What is Applied Ethics

-Cyber Ethics

- A discipline in which moral standards are applied to the use of computers and related devices -Involves: a) All ethical questions surrounding social media such as: ---Monetizing someone's personal information, privacy and digital surveillance issues, ---Manipulating people using deep fakes or other propaganda etc. b) Also pertains to problems related to hacking, hacktivism, piracy, or the apparent lawlessness of the dark web ***Legal debate is only about which behaviors should be allowed by society and which should be prohibited ***Ethical discussion is about whether these actions are morally right or wrong and why

-Whistleblower

- A true patriot trying to expose government abuses of cyber-power and violations of civil liberties

-Social Domain Theory

- Recent research into how humans develop their morality 1. Moral domain 2. Societal domain 3. personal domain

Summary: 1. Consequential theories 2. Nonconsequential theories

1 a) Egoism (no single time/place of creation) Principle: - Act in your own long term interests b) Utilitarianism ( Jeremy Bentham, John Stuart Mill) Principle: - The right action is the one that produces the greatest possible good for the greatest possible number. 2a) Virtue Ethics (Socrates, Plato Aristotle) Principle: -Personal character. A life of virtue and excellence leads to happiness and fulfillment b) Natural Law ( Thomas Aquinas) Principle: -Follow universal human values embedded into human nature by the creator c) Natural Rights (John Locke) Principle: - Our only moral duty is to respect the rights of others d) Kant's deontology (Immanuel Kant) Principle: - Our duty is to obey the categorical imperative (universality, respect for persons) e) Contractarianism (John Rawls) Principle: - Fairness, veil of ignorance, Difference Principle

1. Enumerative induction

1. Tend to reason from specific examples to more general conclusions

Chapter 4: Critical thinking part 2 1. Critical thinking 2.Critical thinking model (steps)

1. The active and systematic process of communication, problem solving, evaluation analysis, synthesis and reflection both individually and in community, to foster understanding, 2a) Identification b) Research c)Analysis d) Application e) Decision-making f) Evaluation g) Reflection

1. Predatory lending (short term 'payday loans'

1. These lenders distribute money with the understanding that the borrower will pay back the short term loan once the receive their paycheck.

3. Red Herring 4. Either-Or aka false dichotomy or false dilemma

3. Is about distraction. The arguer introduces an irrelevant (but tempting) point to divert the readers attention from the main issue-a way of changing the subject 4. The argument tries to make others think they are in a logical trap, by suggesting that there are only two sides to an issue-one seemingly right one wrong e.g. 'you're either with us or against us!'

5. Two wrongs make a right

5. Occurs when one tries to defend one's own wrongdoing by painting out similar behavior in others, usually to avoid taking responsibility for what they did wrong

1. Three consequential theories:

a) Egoism b) Act Utilitarianism c) Rule Utilitarianism

1. Bureaucracy 2. Common issues within Government Bureaucracies

1. Governments have many roles to fulfil and duties to serve. Only way this can be done efficiently is through the use of bureaucracy - Bureaucracies are the only way to attempt to manage large institutions-with none as big as government 2a) Timing - Is the timing right to acknowledge what an employee has done? -Is the acknowledgement done in a timely manner-good or bad? b) Tolerance - What is acceptable to the supervisor and department? - People have a right to know what is acceptable or not c) Politics -What do people come to expect? - Policies should be clear, set by elected officials and enforced consistently by employees d) Power - Which positions have administrative duties and powers associated with them?

James Rest's Four-Component Model

1. Moral Sensitivity 2. Moral judgment 3.Moral motivation 4.Moral character

1. Applying Rule Utilitarianism

a) State the central ethical issue b) List the possible options that could be taken c) List the moral rules that would be relevant to such situations d) Estimate the net utility of each rule (if generally followed) to determine which are more likely to promote social happiness e) Estimate rules likely to result in negative net utility f) Use the remaining rules to evaluate the optional actions g) Choose the option most consistent with rules promoting social happiness

2. Research

- Ethical decisions should be informed decisions; critical thinking about human problems requires knowledge -Gather information about the central problem-its history, possible solutions and the consequences of various decisions -Goal is to relate insightfully ethical concepts and ideas from multiple sources using new information to better define the problem and identify options -Also important to be able to recognize what types of information might be missing from the decision-making process and to correctly identify the potential effects of the newly discovered information - Balanced consideration of the wisdom and experience of others can only benefit the process

4. Application

-Goal is to make not just thoughtful or wise decisions but also ethical ones -Sort out the ethical from the unethical possibilities - Accomplishing this requires applying ethical standards aka general moral principles to the options to determine which of them would be moral choices -General moral principles are the 'should' statements of ethics which are meant to guide people to ethical action e.g. ----People should treat others like they would want to be treated themselves --People should be honest --People should keep their promises etc

7. Reflection

-Involves internal reflection-stepping back and looking at the process of forming the decision as objectively and honestly as possible - Reflect on the results of one's action - Did the decision actually solve the problem? -Would it make sense to make the same choice again in a similar circumstance? - Goal is to identify strengths and weaknesses in ones own thinking and use of the process **Reflection aims at self-improvement-it's a kind of self-coaching to improve one's decision making ***In this reflection stage, thinking about some of the following can sharpen ones critical thinking skills A) What did i learn from this process? b) Which ethical principles do I rely on most consistently? c) What parts of this model came easily? Which steps were more challenging or required more effort? d) What did I do right in making this decision? e) What could I do differently next time to make better and wiser decisions?

1. Information security and privacy 2.Computer monitoring of citizens

1. Collection of personal information 2. Governments increased efforts to collect and monitor private information about citizens - 'The Patriot Act of 2001' was updated in 2008 to adapt the law to modern technology. It allows telecommunications providers to disclose customer records voluntarily to the government in emergencies involving an immediate risk of death or serious physical injury and permits victims of hacking crimes to request law enforcement assistance in monitoring trespassers on their computers

5. Decision-making

-Means to select a morally right or best option and be able to justify it -Critical thinking about ethical problems must result in decisions, resolutions and actions - Address thoroughly key aspects of the problem and insightfully use facts and relevant evidence from analysis and ethical principles from application to support and defend a reasonable ethical solution ***If one has followed the other steps thoughtfully, the decision may not be too difficult - If the decisions are the product of good reasoning and the use of a rational problem-solving model, other people will likely be more understanding about those choices-even if they don't agree

6. Evaluation

-One must listen more, defend less, and actively question and challenge one's own thinking -It's vital evaluate how one reached the decision to ensure that there weren't slip-ups somewhere along the way -Some questions involved in that evaluation process are: a) Was the decision based on hidden assumptions taken for granted as facts? If so, are these assumptions really true? b) Did the reasoning process include any fallacies? c) Was any data or information fairly and correctly interpreted? d) Was there sufficient logical support for the conclusion or decision? e) Were the points of view of, and the possible consequences on ,all potential stakeholders represented and weighed appropriately? f) Was a range of ethical principles and points of view been evaluated carefully before applying particular standards? ***A key tool in this process is to identify the best arguments against a decision or conclusion**

2. False Appeal Fallacies

-These fallacies have to do with inappropriately appealing to an outside source or factor to make one's argument sound stronger a) False appeal to authority -When people cite experts inappropriately e.g. 'Brad Pitt is against the death penalty so it must be wrong' b) False appeal to popularity - Fallacy of claiming that an idea is true because many people think it is, that an action is right because it is popular, or wrong because it is unpopular c) False appeal to emotion -Fallacy use to manipulate others into agreeing with a point of view by playing on their feelings rather than by appealing to logic and reason

3. Analysis

-To analyze a problem means to examine it more closely with the goal of understanding it better -Involves looking at the smaller parts of a problem and seeing how they work together to create the bigger picture -Is important to break down the problem, then, by thinking about ways it might be solved, -By thinking about who might be impacted by the issue, -And then to consider how those possible solutions might affect those people. -Requires one to identify available options and then compare and contrast those options. -Consider the implications and consequences of available options for stakeholders ***(Stakeholders are those who could be affected by our decision and our actions) ***One of the most important parts of the critical thinking process is creativity! (not to be prejudiced about which option may be best)

1. Natural Law Theories

1. Conceive of morality and its rules as being part of the organization of the universe-that is moral principles govern the world just as much as natural scientific laws. -Natural scientific laws reveal how the world is -Natural moral laws indicate how the world ought to be

1. Identification

1. - Identify and define the problem itself - Involves the awareness that a decision needs to be made - The recognition of the ethical implications of that decision (moral sensitivity) -This step includes defining the nature of the problem and its complexities - Sometimes requires distinguishing the central ethical problem from tangential ,less important issues - Goal of this step is to identify the main idea or problem with numerous supporting details and examples that are organized logically and coherently -Requires the ability to communicate these facts and issues clearly to others

1. Egoism b) Altruism 2. Psychological Egoism 3. Ethical Egoism 4. Shortcomings of Ethical Egoism

1. -Comes in several flavors -All egoistic theories share a common denial of an important moral concept; 'altruism' b) Has to do with the ability to act unselfishly and act from concern for others -Egoism rejects the place of altruism in ethical behavior meaning ethical egoism encourages the pursuit of ones' own long-term best interest to the detriment of others if necessary 2. Is the psychological theory that people are inherently selfish so that whenever people act, they do so in service of their own interests -Denies the very possibility of altruism ***Psychological egoism holds that altruistic behavior is ultimately impossible ***Psychological egoism is a descriptive theory about human behavior 3. The view that people ought to be selfish-or at least self-interested ***Ethical egoist may believe altruism is possible but in any case, pure altruism is immoral ***Ethical egoism is a prescriptive theory because it provides a principle to guide actions -Is based on the idea that the only 'good' thing is one's own interest - Central foundation principle of the theory can be stated as: 'the right action in any situation is the one that is most in the individuals long term best interest -Ethical egoism treats self centered behavior as the ethical idea for all circumstances and in all relationships - There are no moral obligations or responsibilities to others, only to self. -Ethical acts for the egoist are those behaviors that result in their best long term personal interest without regard for the well being of others. -Ethical egoism supports personal freedom -Makes people responsible for their own actions and emphasizes the importance of obligations to self 4. - Seems to confuse or collapse what's beneficial to an individual with what's morally good in general - Problem associated with predicting the outcomes of actions. How can individuals always act in their self interest if they often don't know what the long-term consequences of their actions will be?

- Evaluating Arguments: 1. Deductive Arguments 2. Inductive Arguments

1. A deductive argument is valid when the structure is logically correct -If the structure of the deductive argument is not logically correct, the argument is invalid -An argument is sound when both the structure is valid and the statements in the premises are true ***A deductive argument that successfully proves its point that is establishes its conclusion, we call sound 2. A legitimate inductive argument must have true premises. If any of the premises are false, then the argument is suspect - An inductive is cogent if both the premises are true and the reasons make a strong argument for the conclusion being plausible or likely - If the premises are false and/or the argument is weak or implausible, then the argument is un-cogent. ***An unsound deductive argument is one that doesn't succeed in proving its point that fails in some way

1. Roots of utilitarianism

1. Ancient Greece a) Hellenistic philosopher Epicurus (341-270 B.C.E) was one of the first major proponents of Hedonism -For Epicurus, knowledge of good and evil isn't a matter of rational discovery that is people don't have to spend their time philosophizing about what's good and evil. All good and evil consist in sensation -Pleasure is what's morally good and pain is what's morally evil -The best life is one in which people maximize pleasure and minimize pain -Moderate enjoyment is key to a happy life-its easier to avoid pain if one doesn't go to extremes -Epicurus hedonism was influential on the founders of utilitarianism who believed that morality must be useful and concrete not founded on abstractions

1. Discrimination 2. Workplace justice 3. Prejudice 4. Favoritism 5. Nepotism 6. Cronyism

1. An act or pattern of acts that irrationally denies opportunities or benefits to persons solely based on their race, religion, or gender - Until the civil rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s, discriminatory hiring choices were both common and legal 2. Requires that employers make employment decisions such as whom to hire, train, promote discipline or fire on the basis of criteria relevant to the job that is to be performed not on the basis of prejudice or favoritism -Relevant criteria include educational requirements, previous work experience and specific skills or the ability to learn those skills -An objectively created list of relevant job criteria should be the only basis for employment decisions 3. A disposition to judge before knowing the facts, a bias that works in favor of some and against others regardless of the objective features and facts of the situation ***Often this word is used in the context of -ve stereotyping or ill treatment of minorities 4. Is also a form of prejudice one which places the interest of family and friends ahead of the interest of others in the workforce 5. Favoritism toward relatives; the hiring, retaining or promoting of relatives over others who may be qualified Disadvantages: a) Raises serious questions of trust and competence since it creates the presumption that the relative did not have to meet the same job qualifications as a nonrelative b) Destroys the hope or morale of nonrelatives who recognize that advancement potential is limited c) Creates the perception of subjectivity in performance appraisals wage and salary adjustments and work assignments d) Creates a conflict of interest environment where the control of policy making and enforcement is in a personal or family interest, 6. Favoritism toward friends; the systematic hiring, retaining , and promoting of friends who can be counted on for loyal support ***Both nepotism and cronyism are contrary to the free market principles which requires that an objective decision making procedure should be used to select the best qualified for any function in the corporation

1. Genetic Fallacies

1. An attempt to discredit a position by condemning its source or to establish a position by condemning the source of an opposing viewpoint -Genetic fallacies are fallacious because the quality of an argument or truth does not depend on their source-they depend on facts -Types of genetic fallacy: a) Ad hominem abusive (to the man) -An attempt to disparage the character of the person presenting the argument, to deny that persons intelligence, or to question his or her integrity while not addressing the statement or arguments being presented. -Often referred to as character assassination e.g. 'How can you believe anything the prime minister says? He's such an idiot!' b) Ad hominem circumstantial - Instead of using verbal abuse in attacking the opponent, the person attempts to discredit the arguers statements by alluding to certain circumstances that affect the opponent e.g. 'Mike to Kim: 'what would you know about finances? You're just a woman!'

1. Nanotechnology 2.Precautionary principle 3. Cyber ethics 4. Piracy 5. Hacking 6. Restorative technologies 7. Enhancement technologies 8. Emerging technologies

1. An emerging area of technology focused on innovations at the molecular level of matter 2. An ethical principle requiring developers of emerging technologies demonstrate absence of harmfulness when there is an acknowledged possibility of risk 3. A discipline in which moral standards are applied to the use of computers and related devices 4. The act of using copyrighted material without paying for it, or making copies for resale without permission 5. The act of electronically breaking into another computer without permission or authorization 6. Technologies aiming to allow individuals with diminished natural capacities to live, act and enjoy opportunities in the ways that regularly-abled people do e.g. a) eyeglasses, contact lenses, prosthetic limbs, attention-focusing pharmaceutical products like Adderol, Viagra or antibiotics meant to fight infections -These things get people back to normal -When used so, seem basically morally innocuous or innocent 7. Technologies aiming to elevate human qualities or capacities beyond what is normally likely or possible e.g. a) Use of performance enhancing drugs in sports b) Cognitive enhancement technologies. Drugs like Adderol designed to be restorative for those who suffer from attention deficits can be used by other people to increase their focus and attention beyond regular capacities. ***Is the use of performance enhancing drugs in competitive contexts ethical? -They make one better -A number of moral questions could be raised about the ethics of human enhancement 8. New and developing areas of original technological research

1. whistleblower

1. An employee or officer of any institution, profit or non profit private or public who believes either that he/ she has been ordered to perform some act or he/she has obtained knowledge that the institution is engaged in activities which a) Are believed to cause unnecessary harm to third parties b) Are in violation of human rights c) Run counter to the defined purpose of the institution and who informs the public of this fact ***It does not count as blowing the whistle if the complaint stays inside the company or within a small circle of peers in the industry or profession; the public must be involved so the stakes are high-for both the employee and the employer

Chapter 10: The Employment Relationship 1. Basic employment contract 2. Employee rights fall under: 3. Workplace justice 4. prejudice 5. Discrimination 6. Nondiscrimination 7. Employment rights 8. Employee welfare 9. Employee dignity 10. Employment integrity

1. An employee promises a fair days work in accordance with the directions of the employer in exchange for a fair days pay. 2.a) Justice b) privacy c) workplace health and safety d) Dignity e) Integrity 3. Fairness and objectivity in employment decisions and relationships, including hiring, training, promoting, discipline, termination, and compensation and the allocation of work-related assignments and benefits 4. A disposition to judge before knowing the facts; a bias that works in favor of some and against others regardless of the objective features and facts of the situation 5. An intentional act or pattern of acts that irrationally denies opportunities or benefits to persons solely based e.g. on their race, religion, age or gender 6. The avoidance of prejudiced treatment of applicants and workers on the basis of race, gender, color, religion, national origin, age or disability 7. Human rights and the civil rights as applied to employed workers e.g. nondiscrimination, privacy, freedom of expression and assembly 8. Moral obligation to provide and maintain a safe and healthy work environment 9. Moral obligation to respect individuals by avoiding abusive or degrading treatment including physical or psychological harassment 10. Moral obligation to refrain from violating laws or accepted ethical standards

1. The veil of ignorance 2. Three principles of justice according to Rawl

1. An imaginary process that keeps the contractors in the original position from knowing specific facts about themselves that might influence their decisions. 2. a) The Equal Liberties Principle - It states 'Everyone is entitled to as many rights and liberties(freedoms) as possible as long as rights and liberties are not taken from others' b) The Equal Opportunity Principle - Everyone should have equal and fair opportunities to improve their situations in life c) The Difference Principle - 'When there have to be differences, the differences must be arranged for the greatest possible benefit of the least advantaged people'

Chapter 9: Business and Society as Stakeholders 1. Consumer 2. Customer 3. Quality of product and service 4. Warranty 5. caveat emptor aka 'let the buyer beware'

1. Any person who buys and/or uses goods and services marketed and sold by another 2. The buyer who chooses and purchases the goods for sale, and the user, or ultimate consumer who actually puts the product to its end use e.g. parents are often the customers while children are the users of for e.g. cereal 3. Businesses have a general obligation to provide safe, durable clean attractive and functional products or services promptly and cheerfully performed 4. An assurance of quality; a promise made by a manufacturer that the product as it is presented - Is an assurance of quality a) Implied warranty of merchantability -is the universal promise that the product is as a reasonable person would expect it to be and will do what is obviously intended to do e.g. ----A saw will cut wood ----A bicycle will not fall apart as soon as someone sits on it ---A radio has working parts etc. b) Express warranties - In which a manufacturer specifically promises a particular level of performance and be held to that standard because of the warranty 5. Meant that customers must use rational caution when purchasing a product and that once the purchase was made, all responsibility for the product shifted from the manufacturer to new owner

1. Professional code of ethics 2. Corporate code of ethics

1. Are purely ceremonial -Are read at initiations or graduations but the principles may be and irrelevant to modern issues in the field -Others are constructed with the central goal of improving public relations 2. Some are written primarily to give administrators a tool for controlling employees -Or as an excuse for firing them ***Many effective codes of ethics purpose is to create and maintain a sense of professionalism to offer some guidance to those facing thorny ethical dilemmas and to give the public a standard to which it can hold a corporation or profession.

1. Ethical or Moral issues 2. Ethical or Moral principles 3. Virtues/Character traits 4. Values 5. Moral Judgements

1. Are questions, problems, situations or actions that contain legitimate matters of moral right or wrong - They are topics that raise honest ethical debate e.g. use of death penalty is an ethical issue 2. Are general guidelines of ethical behavior. Are the 'should' statements of ethics prescribing how one ought to conduct oneself. e.g. 'People should treat others as they would want to be treated' 'People should tell the truth' 'People should respect the rights of others' 3. Are character traits that make up a moral life. e.g. honesty, compassion, courage etc. 4. Beliefs, qualities, traditions or standards that are considered important and worthy e.g. 'some values their jobs very highly others don't. 'some value their families more than other'. 5. Simply ethical decisions and they are part of the ethics environment as well. a) Moral Judgements- Actions judged to be consistent with good ethical thinking and decision making b) Immoral judgements- Behaviors that are contrary to good moral reasoning c) Nonmoral- Actions that don't fit either of these terms e.g. cheerios or fruit loops for breakfast, wearing a blue or white shirt, reading a newspaper in the morning verses listening to the radio

1. Consequential theories 2. Egoism 3. Utilitarian theories 4. Act utilitarianism 5. Rule utilitarianism

1. Base morality on the results or outcomes of behaviors. Actions with good consequence are morally right; actions with bad consequences are morally wrong 2. emphasizes the aim of always acting for perceived self-interest, usually in the long term, even at the expense of others if necessary 3. Emphasize the aim of producing the greatest possible happiness for the greatest possible number ***Utilitarianism is one of the most widely accepted ethical theories today 4. from Jeremy Bentham, maintains that the right thing to do in any situation is the action that produces the greatest possible happiness for the greatest possible number 5. inspired by John Stuart Mill, maintains that the right thing to do is follow rules that promote the greatest possible happiness assuming they are followed generally

1. Contractarian theories 2. John Rawls a twentieth American Philosopher (theory of contractarian) 3. What true farness might look like in any society according to John Rawls:

1. Believe that right and wrong are a matter of agreement -Moral edicts, principles and rules of conduct are the results of social contracts in other words 2. Sees fairness as the central value in ethics 3a) The Social contract -Acknowledgement that a fair society would be the result of a fair social contract -Members of the society would have a mutual understanding of what true fairness was and would have incorporated that value into every part of their communal life - Economic system would be fair so would be the legal system, the political system the educational system and everything else b)The original position -"A hypothetical imaginary situation in which the participants in a social contract deliberate about the rules of conduct that will be strictly followed once they enter the society" -Would have to include everyone who will ever be a part of this society-past, present and future c) The primary goods -Good expresses value - Rawl gives 4 central values or goods that he believes all rational contractors would try to get for themselves while voting in the original position i) Rights and liberties - Members would want as many personal rights and freedoms as possible ii) Powers and opportunities -Everyone would want as much power and influence in society as possible. -They would also want as many opportunities as possible to improve their lives and advance their interests iii) Income and wealth -To enjoy life's luxuries and amenities iv) Self Respect - Is most important. I one of the deepest human needs - Contractors will vote for principles and policies that maximize personal self-respect and avoid that would endanger it

Chapter 1: Introduction to Ethics-The Foundation of Ethics 1. Ethics 2. Morals 3. Critical thinking 4. Applied Ethics

1. Came from the Greek word 'ethos' meaning "the way things should be". - Ethics is the study of morality. Is where we get the opportunities to test, question, and challenge those rules and standards. -Ethics is the reasoned study of what is morally right and wrong, good and bad. 2. Originated from the Latin word 'more' which meant "the way people are" -Morality refers to generally to the rules and social standards that we are taught to follow 3. Informed and logical though 4. Actual use of moral standards of conduct (guidelines about how best to act) in making decisions about ethical issues.

Gilligan's Levels of Caring (Women) 1. Level I 2. Level 2 3. Level 3

1. Caring only for self, at the expense of others if necessary 2. Caring for others only, at the expense of self if necessary 3. Balance and truth; caring for self and others

1. Act utilitarianism

1. Core of Act Utilitarianism is Bentham's Utility Principle - Bentham believed that all the pleasures and pains of human beings could be compared on a mathematical scale- with a uniform measurement. The total pleasure-and-pain results of the various actions that people could take and then be compared using what Bentham called the "hedonic calculus" -That is moral decisions should be made on the basis of a mathematical calculation of pleasure and pain. -Bentham maintained that a variety of factors would have to be considered, including: a) The intensity of the pleasure an act tends to produce b) The duration of the pleasure c) It's likelihood of occurring d) The immediacy or delay in experiencing that pleasure e) The potential of the act to produce pain g) The number of people who experience the pleasure of pain - One should apply the Utility Principle on a case by case basis -Act utilitarianism focuses on what an individual should do in a specific circumstance ****This is a key difference between the Act utilitarianism and the Rule utilitarianism

1. Customer wisdom

1. Customers will need to develop the 'virtue of wisdom'-the ability to choose carefully, to practice cautious self-protection in the use of the products they buy, to recognize the limitations of manufacturers to prevent unsafe actions by consumers and to consider whether or not it is fair to expect payment from a company that has done nothing wrong

Types of Arguments:

1. Deductive -Have very fixed and formal structures-similar to mathematical equations -If an argument is deductive the premises and conclusion must interrelate i.e. the premises must be relevant to the other premises in the argument as well as the conclusion - When deductive arguments are properly structured, they are truth preserving. ***A classic Aristotelian (ancient Greek) form is called a syllogism. --Syllogism must always consist of two statements (premises) and a conclusion ***If the premises of the syllogism are true, the conclusion must be true too. ---A common form of syllogism reasons from a rule statement, expressing a general proposition about how things are or should be and a fact statement asserting a state of affairs to some particular conclusion **With deductive arguments, the conclusion follows from the premises. There can only be one possible conclusion **Deductive arguments have a rigid, truth preserving structure ** Deductive syllogisms often move from general to specific

Lawrence Kohlberg's theory: 1. Level I Pre-Conventional 2. Level II Conventional 3. Level III Post- Conventional

1. Egocentric or self-centered thinking a) Punishment and Obedience b) Instrument and Relativity 2. Conforming to social standards and rules c) Interpersonal Concordance d) Law and order 3. Reasoning based on ethical principles and values e) Social contract f) Universal Ethical Principles

Chapter 21: Technology, Humanity and Ethics -Two kinds of ethical issues related to technology:

1. Emerging technologies/new and developing inventions/research projects - New and developing areas of original technological research 2.Ethical issues in the way technologies affect human societies and how one should understand humanity itself

Chapter 6:Nonconsequential Ethical Theories , Part 1 1. Nonconsequential theories 2. The virtue ethics 3. The natural law

1. Focusses on other characteristics when making moral judgements - May include ethical duties and obligations, commendable character traits, individual rights, laws of nature or social contracts - Understand that all actions have consequences but they maintain that whether an action results in good or bad consequences is not the sole or ultimate determinant in whether the action is right or wrong. Instead, actions are seen as inherently good or bad, regardless of the outcomes that follow. -Base morality on factors other than the results or outcomes of action. These other factors can include duties, obligations, rights, laws of nature or social contracts 2. Theory of Socrates, Plato and Aristotle focuses primarily on personal character; becoming the right kind of person by developing certain virtuous traits 3. Theory emphasizes conduct based upon the perceived order inherent in the universe

1. Government/Public Service Codes 2. Disadvantages of Government code of ethics 3. Strengths of government service codes

1. Frequently look like corporate codes of ethics in style and function but are written and often enforced at the peer level like professional codes -Government represents an employer and yet the legislators consider themselves to be a part of the profession of public service -Legislators who write the rules are themselves subject to those rules and do not necessarily function as managers or bosses to the employees at lower levels of government service, as would normally be seen in a corporate code written by top administrators -Once adopted as part of the code, the rules becomes the laws -Guidelines given in these government/public service codes are by definition based on the minimum requirements of the law (basic level) or the lowest possible ethical level at which the code is written ***Writing a code of ethics at this level is not preferred in Corporate codes because it can lead to the 'loophole mentality' **Such codes were strongly discouraged in the professions because they hinder the ability a group might have to lift up the behavior of its members to the higher ethical plane required to gain social prestige and autonomy 2. Tend to be much more limited in scope than corporate or professional codes - Since they are written at the basic ethical level, they invite the abuse of 'searching for loopholes' -Because the provisions of these codes automatically become laws upon their adoption, it could be argued that they are not technically codes of ethics as all but simply compilations of laws about ethics so they might be doing as much harm as good -These codes do not typically require of government officials any higher standards than are required of citizens at large. A code written at the basic level would not have this effect; in fact it might act to pull the ethical behavior of some officials down to the letter of the law in order that they might remain competitive with other candidates for office - Because of the political factors involved in their development, at times the inconsistencies in their rules and principles are indefensible -Problems in implementing these government codes. Provisions of the codes vary widely and change every year. Can be difficult for public officials to know with certainty whether an action is acceptable or not 3. Give the citizenry a public statement of ethical conduct to which public servants can be held - Call public officials to a minimal level of ethical conduct -Codes give public servants some guidance in regards to what is considered appropriate and inappropriate conduct -Are a step in the right direction toward public officials having accountability to the citizenry

1. Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274 CE)

1. Fullest and most developed version of natural law -A Catholic scholar, philosopher and theologian -Studies the recently discovered philosophical writings of Plato and Aristotle - His version of natural law theory provides the framework for Catholic ethics to this day and as a result most Christians views of ethics

Logical fallacies:

1. Genetic Fallacies 2. Equivocation 3. Faulty Causation fallacies 4. False Appeal Fallacies 5. Ignorance 6. Inconsistency 7. Straw man 8. Red Herring 9. Either/Or 10. Hasty Generalization 11. Two wrongs make a right 12. Is/Ought Confusion 13. Questionable claim 14. Begging the question

1. Aquinas Natural Law Theory 2. Universal human good (or values) per Aquinas:

1. Good is to be done and pursued and evil avoided -God built this natural law into humans -Good is to be done and pursued and evil avoided - He believed that there are natural human inclinations that are orient people to things that are inherently morally good provide they are reasonably pursued -Often called universal human goods 2 a) Human life b) Health c) Procreation d) Caring for children and promoting their welfare e) Knowledge and the avoidance of ignorance f) Human relationships and the consideration of other people's interest ***He also adopts Aristotle's reasoning that A) One's purpose in life is to fulfil one's human nature B) The foundation of ethics is to fulfill one's purpose

1. Rule Utilitarianism

1. Guiding human action is only one aspect of what ethical theories do -A further job of moral theories is to tell us what additional rules are needed for a well ordered functioning and happy society -Once those are figured out those rules help make moral decisions-these moral rules guide conduct -Is an attempt to reconcile the good ideas in Act Utilitarianism with nonconsequential insights about moral rules and absolute prescriptions ***One should follow moral rules because having good rules promotes the most happiness if people follow them*** - Ethical principles and rules are essential in human life -Help preserve friendships, foster positive work environments or promote public health -make societies happier than if we didn't have such rules -All rules require logical justification. Promotion of good consequences is what should result from ethical behavior - Instead of weighing specific actions against the Utility Principle as the Act Utilitarianism would, the Rule Utilitarianism argues that our social rules should be weighed against it - Utility Principle remains the foundational principle of this theory: ** So if a rule would promote happiness on the whole, the rule is morally justified **If a rule would promote unhappiness on the whole, it is an unjustified rule -Laws, rules and practices in societies change over time and the ones that tend to stay with us are those that in fact make people happier -Rules that don't make us happier tend to end up ignored or eliminated (the repeal of Prohibition is a nice example)

1. The Ethisphere Institute and the Institute of Business Ethics:

1. Have benchmarked some other key elements that need to be stated in an organization's behavioral expectations for it's employees and agents -This consensus hold that a code with the capacity to have a substantive influence not only on perceptions but action of the members of a corporation will have the following characteristics: a) Written standards for ethical conduct with written commitment from leadership b) Training on company standards of ethical workplace conduct c) Provision of a mechanism for seeking ethics-related advice of information d) Provision of a mechanism for reporting misconduct anonymously e) Commitment to non-retaliation f) Addresses key risk areas particular to organization g) Assessment of ethical conduct as a part of employee performance evaluations h) Disciplining of employees who violate the standards of the organization or the law

1. Aristotle 2. Plato

1. Held that understanding the meaning of a virtue was necessary but not sufficient to make one virtuous. To be courageous one must act courageously consistently enough so that it becomes part of ones' very nature part of who one is. -Attaining a virtue requires knowing and doing -There are a) Intellectual virtues - Reflect what is unique and important about human nature across the board-namely human reason or rationality e.g. calmness, contemplation, reflection, wisdom and knowledge b) Moral virtues -Those one would probably need in order to conduct well the normal affairs of daily life in the upper echelons of Athenian society such as self control, courage, gentleness, wittiness -To be moral is to function well in relationship to others to be an active contributing member of a community ***He argued that people cannot flourish unless they are first virtuous 2. Seemed to believe that ethics was simply a matter of properly understanding these virtues. All it takes to be just is to understand the real meaning of justice

1. OSHA Occupational Safety and Health Administration 2. Family Leave Act in 1993

1. In 1970 the federal government stepped in to create its own superagency to monitor workplace safety. -This law assigns the primary responsibility for protecting workplace health and safety to the federal government rather that to the states or private parties - Ensure 'so far as possible every working man and woman in the nation safe and healthful working conditions' - Creates mechanisms to implement it -Every workplace must be kept free of recognized hazards that are likely to cause serious injury or death - Implications of that general purpose are spelled out in specific provisions for each industry 2. Was passed by congress requiring companies with more than 50 employees to grant unpaid leaves of absence of up to 6 months for the care of new babies, sick children or elderly parents - Company is required to hold the workers position open for him or her rather than firing him or her from the job but the worker is not paid during this time

1. Teleology 2. Nature 3. What makes humans unique? 4. Golden Mean

1. In nature every kind of thing exists to do something unique or specific 2. whatever makes a kind of thing unique 3.a) Reason -Aristotle maintained that only humans are capable of rational reflection b) Eudaimonia -'Happiness' or 'flourishing'. Being well and living well 4. Aristotle's definition of virtues as being balanced points of moderation between opposing the 'just right' spot between two undesirable extremes. -Points out that there can be both too little and too much of a good thing. **Having too little of a good quality is a vice of deficiency where having too much of a quality is vice of excess. Moderation or balance is the key to virtue ----Having an extreme deficiency is called cowardice ----If a person is courageous beyond reason to the point that it doesn't make rational sense, this extreme is called foolhardiness( recklessness or rashness) ---- Self control is the balance between the extremes of self-indulgence and self denial

1. Applying Act Utilitarianism 2. Steps:

1. Is a five step mathematical process. Ultimate goal is to find the action that would produce the most happiness for the most people a) State the Central Ethical Issue b) List the possible options that could be taken c) List all people affected by these options d) Determine the net utility of each option - The net utility refers to the sum or total of the total of the happiness and unhappiness caused by a specific action **In order to figure out which option would produce the most happiness for the most people, then happiness must be measurable and everyone's happiness must count equally **To determine this, use real numbers called "happiness units". There should be consistency for all of the options and an explanation for why the numbers get assigned as they do. ***Goal is to use reason, logic and common sense to determine how much happiness will result for the most people with each option aka trying to predict the future consequences of each option e) Choose and follow the option that produces the highest net utility

1. Internet

1. Is a network of millions of computers and servers all speaking the same language and linked together by hardware and software - Is a communications tool, an ingenious method of transmitting information from one computer to another - This ability to store, send and receive vast amounts of information has revolutionized communications, education research and commerce -It has made the world a smaller place by allowing dialogues among people from all over the globe -It has made it more difficult, although not impossible for despots to isolate their peoples from the liberating ideas of freedom and democracy -It has made the world a better place ; these new opportunities are accompanied by hosts of new ethical issues

Chapter 12: Codes of Ethics 1. Code of Ethics 2. Moral Code 3. Categories of codes of ethics 4. Levels of codes of ethics 5. Loophole mentality

1. Is a written set of principles and rules intended to serve as a a guideline for determining ethical behavior for those individuals under its authority 2. Is a definitive statement of right and wrong 3. Corporate, Professional and Government/ Public Service 4. Basic, currently attainable, practical, theoretical 5. Individuals sometime seem to expend more energy in trying to get around the law than in trying to obey it

1. Nonconsequential Immanuel Kant's Ethical Theory 2. Autonomous

1. Is categorized as a deontological approach to ethics 'Deon' is the Greek word for 'duty' -Ethics is about fulfilling one's moral duties or obligations -Through reason, logic, critical thinking and moral intuition -The deontologist emphasizes moral duty-the obligation to do the right thing because it is the right thing to do -Concept of moral duty is based on the notion that some behaviors are right or wrong period -Circumstance or results of the behaviors are morally irrelevant - He constructed his ethical reasoning upon the concepts of duty and goodwill **Goodwill is the intention to do the right thing for its sake -Goodwill would derive from an innate human ability to act according to Principe - Ultimate teaching of Kant's ethics was simply duty itself-duty for duty's sake. Do the right thing because it is the right thing to do -So what's is one's moral duty? Everyone is morally autonomous - Saw the process of moral reasoning as being universal. Is based on logic and the rules and laws of logic are the same for everyone ***How does anyone determine what this ;right thing to do' is? ** Kant maintained that consistent, logical thinking would lead everyone to one central ethical truth-the "categorical imperative." **An imperative is a duty, a command. One is obligated to follow imperatives. Categorical means across all categories so this ethical principle reveals "all the time no exceptions, moral duties" 2. Is derived from two Greek words auto meaning 'self' and nomos meaning 'law' so it means self rule or self governance -People are autonomous when they can think and act independently and take care of themselves

1. Utilitarianism b) Classical utilitarianism (Like Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill) c) Hedonistic utilitarianism 2. Utility Principle aka The Greatest Happiness Principle

1. Is the view that what one ought to do morally is produce the greatest possible utility for the greatest possible number of people. - It is also essentially democratic-everyone's happiness or pleasure counts not just one's own ***Utility is another word for 'good' or 'benefit' --If an action benefits more people that it harms, the action is right --If a law is oppressive and harms more people than it helps, the law is wrong b) 'Satisfaction' or pleasure is identical with the good. It is the only thing good in and of itself c) Philosophical school arguing that pleasure is the only thing that is inherently good 2. Is the main idea of utilitarianism and is the ultimate standard on which utilitarian's think people should judge moral right or wrong **The right action in any situation is the one that tends to produce the greatest balance of happiness over unhappiness for the greatest possible number **Happiness-unhappiness=net utility ----Net utility is figured by subtracting the unhappiness produced by a result from the happiness produced **If what remains is a positive sum of happiness, then one has acted ethically ** If there is a negative net utility (the action causes more unhappiness than happiness) then one has done something unethical -----Act utilitarian's argue that one should apply this principle to every action one takes ------Rule utilitarian's argue that the principle should be used to establish governing social principles, rules, and policies

1. Roots of utilitarianism

1. Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832 CE) an English philosopher is credited with founding utilitarianism -Gave the theory its name and first systematic exposition in his major work, "Principles of Legislation and Morals" -He was a child prodigy and social activist -Worked to reform the English prison system and defended democracy as a form of government -He advocated changes in law, universal voting rights, the decriminalization of homosexuality and improving animal welfare -He argued that changing the oppressive laws and systems of his day would promote happiness than unhappiness

1. Jefferson's words 2. John Locke (1632-1704) 3. Locke's Equal Liberties Principle 4. The United Nations Declaration spells out six type of basic human rights:

1. Life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness 2. Argued that the three basic human rights are life, liberty and property -Purpose of government is to protect the rights of the citizens -There is only one central duty or obligation-to respect the rights of others. This is expressed in Locke's Equal Liberties Principle -Argued that human nature is individualistic. 'Every man for himself' -Maintained that almost all rights are -ve. Individuals are on their own and only have the right to try to get what they can for ourselves. -Exceptions come into play when people make promises and commitments -+ve rights generally result from promises 3. It states 'Everyone is entitled to as many rights and liberties(freedoms) as possible as long as rights and liberties are not taken from others' -People have the basic freedom to do whatever they want to do - Only limitation on this moral freedom is the duty to extend these same rights and freedoms to others -Only moral duty is to avoid violating the rights of others 4a) Security rights -Protect people against murder injury and torture b) Due process rights - Protect people against arbitrary and excessively harsh punishments and require fair and public trials for those accused of crimes c) Liberty rights -Protect peoples' freedoms in areas such as belief, expression, association and movement d) Political rights - Protect people's liberty to participate in politics by assembling protesting voting and serving in public office e) Equality rights -Guarantee equal citizenship, equality before the law and freedom from discrimination f) Welfare rights - Require that people be provided with education and protected against starvation and severe poverty

1. Bentham's godson John Stuart Mill (1806-1873 CE) 2. Bentham and Mill 3. Bentham's view 4. Mill's view

1. Major founder of classical utilitarianism 2. Are the major figures in this approach to ethics 3. Is clearly Act utilitarianism-he focused on choosing the action that would produce the most happiness in a given situation 4. Endorsed the same view but leaned toward Rule utilitarianism

1. open-mindedness 2. provincial 3. invisible ignorance 4. Skepticism 5. Fair mindedness

1. Means willing to consider points of view, ideas and values that are different from one's own. 2. means to see things only from a very well defined and particular point of view 3. Is Extreme provincialism. Person refuses tp consider any arguments or evidence for any other points of view or perspectives 4. An attitude of doubt towards what others (and oneself) claim is 'true' 5. Trying to be as impartial and objective as possible when evaluating the merits or demerits-the arguments for or against-different points of view

1. Friedrich Nietzsche(1844-1900 CE) German philologist, philosopher and poet 2. "Doctrine of the Eternal of the same' 3. Author Ayn Rand ( Twentieth century philosopher)

1. One of the most influential and articulate defenders of egoism -Advocates abandoning traditional morality altogether -Rather than asking whether or not one is living a 'good' life, one ought to ask whether one is living a life of self creation -He rejects the idea that individuals should conform to ethical standards that are not of their choosing; after all, many (if not all) rules exist to force social conformity rather than promote 'morality' -A well lived life is one in which an individual is willing to risk 'going it alone' and creating value for oneself 2. Vivid illustration of Nietzsche's egoist principle -Living a good life involves being courageous enough to take risks and aim solely at personal development even if that means leaving behind traditional moral categories 3. She called her philosophy 'objectivism' and like Hobbes argues that human beings are rational egoists who ought to avoid acting in ways that would alienate you from your community or bring harm on you. Thus egoism is compatible with living together amicably and working cooperatively.

1. Ethical issues faced for those who work in government: 2. Abuse of power 3. Education, training and experience for those who run for public office and win:

1. Power - In a Monarchy government, the kingdom, the king and the appointees have power over the people - In the USA, different levels of government have different powers a) Explicitly spelled out powers b) Implied powers c) Reserved powers - Federal level- United States Congress has the power to declare war - Individual states- Responsibility for education of the citizens - President has the power to appoint Ambassadors - Police officers have the power to issue citations 2. Conflict of interest - Can be severely damaging to the reputation of any official the position itself and the public trust - Are equally dangerous - Is a source of ethical tension and must be dealt with Examples of potential conflicts of interest in government: a) Working on an assignment, task or legislation that could result in financial gain to you or a family member e.g. sponsoring a bill that would provide extra farm subsidies to dairy farmers while your family owns a farm that would benefit financially from this legislation b) Having any employment or contractual relationship with a business that is doing business with your government agency e.g. working part time for a construction firm that comes to your office to approve its construction plans What should someone do when faced with a conflict of interest? a) Notify the proper oversight organization or individual on the record -Disclosure inspires conversation and begins the process of moral reasoning in a social setting that best ensures a good resolution and an ethical one 3. Lobbyists - Is someone who acts as an agent and represents groups. - Jos is to meet with elected officials, their staffs and bureaucrats to discuss important issues, pending legislation, executive orders and other places where an organization has an interest - They play a necessary role in a government like ours - They work as agents who work for our interests - They are experts on government - They specialize in helping citizens work more efficiently with government - They do not just work for corporations and big businesses but also for colleges, universities, counties and special interest groups like AARP and AAA *** They do not generally have a +ve image among the public *** In some cases, they have offered government officials free trips, tickets to events, meals, cash, sex, insider trips etc. to achieve their goals *** The inherent ethical tension comes from the fact that lobbyists always want something from the government-even if it is that they want the government not to do something *******In most States and at the federal level, updated ethics laws have created limits on what a lobbyist may provide to any official or staff member ********Requiring lobbyists to register allows everyone to know what the lobbyist is doing and whom he or she is representing. 4. Whistleblowing - Puts government leaders and workers against the citizens whose interest these individuals are supposed to be protecting 5. The public's Right to Know- Government in the Sunshine 2. Occurs when someone uses his or her position (or office) to circumvent rules, procedures or laws 3. Able to get more votes than the others who run against you b) Have educations, training and experiences to make them fit for the job-but that is not always true

Three parts of an argument:

1. Premises -The reasons and evidence that are cited, directly or indirectly to support the conclusion. - The premises can include facts, perceptions, opinions, principles, rules, proverbs, advice, precedents, traditions and any other factors that could help strengthen peoples confidence in an arguments conclusion 2. Structure -Refers to the nature of the logical relationship between the premises and the claim the argument purports to establish 3. Conclusion -Conclusion defines the argument. One must know where the argument is going before the other parts-the premises and structure-make sense at all. - Conclusion is often identified in our language by the beginning word 'thus' or 'therefore' or 'finally'. ***if there's no conclusion, or if it cannot be identified, then there is no argument in the first place

Ways leaders can keep themselves from pitfalls related to their positions:

1. Prudence - The wise management of resources for the benefit of the whole - Exercise responsible stewardship over the domain to which they are assigned **Virtue of prudence divides into two duties: a) foresight b) frugality - Officials in govt. are given the responsibility to look over the public interest 2. Courage of ones own conscience - The quality of character needed to recognize compromises make them on occasion and govern as effectively as possible - Is a combination of idealism and realism - Government have checks and balances -At the federal level, the President can implement policies within the executive branch -Legislative branch makes the decision whether to fund these policies - At a local level, a law enforcement has a sworn duty to 'protect and serve' as well as enforce the laws of the state and municipality where he or she works - There must be a balance between idealism and reality 3. Truth telling - This the quality of telling the truth to the responsible authoritative inquiry

Academic Misconduct.: 1. Plagiarism 2. Misrepresentation

1. When a student takes the creative work of others and misrepresent as their own 2. Any act or omission with the intent to deceive an instructor for academic advantage e.g. lying

1. Codes of ethics vary by:

1. Purpose -Purpose of the codes are not all the same 2. Authorship -Corporate codes are usually written at an administrative level and unfortunately sometimes with little contribution from the employees who are to follow it - Code of professional organizations are often constructed at the peer level because many of the individuals in the professions are self employed or are granted more autonomy than corporate employees e.g. **Dentists wrote the American Dental Association code of ethics **Attorneys wrote the American Bar Association code ** Accountants wrote the code for the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants 3. Level - Codes can vary in their ethical level. Degree of ethical behavior to which they call their subjects. - Raiborn and Payne created a hierarchy of codes of ethics based on the types of standards used in cost accounting. a) Basic level -Represents behavior within the letter of the law - No concerted effort to comply with the spirit of the law thus producing the 'loophole mentality' e.g. a code of ethics for a chemical company stating that its employees will not dump any more than the legal limit of a dangerous pesticide into a nearby river b) Currently attainable level - Represents the behavior normally exhibited by individuals -This behavior is socially acceptable but not particularly praiseworthy since reaching it does not require much effort e.g. a repair company might develop and advertise policies such as 'we will not cheat our customers' or ' employees shall not curse at the customers' c) Practical Level -Represents behavior that can be achieved the majority of the time through diligent effort d) Theoretical level - Represents the ethical ideal - Is virtually impossible to attain consistently but represents the 'highest potential towards which society should continually strive' e.g. 'all our employees are as honest as ol' Abe Lincoln ever was' or 'we would walk two miles to return your penny'. -This statements may sound admirable at first, standards this high can eventually become meaningless. They can never truly be achieved therefore they cannot be enforced.

1. Evaluating Rule Utilitarianism

1. Remedies some of the problems with Act Utilitarianism at least in theory. Individual interests cannot be routinely sacrificed for the good of the group because if we proposed that as a rule it would not yield high net utility ***Often face serious criticisms-sometimes precisely because they take a middle path ***They seldom satisfy adherents of less moderate views ***Nonconsequentialists like Kant disagree with Rule Utilitarian's about the status of moral rules ***Rule Utilitarianism doesn't offer absolute moral standards rather they are always dependent on what makes people happy ****Kant and other Nonconsequentialists argue that morality's rules must be independent of people's happiness in order to be absolute ***Act Utilitarian's aren't happy with the compromise either, they point out that Rule Utilitarianism asks people to follow rules, even when doing so would not promote good consequences ***To insist that people follow rules even when they lead to bad outcomes seems to be kind of 'rule worship' ------The Act Utilitarian argues that Rule Utilitarianism may not end up being Utilitarian at all***

1. Antidiscrimination laws: 2. Protected Class 3. Affirmative Action

1. Requires employers to consider and treat all applicants and workers based on job related abilities rather than prejudice -Employers may not ask about gender, age, nation origin, religion, race, or genetic information of an applicant on a job application form -Employers must keep accurate employment records including interviewing and hiring data -In the event that a discrimination complaint is filed with the EEOC Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, those record will be reviewed by federal investigators to determine if a pattern of discrimination against members of a protected class actually exists 2. Is any group of people specifically mentioned in antidiscrimination laws 3. Hopes to favor members of a particular group who have been disadvantaged

1. Nanotechnology 2. Enlightenment model of science

1. Research explores ways in which matter can be manipulated and technologies developed at molecular level. 2. 'Scientists should be left alone to determine the progress of science, in other words, and technology would follow in the wake of unbiased scientific discovery'.

chapter 7: Nonconsequential Ethical theories, Part 2: 1. Natural rights theory 2. Atomistic 3. Nonconsequential 4. Natural rights 5. Kant's deontology 6. Contractarianism

1. Rights are morally authorized claims that impose legitimate obligations on others. If one has a right to something, then everyone else has a duty to avoid violating that right -Believe that God has constituted humans in such a way that having rights is part of what makes them human beings - Natural rights theorists argue that what defines the essence of humanity is possessing rights -Fact that humans have rights defines human nature -Rights make up human 'essence' without rights people would not be what they are -Our rights are 'inalienable'-people cannot be stripped of them nor divest them from ourselves -Natural rights theory is also atomistic 2. Individuals are what matter from a moral perspective; communities and larger social interests or structures are secondarily important 3. Theories base morality on factors other than the results or outcomes of actions. These other factors can include duties, obligations, rights, laws of nature or social contracts 4. Emphasizes the exclusive protection of and reliance upon basic human rights. John Locke's key principle is the fundamental duty to avoid violating the rights of others 5. Base moral right and wrong on self-derived, universal, moral duties determined through reason and intuition 6. Bases ethics on the values of justice and fairness providing processes to help people understand what an idea fair solution would be

Chapter 2: Moral Development 1. Plato's tripartite (three-part) conception of a persons psyche(soul) that has some relevance to moral decision making 2. People believed that moral development was based largely on the principle of tabula rasa (blank tablet or blank state)

1. The appetite (or the body) - That part of humans that are driven by their physical desires and drives 2. The spirit (or the heart) -The part driven by emotions and feelings wanting to overcome adversity and achieve victory 3. The head (or the mind) -Governed by reason and intellect ** Plato believed that the mind controls and keeps in the balance the other two 2. John Locke argued that the human mind begins as a 'white paper' or void of all characters without any ideas.

1. absolutism 2. legalism

1. The belief that there are no matters of opinion in ethics since all moral judgments are the same for everyone, coupled with the attitude that one's own opinions are the correct ones. 2. The belief that ethical discussions are unnecessary because we have laws to govern people's behavior; or that ethical standards and legal standards are really the same.

1. Relativism 2. Subjective Relativism 3. Cultural Relativism

1. The belief that there are no moral standards, judgments, or principles that apply to everyone. 2. What is morally right and wrong varies from one person to another a) What is morally right and wrong varies from one culture to another

Chapter 3: Critical thinking part 1 1. Logic 2. Argument 3. Critical thinking 4. Fallacy

1. The branch of philosophy that deals with the principles of good thinking and reasoning process 2. A series of statements that work together to establish the truth of some point 3. The active and systematic process of communication, problem solving, evaluation analysis, synthesis and reflection both individually and in community, to foster understanding, support sound decision making, and guide action. 4. An illogical argument, often appearing logical at first glance, involving a statement or statements that in one way or another deceive or mislead

1. Characteristics of Effective Professional Codes 2. Limitations of Professional Codes

1. The content of quality professional codes covers the important ethical issues in the field clearly thoroughly and adequately 2. Effective professional codes are protective of the public interests and the interest of the individuals who are served by that profession 3. The members of the profession must be familiar with the code and it's contents 4. Quality professional codes are specific and honest 5. Professional codes must be enforceable and actually policed 6. Quality professional codes must be revised periodically 7. Professional codes of ethics must be regulative to be effective 2. Following the precepts of ones professional code of ethics can mean violating other moral principles

Chapter 14: Government Ethics 1. Prudence 2. Courage of conscience 3. Truth telling 4. Conflict of interest 5. Whistleblower 6. Open Government

1. The wise management of resources for the benefit of the whole, including virtues of foresight and frugality 2. The quality of character that recognizes compromises and does not hesitate to act on a balance of idealism and realism 3. Official telling of the whole truth to an appropriate authority 4. A situation in which needs and interest are at odds with professional obligations 5.. An employee or office of any institution, profit or nonprofit, private or public who believes either that he has been ordered to perform some act or has obtained knowledge that the institution is engaged in activities which a) Are believed to cause unnecessary harm to third parties b) Are in violation of human rights c) Run counter to the defined purpose of the institution d) Inform the public of this fact

1. Plato

1. Took a very practical approach to finding this 'good life' -If ones' goal is to achieve happiness and fulfillment, it might be wise to find some happy, fulfilled people and observe what they appear to be doing right -Believed that happy fulfilled people tend to be morally mature people. --Four classical virtues a) Self-control (or temperance) -Controlling ones' appetite in the broad sense so that one desires only good things and in the right proportions b) courage -Expresses one's awareness of what to fear and what not to fear as well as the willingness to endure hardship for the right reasons c) wisdom -Is the rational capacity to govern one's own impulses and feelings and to think logically and calmly about what is truly important in life d) justice (or moral rightness) - condition of having everything in its' proper place in one's character and conduct including personally possessing all the three classic virtues in proper measure ***Logic for Plato is that to have good people you need the right kind of society to educate and empower them ***To have the right society we need the right kind of people-especially philosophical leaders (philosopher kings) who can achieve the status of ;healthy souls' through their personal virtues *** These same virtuous leaders will be inspirational teachers and examples to the rest of us *** These good leaders should be placed in positions of political power so that the wise decisions they make will benefit the rest of the society

1. Sexual Harassment:

1. Two major categories: a) quid pro quo - When an employee is given to understand that the likelihood that he or she will advance in the company or in his or her career based upon a favorable response to sex-laden suggestions by superiors b) Hostile environment - Involves the creation of a workplace environment which is intimidating or hostile even though in some cases no economic harm occurs. e.g. discussions, jokes, emails, picture etc. To be considered harassment the hostile environment must be so pervasive it changes the condition of the victims employment

1. Hacking 2. Piracy 3. The Dark Web 4. Automation and work

1. Unethical or illegal hacking done by crackers is the act of electronically breaking into another computer without permission or authorization -Purposes of the invasions vary: a) Amusement, money (from the banks), vandalism for fun or revenge or just the feeling of power that comes from a use of expertise that no one can oppose 2. Illegal copying aka software piracy or 'sharing' for those who engage in the practice -Also includes digital media like music, movies eBooks, or anything else copyrighted or claimed as intellectual property ---what is available for the taking may be gratefully taken ---what is clearly proprietary must be respected as such --- what is in doubt must be inquired about and permission must be asked 3. Mask of internet anonymity 4. Computerized or mechanized 'workers' are typically more efficient and cost effective than using people to do the same work --Automation helps increase company profits. --Carries with it the benefit of increasing safety

1. What is is this ultimate moral command? Kant argued that it had several formulations or expressions two of which are:

1. Universality - "Act only on that maxim which you can at the same time will to be a universal law" - A maxim is a general rule or principle on which a person may choose to act so people should act consistently with the moral rule or principle that could apply equally to everyone - Point of the universality principle is logical consistency - Kant's principle is an attempt to eliminate those inconsistencies and contradictions -Everyone should always act according to the same principles and standard that they would want others to follow as well 2. Respect for persons "Act so that you treat humanity whether in your own person or that of another always as an end and never as a means only" - An end is a goal or purpose. A means is a strategy, a tool, a way of achieving that purpose - People should treat themselves and others as goals or purposes but never merely as tools or mere resources

1. 'Father of Moral Philosophy'

1. Was Socrates - Came to believe that seeking wisdom was the most important endeavor of life -Took pride in being a social irritant, giving himself the nickname the 'gadfly' of Athens. -He recognized that deference authority and Greek religion (Greek mythology) could not provide answers to life's deepest questions and his goal was to challenge his fellow citizens to understand that as well. -His most important contribution was in finding a way to distinguish between ethics and morality. -After Socrates, the word 'ethics' and 'morality' took on separate meanings a) Morality retained its original meaning referring to the laws, rules, regulations, standards and customs of a society b) Ethics evolved into the studying, questioning and challenging of these social standards. ***Ethics is really the study of morality

1. Wester philosophical ethics 2. Virtue Ethics

1. Was born in Athens Greece around 400 B.C.E. -Founders were Socrates, his follower Plato and Plato's student Aristotle - Their determination to base ethics on reason, rather than on superstition or authority laid the foundation upon which virtually all philosophers who followed would base their ideas and theories about morality -The theory they developed is called 'virtue ethics' 2. The primary focus is one's character especially the personal disposition to act well in various circumstances - primary concern of virtue ethics is being the right kind of people so that everyone will do the right thing -The central issue focus is whether one has the personal character traits-the self control, courage, wisdom, justice, honesty, caring and respect to act with moral maturity in each situation -Primary concern is the development of essential moral virtues **Other ethical theories focus on using principles to determine whether a particular action one might perform is right or wrong. They are 'action- centered theories' ** Virtue ethics perspective focuses on what kind of person one should be over time. Is an 'agent-centered theory' ----Agent-centered theories focus on the character of the person who performs actions, rather than putting emphasis on the actions themselves. -Virtue ethics approach emphasizes the aim of achieving human excellence by developing certain ideal character traits -the good or excellent person will do the right thing naturally ***Concept of 'virtue' in both Latin and Greek culture meant 'excellence' in being a model person -Is founded on an important assumption that the ancient Greeks held about the meaning of life. Held that the central purpose of life was to achieve happiness and fulfillment

Morally questionable technologies:

1. Weapons of mass destruction (WMD) -Designed to kill or harm large numbers of people or destroy buildings, cities, and other human environments. ***A unit of measurement exists to measure the scale of death potentially cause by nuclear weapons called 'megadeath'. **Megadeath refers to the numbers of casualties from nuclear strikes in millions

Kohlberg's Six Stages: 1. Punishment and Obedience 2) Instrument and Relativity 3) Interpersonal Concordance 4) Law and order 5) Social contract 6) Universal Ethical Principles

1. What's right is to obey authority figures and avoid punishment 2. What's right is whatever meets one's own personal needs; using situations and other people to ones advantage 3. What's right is to act in ways that elicit social approval; that makes others like you 4. What's right is to obey formal laws and rules in order to maintain social order 5. What's right is to live consistently with the deepest principles and values of ones society, culture or subculture 6. What's right is to live consistently with self-chosen, universal moral principles

1. Positive right 2. Negative right

1. a)Someone else 'owes' that person the thing to which she/he is entitled b) You do not have to get it for yourself someone else is supposed to get it for you c) Your +ve right to something creates a 'duty of performance' for another person -These are called +ve rights because someone is required to take proactive steps to provide someone with something 2. Means that no one else is obligated to provide that right-others are required to simply stay out of the way -One is morally allowed to exercise their -ve rights but if one doesn't, then no one else is at fault -Nothing has to be provided by others in order for anyone to have their -ve rights

1. Scope of the Florida Sunshine Law

1. aka Sunshine law s.286.011, Fs. provides a right of access to governmental proceedings of public boards or commissions at both the state and local levels. -Law is equally applicable to elected and appointed boards and applies to any gathering of two or more members of the same board to discuss some matter which will foreseeably come before that board for action - Members elect to such boards or commissions are also subject to the Sunshine Law even though they have not taken office Basic requirements of s.286.011, Fs: a) meetings of public boards or commissions must be open to the public b) reasonable notice of such meetings must be given c) minutes of the meetings must be taken and promptly recorded ****In addition to its disclosure requirements, the Amendment prohibits members of the legislature and statewide officials from lobbying their former government body or agency for two years after leaving office, ****prohibits incumbent legislators from representing clients before any state agency ***makes public officials and employees financially liable to the state for breaches of public trust

Chapter 5: Consequential Ethical Theories 1. Origins of Ethical Beliefs: 2. Ancient Greek word 'theoria' means 3. Theory 4. Theory of plate tectonics 5. Concepts of relativity and quantum theory 6. Ethical theory

1a) Authority b) Culture c) Emotion d) Intuition e) Reason 2. ' a looking at, viewing, beholding, observing 3. Is an organized way of looking at a set of issues, facts, questions, or phenomena 4. In geology, almost all phenomena can be understood by using the concepts and framework 5. Most of the phenomena in physics can be analyzed via the concepts of.... 6. Central concepts and principles of an ethical theory provide unifying themes that are helpful for understanding a wide range of concerns

1. Applying Kant's Theory: 2. Strengths of Kant's theory 3. Difficulties of Kant's theory

1a) State the central ethical issue b) List the possible options that could be taken c) Apply universality. Eliminate all options that logically could not be moral standards for everyone d) Apply respect for persons. Eliminate all options that exploit anyone e) Choose any of the remaining options 2. Challenges the all-too-human tendency to make self serving exceptions to the moral rules that people would apply to others - If everyone practiced his principle of respect for persons and did so with equality, problems like racism, sexism, and classism might me eliminated -Personal and work relationships could improve World would likely be a much better place in which to live of everyone consistently followed the moral rules they prescribe for others and treated everyone else with the same respect they would want for themselves 3. 'Reason is and ought to be the slave of the passions' that is pure, disinterested reason never motivates people to moral action rather it is the sense of sympathy for fellow humans that generates moral behavior and reason plays a role in merely rationalizing why people act as they do -Kant's assertion that goodwill can trump desires, interests or preferences is controversial -Kant's view of " a lie is a lie is a lie" ( and there's no moral difference between a lie told to cheat a friend out of money and a lie told to save that friend's life) is counterintuitive on this point -Kant's clear-cut moral absolutes are not always so clear after all -Question of what constitutes a person. It is permissible by this theory to exploit nonpersons so it is vital to be clear on what a person is

1. Applying Contractarianism: 2. Advantages of Rawl's theory 3. Disadvantages of Rawl's theory

1a) State the central ethical issue b) List the possible options that could be taken c) Choose the option that would seem most fair to the interests (primary goods) of all stakeholders d) If there are no ideally fair options, choose the one that best protects the interests (primary goods) of the least advantaged stakeholders 2. Takes so many ideas from so many other moral theories and create a kind of synergy -From egoism, he takes the starting point that human nature is basically self-interested -From virtue ethics he accepts the assumption that there can be some universally shared human values-in this case the primary goods of self respect, rights and liberties powers and opportunities and income and wealth - From natural rights he includes the foundational beliefs that all people have equal rights and that individual rights should not be sacrificed for the good of others 3. Rawl's never achieved his central goal of harmonizing fairness and self interest - The contractors are basically perfectly rational thinkers who would propose rules as balanced as possible and therefore in their favor -

1. Cont. of types of arguments.

2. Inductive arguments -Do not have formulaic structures to which they must conform - Premises in inductive arguments need not interconnect like deductive premises. Inductive premises need only relate to the conclusion i.e. it doesn't matter in inductive arguments whether the premises are relevant to each other just that they are relevant to the conclusion -Are not truth preserving nor do they entail their conclusions as they lack the definite formality of deductive arguments **Inductive arguments can only be probably or likely true, never guaranteed. **Inductive arguments can take a wide variety of forms **Many inductive arguments tend to move from specific reasons or examples to a more general conclusion

1. Classifying Moral theories aka ethical theories

a) Consequential theories -Base ethical judgements on the results or outcomes of actions or rules - Consider ethically good actions to be those that produce good consequences while bad actions are those that produce bad consequences -View ethics in terms of the consequences of actions -No actions are inherently right or wrong -Moral value of actions depends on how things turn out - Base ethical judgement on the results or outcomes of actions or rules b) Nonconsequential theories -Base these judgements on factors other than the outcomes and consequences, maintaining that something other than mere results caused by an action must factor in determining whether that action was right or wrong - Base these judgements on factors other than outcomes and consequence

1. Properties of Moral Theories 2. Moral theories

a) Ethical theories must be in some way descriptive b) Ethical theories must provide some explanation about moral good and bad c) Moral values are concepts thus moral theorists use logic and reason to formulate theoretical explanations of concepts of good and bad d) Ethical theories are also prescriptive - They must give provide guidelines and principles about how people should live -Most ethical theories are framed by a foundational, or fundamental principle according to which individuals can make moral decisions or justify other rules or principles people should observe ***A theory's fundamental principle is the bedrock for that theory's perspective 2. Are organized groups of ethical principles that share a common theme

1. Evaluating Act Utilitarianism 2. Act Utilitarianism's weaknesses

a) Gives a clear standard of moral right and wrong b) Anyone can use Act Utilitarianism reasoning to solve real-life problems c) Is genuinely applicable d) Shifts the focus away from self centered thinking and requires people to think more globally e) Could be a positive force in circumstances where self-interested reasoning seems all too common-areas like corporate governance and politics 2. Happiness and unhappiness are mental states of people and are therefore not directly observable. They are subjective feelings. Happiness and unhappiness are inherently private feelings and cannot be measured or predicted from an outsiders perspective b) 'Death problem'- How could one estimate how much happiness or unhappiness to attribute the person as a result of death? c) Neither theory allows for any moral absolutes. No actions can ever be always right or always wrong d) Also overlooks important moral concepts like individual right. The welfare and rights of an individual can get lost in the overall well being of the group

1. Customer wrong doing examples: 2. Externalizing costs of doing business

a) Shoplifting b) Easygoing return policies open the possibility of consumer abuse c) Using coupons and rebates to the extent that the retailer ends up owing the customer at the end of the transaction 2. A business can increase its profits by minimizing the cost associated with producing its goods or services e.g. a) Use of taxpayer money to subsidize infrastructure b) Corporate imperialism into small markets -Large corporate establishments such as Wal-Mart Home Depot or Applebee's create similar disruptions particularly in the small and midsized towns -Their businesses rapidly disposes the traditional small stores off the area driving local businesses out of business

1. Applying Virtue Ethics 2. Character Education 3. Advantages of Virtue Ethics 4. Weaknesses of Virtue Ethics

a) State the central ethical issue b) List the possible options that could be taken c) Determine the virtues called for by the situation d) Consider the options in terms of the virtues e) Evaluate the options using the Golden Mean f) Choose the option that is most consistent with the virtues and the Golden Mean 2. Is where schools stress positive individual character traits 3. Remains a popular form of ethics education in American public schools today b) Schools stress positive individual character traits c) Offers a refreshing alternative to the other theories because it de-emphasizes principles and rules. The idea that being ethical is related to human flourishing seems to give good reason to pursue a moral life 4. Aristotle's version of virtue ethics assumes that life has a purpose. If humans have no inherent purpose or proper function, it seems to undermine the consistency of his theory b) Problem specifying which exact virtues are moral and contribute to human flourishing c) Looking at moral right and wrong only through the virtue ethics window can lead to a kind of 'character trap'. This theory is basically about being a good person

1. Applying the Natural Law Theory 2. Evaluation Natural Law Theory

a) State the central ethical issue b) List the possible options that could be taken c) Evaluate each option to see if it violates or interferes with any of the universal human goods d) Eliminate all options that violate one or more universal human goods e) Any options remaining are morally permissible 2. Has been very influential view in western culture and its basic ideas since their inception have helped form both personal moral beliefs and institutional practices ***Relies on there being a Supreme Being (God) who legislates morality for us *** Most of natural laws foundational assumptions grow from its religious roots; thus this theory is guilty of preaching to the choir. The nonbeliever does not have much reason to accept the conclusions of this theory **Aquinas list does not leave much room for issues like cultural diversity as the values are assumed to be the same for everyone ** Seems to ignore the fact that human values may change over time e.g. procreation. Peoples views have changed since his time

1. Applying the Natural Rights Theory: 2. Advantages of Natural Rights Theory 3. Disadvantages of Natural Rights Theory

a) State the central ethical issue b) List the possible options that could be taken c) Identify the relevant positive and negative rights of stakeholders in the situation d) Eliminate options that actively violate anyone's +ve or -ve rights e) Select an option that doe not violate any rights 2. Has helped to improve the lives of millions around the world -Is now accepted by many cultures and nations -Natural rights theory with its tenet that all people have equal rights, has served as a philosophical foundation for democracy itself - Provided the UN a tool for condemning atrocities committed by governments -World is a better place because of the influence of John Locke and the natural rights theory 3. Limited obligations and responsibilities to others -Natural rights requires so little of people -The Equal Liberties Principle gives virtually no guidance how to adjudicate between competing (or opposing) legitimate rights - It is simply impractical to place a higher value on the rights of the individual that the needs and interests of the community ***A movement has arisen to address that very concern. ***Communitarians argue that while individual rights are vital to our national ethic, community interest matter too -This theory assumes that there is a creator God who imbues humanity with rights. If one does not accept God's existence, where do these rights come from?

1. Factors that may make codes less likely to be effective:

a) When written 'just for show' b) If its principles appear to be inconsistent with the actual corporate culture- that mutual understanding of expected values and behaviors among the members of a society -Corporate culture represents the real attitudes of the company the understood expectations of how individuals within the company should act -It is the pattern of shared values and beliefs that give members of an institution meaning and provide them with rules for behavior in their organization

1. Bowies provides four criteria for whistleblowing" (The potential whistleblower must meet all of the criteria before going to an outside organization)

a) Whistle is blown from the appropriate moral motive- to save innocent 3rd parties from harm, to expose wrongdoing so that it can be dealt with by the proper authorities or to restore the agency or firm to its proper cause. A desire for money is not a proper motive b) Unless the whistleblowers know for sure that they will be fired, discredited from further info of they mention their concerns to their supervisors, or that some major explosion or other damage is imminent, all internal channels for expressing dissent must be exhausted before the whistleblowers go public. c) The wrongdoing must be carefully documented and the evidence certain d) The employee must give the matter careful thought and be sure that the danger is real, the harm imminent, there is specific misconduct to cite, and there are no alternatives to blowing the whistle that will bring the matter to light and get it remedied