectives and pretests

research has shown that providing students with identified learning objectives and administering pretests will help students to identify important information that they need to focus on

operant conditioning technique of response cost

response cost means to enforce a "cost" or penalty for an undesirable response. Ex: students' undesirable behavior of leaving the learning center messy cost them ten tokens each

Limited focus or research

results relate more directly to the type of person who participated in the study.

Clifford, 1990, 1991

review of years of research on effects of failing. Some level of failure may be helpful for most students

Planning phase

revising an existing lesson plan or creating a new one.

Shaping (behavior modification)

reward small step toward the bigger goal.

distributed practice

short study periods at frequent intervals, which reduces the demand on memory and allows for better retrieval.

as it relates to identity development, a psychosocial moratorium

should be a period of postponing committment when a young person feels threatened by having to make many important decisions at once, a psychological moratorium may be appropriate. This delay of commitment should ideally be a period of exploration

Retention in a grade

should children be held back?

Problem solving programs:

simulations and games teach new information and skills and provide an opportunity to apply what was learned in a meaningful context that would otherwise be unavailable because of cost, physical danger and time constraints.

Constructivist approach to teaching

situated learning, authentic learning, realistic problems, and collaboration

Complex Overt Response Psychomotor Learning

smoothly performing motor skill that requires complex movement pattern

achievement

something done successfully; something gained by working or trying hard

Lateralization

specialization of the two hemispheres of the brain cortex

Instructional Objectives

specific and measurable statements of what students should know and be able to do after instruction. Example: Fifth graders would be able to form the letters of the cursive alphabet 95% of the time.

Constructivist learning environment survey

specific survey that you can get to determine if your students feel as though you have an actual constructionist learning environment.

Learning tactics are

specific techniques used to aid in achieving specific pieces of information that relate to the long term academic goals sought by the student.

James Marcia's Four Identity Statuses

stage theorist who focused on the adolescent crisis of Erik Erikson and came up for four stages that adolescents pass through while seeking an identity: 1. achievement 2. moratorium 3. foreclosure 4. diffusion

In what area is Erik Erikson most recognized for his work?

stages of psychosocial development

T scores

standard score with a mean of 50 and a standard deviation of 10

High-stakes testing

standardized tests who's results have powerful influences when used by school administrators, other officials, or employers to make critical decisions

high-stakes testing

standardized tests whose results have powerful influences when used by school administrators, other officials, or employers to make decisions

Token economies

stars, stickers, tokens they can turn in for something else.

Erikson (Psychosocial Development) Industry vs Inferiority 6-11 yrs-Elementary:

students' sense of industry hampered by unhealthy competition for grades; to develop sense of industry, promote learning & sense of accomplishment, use praise & positive reinforcement, avoid criticism or unhealthy competition.

Shaywitz et al., 2004

studies 28 children ages 6-9 who were good readers and 49 who were poor readers poor readers under-used parts of their brain's left hemispheres and sometimes over-used their right hemispheres

Lesson study

study phase, planning phase, teaching phase, reflection phase.

Study phase

study the curriculum and formulate learning goals.

Formulate and carry out a solution (step 4)

study worked examples, work on a simpler version of the problem, break the problem into parts, work backward, solve an analogous problem, create an external representation of the problem.

Experience-expectant

synapses are over produces in certain parts of our brain awaiting stimulation

Experience-dependent

synapses connections are formed based on a persons experiences

Norm-referenced grading

system assumes that classroom achievement will naturally vary among a group of heterogeneous students because of student differences and so compares the score of each student to the scores of the other students in order to determine grades. Also referred to as grading on the crve because under ideal circumstances a distribution of grades takes the shape of a bell shaped curve.

Criterion referenced grading

system in which grades are determined on the basis of whether each student has attained a defined standard of achievement or performance. Letter grades normally assigned on the basis of percent of items answered correctly but different approaches are being tried.

prefrontal lobe

takes more time to develop

Forethought phase

task analysis, set a long term goal and then a series of near term achievable sub goals, formulate a plan to achieve those goals.

Situated learning, giving learning

tasks situated in realistic contexts.

Tutorial

teach new information and skills.

Interpersonal skills

teach students how to make decisions, communicate clearly, build trust, manage conflict.

Cognitive apprenticeship

teachers modeling cognitive processes that students eventually take responsibility for as they become more skilled.

Carter et all 2005 - Teaching test taking strategies

teaching failing students test-taking strategies did help them, but didn't improve marks significantly. The students were 16 and had already experience a lot of academic failures, and had low motivation.

What does Wasserman mean by flexibility?

teaching is not a matter of clear-cut answers, she is urging teachers to be flexible. Can be thought of as a "feel" for doing the right thing at the right time.

Peer tutoring

teaching of one student by another.

Authentic Learning

teaching that uses real world projects and activities to allow students to discover and explore in the manner that is relevant to them

Reflection phase

team analyzes the collected data.

Comprehension directed tactics

techniques that aid in understanding the meaning of ideas and their interrelationships.

Memory directed tactic

techniques that help produce accurate storage and retrieval of information.

If you wanted to use computer based technology in a way that was consistent with Vygotsky's principles of cognitive development, which of the following applications would you select? - Drill and practice software -Teleapprenticeship programs -simulated learning environment (microworld) solftware -microcomputer based laboratory software.

teleapprenticeship programs -allow students of different backgrounds and abilities to work on projects collaboratively

Internal

tend to like to work alone.

External

tend to like to work with other people.

Cognitive Organization

tendency to coherently systematize and combine processes into general systems

Piaget: Centration: (Preoperational Stage: Preschool/Primary Grades) (Cognitive Development Theory)

tendency to focus on only one character aspect at a time.

Equilibration

tendency to organize schemes to allow better understanding of experiences

criterion-related validity

test should predict the outcome it was designed to predict

Test wiseness

test taking know-how that enhances test performance (using time efficiently, avoiding sloppy errors, deductive reasoning)

criterion-referenced test

testing in which scores are compared to a set performance objectives

Criterion-Referenced testing

testing in which scores are compared to a set performance standard Scores are compared to a strict benchmark or a minimum passing score (think: driving tests)

Intelligence

the ability to learn, to reason well, to solve novel problems and to deal effectively with the challenges, often predictable, that confront one in daily life.

creativity

the ability to produce new and valuable ideas

deferred imitation

the ability to remember and copy the behavior of models who are not present

Perception

the ability to see, hear, or become aware of something through the senses.

practical intelligence

the ability to solve everyday problems through skilled reasoning that relies on tacit knowledge the ability to use information to get along in life and become successful ex: student is highly creative and intelligent but not doing well in school - unable to conform to teacher's methods of instruction and evaluation. Student approaches parents about alternative learning - using Sternberg's practical intelligence. Sternberg' triarchic theory of intelligence suggests that one aspect of intelligence suggests that one aspect of intelligent behavior involves applying knowledge to everyday situations, using knowledge and tools, and seeking relevance.

collaboration

the act of working together

comprehension

the action or capability of understanding something

Seriation

the arrangement of items in a particular order

Seriation (Piaget-Cognitive Development Theory):

the arrangement of items in a particular order (concrete operational stage 7-11 years)

Self efficacy in motivation

the beliefs people have about how capable they think they are at organizing and carrying out a specific course of action. "I believe I can learn how to use a computer program"

Plasticity

the brains tendency to remain somewhat adaptable or flexible

declarative memory

the cognitive information retrieved from explicit memory; knowledge that can be declared

presentation punishment

the consequence that weakens a target behavior by presenting an aversive stimulus after the behavior occurs is presentation punishment

Self-regulation

the consistent and appropriate application of self-control skills to new situations.

constructivist

the constructivist approach to learning emphasizes the creation of personal knowledge structures, actively exploring one's environment, and dealing with realistic tasks in realistic settings

a student NEAR THE END of the pre-operational stage of cognitive development is watching her teacher pour water from a tall, narrow glass into a wide, shallow bowl. When asked which container has more her answer is

the containers both hold the same amount This experiment in conservation is a key development as children move from pre-operational thought to concrete operational thought.

construct validity

the degree to which a test measures what it claims, or purports, to be measuring

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

the difference between what a child can do on his own and wht can be accomplished with some assistance.

zone of proximal development

the difference between what children can do with assistance and what they can do alone

Self concept

the evaluative judgments people make of their competence in specific areas or domains and their associated feelings of self worth. "I have always done well at math"

Validity

the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to Tests judged based on the purpose for which it is intended

Self esteem

the global evaluative judgments we make of ourselves. How you feel about your self description.

situated learning

the idea that skills and knowledge are tied to the situation in which they were learned and that they are difficult to apply in new settings

Intellectual Disability

the individual has significant limitations both in intellectual functioning and adaptive behavior that affects conceptual skills, social skills and everyday practical skills. This disability originates before the age of 18.

Two factors that influence motivation

the models to which people are exposed, the strength of one's self-efficacy for a particular task.

Normal distribution

the most commonly occurring distribution in which scores are distributed evenly around the mean (bell curve)

normal distribution

the most commonly occurring distribution, in which scores are distributed evenly around the mean

The sensory register and its control processes

the nature of recognition, the impact of attention.

Self description

the nonevaluative picture people have of themselves. Descriptive facts about themselves.

Race for valedictorian

the phenomenon where students in HS try to find way to move themselves ahead of the curve (strategies don't have to do with learning)

Punishment-obedience orientation

the physical consequences of an action determine goodness or badness.

Piaget Basic Theory Principle (Cognitive Development Theory) Learning:

the process of creating knowledge to solve a problem & eliminate disequilibrium (constructivism)

Modeling

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior learners pick up the major features of a skill or strategy from models they admire and respect.

Neurogenesis

the production of new neurons

Item difficulty

the proportion of students getting a particular question correct

maintenance rehearsal

the purpose of maintenance rehearsal is to hold information for immediate use, which is what you do when you repeat something just long enough to write it down

Value-added modeling uses standardized test scores to determine: a.) the value of homes in a school district. b.) the quality of a teacher's instruction. c.) students' optimal grade placement. d.) when a child should start school.

the quality of a teacher's instruction.

Good boy-nice girl orientation

the right action is the one that will impress others.

True Score

the score the student would get if the assessment were completely accurate and error free Obtained scores are rarely the true score * It is important to remember that it is hard to obtain a true score - this is why a university should always consider accepting people who only fell a few % below the 'cut-off'

Objective development

the teacher aligns their lessons with their objectives while monitoring student readiness for future exams

Generalization

the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses by responding to similarly to two similar stimuli, the students are displaying the operant conditioning principle of organization

Definition of gifted and talented

the term gifted and talented children and youth means children and youth who give evidence of high performance capability in areas such as intellectual, creative, artistic or leadership capability or in specific academic fields and who require services or activities not ordinarily provided by the school in order to fully develop such capabilities.

note-taking

the text makes the point that little is know about the specific conditions that make note-taking an effective tactic or what constitutes a good set of notes.

class inclusion

the understanding that a general category can encompass several subordinate elements (a whole object can have parts)

empirical learning

the use of noticeable characteristics of objects and events to form spontaneous concepts; a form of learning typical of young children

steps of taxonomy for the affective domain step 5 characterization by a value or value complex

the value system becomes a way of life

Culture

the way in which a group of people perceives the world; formulates beliefs; evaluates objects, ideas and experiences; and behaves.

Empirical learning (extension of Vygotsky) (Cognitive Development Theory):

the way in which young children acquire spontaneous concepts.

Self-description

the way people describe themselves. Usually not evaluative but factual.

Motivation

the willingness of a person to expend a certain amount of effort to achieve a particular goal under a particular set of circumstances.

The value of failing

there are negative effects of failing. Can often be taken in a constructive way (if it occurs less often) - gives them the privilege of learning how to lean from their mistakes. It can harm a student if they fail often

Tranformative approach

there is no one valid way of understanding people, events, concepts and themes; there are multiple views, each of which has something of value to offer.

Effects of grading on students

there needs to be a balance, not all of the classes grading components need to be very competitive

microworld simulation programs

they are specifically designed to help students restructure cognitive schemes by presenting problems that do not fit neatly into their current conception about how things work. This creates conflict and disequalibration

Central tendency

typical scoring for a group of scores (mean, median, mode)

What is the most important reason for using classroom assessments? a.) to enhance student learning b.) to provide information for parents c.) to identify gifted and talented students d.) to evaluate the quality of instruction

to enhance student learning

known

to know

Law and order orientation

to maintain the social order, fixed rules must be obeyed.

What is the basic purpose of a standardized test? a.) to provide the teacher with diagnostic information b.) to decide if a student is gifted and talented c.) to evaluate the quality of instruction d.) to measure a particular characteristic

to measure a particular characteristic

Formative assessment (assessment for learning)

to monitor student progress for remedial or supplementary instruction.

Purpose of a Standardized test

to obtain accurate representative sample of some aspect of a person

Summative assessment (assessment of learning)

to provide a summary judgement of student performance over time and different tasks.

Primary purpose of assessment

to provide teachers with diagnostic information they can use to increase student achievement and improve their instruction.

While students are engaged in a problem solving exercise, the teacher provides hints and prompts and asks leading questions. What is likely the primary purpose of the teachers actions?

to scaffold the students zones of proximal development

how to access Bloom's knowledge and comprehension levels

to: recall (knowledge level) paraphrase (comprehension level) summarize (comprehension level) the information learned

Erikson describes autonomy vs. shame and doubt as a developmental stage during which:

toddlers develop willingness to direct their own behavior

Bruner and discovery learning

too much school learning emphasizes rote learning of verbal statements and mathematical formulas that cannot be applied outside the classroom. Children should be helped to discover how ideas related to each other and to existing knowledge and how to solve problems. Research supports use of guided discovery methods.

Standardizes testing shouldn't be used to compare students from different leaning environments (School to school, province to province)

true

Selected Response test

true/false, multiple choice, or matching items

Marcia's Four Identity Statuses: ( Psychosocial Development) Moratorium:

uncertain about their identity, delays commitment (anxious, dissatisfied with school, daydreams, short-lived)

Erikson (Psychosocial Development) Role confusion: Adolescents-12-18 Years:

uncertainty as to what behaviors others will react to favorably.

Sources of Assessment Error: Test Errors

unclear directions, reading level, items can be ambiguous, innappropriate time limits

Cognitive characteristics of grades 1-3

understand there are different ways to know things and that some ways are better, understand that learning and recall are caused by cognitive processes they can control, do not learn as efficiently as older children, talking aloud (private speech) reaches a peak between 6 and 7.

a four or five year old child who has begun to develop a theory of mind

understands that people's behavior is a reflection of their beliefs about the world

Informal assessments

ungraded (formative) assessments that father info from multiple sources to help teacher make decisions (Eg. Journals, student's observation check lists, questioning)

informal assessments

ungraded (formative) assessments that gather information from multiple sources to help teachers make decisions

formative assessment

ungraded testing used before or during instruction to aid in planning and diagnosis

Formative Assessment

ungraded testing used before or during instruction to aid in planning and diagnosis - helps us form instruction - think: review tests eat the beginning of a new grade

Sensorimotor

up to 2 yrs. Develops schemes through senses and motor activities. Recognizes object not seen.

Group Option 2

use within-class grouping as they have some research support.

Scaffolding

used to support learning during early phases

Self recorded lessons

using audio and/or video recordings of samples of your teaching to identify unrecognized strengths and weaknesses.

7 steps of taxonomy for the psychomotor domain step 6 *Adaptation

using previously learned skills to perform new but related tasks

Psychomotor Domain (Physical Skills): Adaptation

using previously learned skills to perform new but related tasks

7 steps of taxonomy for the psychomotor domain step 1 perception

using sense organs to obtain cues needed to guide motor activity

Emotional characteristics of middle school

view of adolescence as a period of "storm and stress" is exaggerated. Students are often self conscious and self centered as a result of the continued influences of egocentric thought. School programs can help students develop more mature social and emotional skills.

A person who has successfully resolved the psychosocial crisis of adoloescence is now able to

view themself as having a meaningful role in life adolescents are concerned with trying different roles and types of friendships to help devote their self-concept.

Males outscore females on

visual-spatial ability, mathematical operations, college entrance.

Operant Conditioning (Skinner)

voluntary responses are strengthened or weakened as a result of their consequences.

Neuro-myths

we know teaching can change organization and structure of the brain

Time out

weaken a target behavior by temporarily removing a positive reinforcer after the behavior occurs

Type 1 (presentation punishment)

weakening a behavior by presenting an adverse stimulus immediately after the behavior has occurred.

Type 2 (time-out or removal punishment)

weakening a behavior by removing a positive stimulus immediately after the behavior has occurred.

Guided reflection protocol

what happened? Why? What might it mean? What are the implications for my practice.

Declarative knowledge

what we know about how person variables, task variables and strategy variables affect learning.

Procedural knowledge

what we know about how to use various cognitive processes.

Metacognitive knowledge

what we know about how we think.

Conditional knowledge

what we know about when and why we use certain cognitive processes in certain circumstances.

Forms of Biases: offensiveness

when a particular group is insulted by an aspect of a test (they feel so many negative emotions that they cannot perform well on the test)

Extinction

when a previously reinforced behavior decreases in frequency and eventually ceases altogether because reinforcement is withheld.

Generalization

when an individual learns to make a particular response to a particular stimulus and then makes the same or a similar response in a slightly different situation.

Discrimination

when an individual learns to notice the unique aspects of seemingly similar situations and thus responds differently.

negative reinforcement

when desired behavior (like doing homework) is strengthened by removing a negative stimulus (an undesired task or required assignment), operant conditioning theorists say that negative reinforcement has occurred

Meaningfulness

when new material can be related to information in long term memory.

Content Validity

where the questions on the test evaluate related topics

Glial cells

white matter of the brain, outnumbered neurons, many functions

steps of taxonomy for the affective domain step1 *Receiving (attending

willingness to receive or attend

Research on the effectiveness of using objectives leads to the conclusion that objectives: (13-1)

work best when students are aware of them. (13-1) *Objectives seem to work best when students are aware of them, threat them as directions to learn specific sections of material and feel they will aid learning. (13-1)

Effectiveness of objectives

work bet when students are aware of them, treat them as directions to learn specific sections of materials, and feel they will aid learning

Local

work on the details before they work on another set of details also related to the task.