WHH: Segment 2 Exam Study Guide

(7.05) What were some arguments against using the atomic bombs?

-A column of smoke rises 60,000 feet into the air from the bombed city of Nagasaki. It was a sign of both the devastation taking place below and a new and incredibly destructive force. -Some believed that the bombing wasn't militarily necessary. They cited that the Japanese were far more willing to surrender than the U.S. military was willing to believe. -The above image is a section of a British military report on the casualties resulting from the atomic bombing. In clinical, unemotional language, it lists the number of people who died from the bombing and how most of the deaths took place -The use of nuclear weapons on Japan began a nuclear arms race between the United States and Soviet Union that would take the world to the brink of total destruction numerous times over the course of the 20th century.

(5.03) Describe the main achievement of each female scientist:

-Ana de Osorio: The Spanish noblewoman had used the plant quinine in Peru to cure her malaria and introduced it as a medicine to Europe. This was considered a major breakthrough in medicine. -Margaret Cavendish: What made Cavendish unique was the fact that she published under her own name, which was unusual for women of the era. Because of this, she was criticized by many male philosophers and scientists of the time. Not only did she write about science, she also wrote poetry, plays, and essays on philosophy. She also served as an assistant for Queen Maria Henrietta, wife to King Charles I of England and Scotland, while they were living in exile in France

(5.03) How did the work of Andres Vesalius and William Harvey change our understanding of the human body?

-Andreas Vesaliu, a 16th century Flemish medical doctor, wrote one of the most influential works on anatomy entitled On the Structure of the Human Body. He is considered to be the "Father of Modern Human Anatomy." His research drawn from dissecting the bodies of deceased criminals allowed for him to clear up some previous medical misconceptions. Without the invention of the printing press and the technical advancements of the Renaissance, his work would not have had nearly as large an impact. -William Harvey, discovered the heart was the starting point of circulation in the body and that the same blood passes through the veins and the arteries as it passes through the body. His observations of blood circulation paved the way for modern physiology.

(7.06) Why did the Holocaust begin?

-Anti-Semitism grew even worse during the 1800s. Some anti-Semitists attempted to prove that Jews were inferior to a European race that Germans called Aryans. These racist beliefs became a strong force in the politics of Germany, Austria, France, and Russia. For example, in Russia and the Ukraine in the 1880s, Jews were massacred in riots called pogroms, Violent anti-Semitism continued in Eastern Europe during the early 1900s, and later fueled the Holocaust during the Second World War. -The persecution of Jews increased when the government removed their citizenship in 1935 with the passage of the Nuremberg Laws. Also, the Nazis forbade Jews from marrying non-Jews. Soon, Nazis restricted the actions of Jews in most aspects of their lives. For example, Jews were prohibited from sitting on park benches, swimming in public pools, and going to most restaurants. Hitler and the Nazis hoped that these restrictions would compel the Jews to leave Germany and thereby make the nation Judenrein (free of Jews). Indeed, thousands of Jews left the country. However, many had to stay in Germany because other nations would not accept large numbers of Jewish immigrants. On November 9, 1938, the Nazis began to physically dismantle Jewish businesses and synagogues throughout Germany. The Nazis looted about 7,000 Jewish-owned businesses, burned more than 1,000 synagogues, and destroyed Jewish hospitals, cemeteries, schools, and homes. They attacked Jewish people in their homes and sent about 30,000 Jews to concentration camps. This night came to be called Kristallnacht, which means "Night of Broken Glass."

(7.06) What is anti-Semitism?

-Anti-Semitism: policies, views, or actions that discriminate against Jewish peoples - Anti-Semitism began during the Middle Ages when some Europeans blamed the Jewish people for the death of Jesus. As a result, these people also blamed Jews for other problems, such as the Black Death. Jews began to be persecuted and treated as outcasts.

(6.02) How did the Industrial Revolution change the economy? (Jobs, Prices, Salary, Trade, etc.)

-By the later 1700s, rapid developments in the textile industry and in steam power had greatly strengthened the British economy. Cities grew rapidly. One of the most spectacular examples was Manchester about 180 miles northwest of London. -In 1717, Manchester was a market town with a population of about 10,000. By 1851, the population had grown to more than 300,000. Sixty years later, in 1911, there were more than 2,300,000 people living in the greater Manchester area. -A ring of cotton-manufacturing towns almost surrounded the city. In a relatively short period of time, Manchester had grown into a great industrial center. -Factories, called mills in Britain, were at the heart of rapid industrialization. British factories in the late 1700s and early 1800s have been studied extensively. Long hours, low wages, repetitive tasks, dangerous working conditions, and harsh living conditions for women and children were the norm.

(6.02) What are some of the main arguments for and against Industrialization?

-Critics (negative side): "But as to the great mass of working-people, the state of misery and insecurity in which they live now is as low as ever, if not lower. The East End of London is an everspreading pool of stagnant misery and desolation, of starvation when out of work, and degradation, physical and moral, when in work. And so in all other large towns—abstraction made of the privileged minority of the workers; and so in the smaller towns and in the agricultural districts. The law which reduces the value of labour-power to the value of the necessary means of subsistence, and the other law which reduces its average price, as a rule, to the minimum of those means of subsistence, these laws act upon them with the irresistible force of an automatic engine, which crushes them between its wheels." —Friedrich Engels -Champions (positive side): "Labor is indeed the price set upon everything which is valuable. Nothing can be accomplished without it. The greatest of men have risen to distinction by unwearied industry and patient application. They may have inborn genius, their natures may be quick and agile, but they cannot avoid the penalty of persevering labor. Labor, however, is not a penalty: work, with hope, is a pleasure. 'There is nothing so laborious,' said St. Augustine, 'as not to labor. Blessed is he who devotes his life to great and noble ends, and who forms his well-considered plans with deliberate wisdom.' It is not, however, in the noblest plans of life, but in the humblest, that labor avails most. Idleness wastes a fortune in half the time that industry makes one. 'Fortune,' says the Sanskrit proverb, 'attendeth that Lion amongst men who exerteth himself: they are weak men who declare Fate to be the sole cause.'" —Samuel Smiles **The increase in philanthropy (supporting charitable causes or cultural institutions) and the major reform movements that came out of the Industrial Revolution such as the Temperance Movement, Abolitionist movement, progressive reforms, and labor unions will be addressed in greater detail in Lesson 6.06.

(6.06) Reform movements result in significant changes to culture, society, governments, and economies. Briefly describe each major Reform Movement between the 1800s and 1900s.

-Education: Much of U.S. education reform was the product of the Massachusetts Secretary of Education Horace Mann. In the middle of the 19th century, Mann had visited Prussia and became convinced that the reforms they had instituted there would work in the U.S. The Prussian system emphasized the idea that all students should have access to the same education content, school should be compulsory, and the children in school should be divided into different grades. -Women's Suffrage: the movement to gain the right to vote for women (Lucretia Mott and Elizabeth Cady Stanton)Lucy Stone formed the American Woman Suffrage Association -Abolitionism: Abolitionism is the movement to end slavery. In the 1700s, many people began to protest slavery. In fact, in 1772, British statesman Granville Sharp secured a legal decision against slavery. This decision prohibited Caribbean planters from holding slaves in Great Britain. Lawmakers justified this decision by stating that slavery went against English law. In Great Britain, William Wilberforce strove to abolish slavery in British colonies. On twelve separate occasions, he proposed resolutions against the slave trade. Also, he made many speeches in the British House of Commons against it. In addition, slave revolts in British colonies in the Caribbean caused more people to argue for the abolishment of slavery. Even so, parliament failed to make slavery illegal and kept postponing the issue. Finally, with the support of other abolitionists, Wilberforce succeeded in abolishing slavery throughout the British Empire in 1807. -Healthcare: Many European scientists made advances in medicine and health during the 1800s, none more important than Frenchman Louis Pasteur. Pasteur discovered that bacteria cause and spread disease. As a result, he has saved millions of lives. Through his research, Pasteur realized that weakening germs in a laboratory could be beneficial. If he placed weakened germs in an animal's body, this animal would develop a resistance or immunity to the germ. He called this method of fighting disease vaccination. In 1885, Pasteur tried using vaccination on a human. A rabid dog had bitten a boy. Pasteur used his vaccination on the boy, which proved to be successful. The boy did not get rabies. Influenced by Pasteur's discoveries, the English doctor Joseph Lister reasoned that killing germs would help prevent the infection of wounds. As a result, he used antiseptics to clean hands, instruments, and dressing before surgery. By doing this, he basically eliminated post-surgical infections. -African Reform Movements: In the 1930s, French-speaking African writers living in Paris began to protest French colonial rule of parts of Africa. Many of them opposed the policy of assimilation. Assimilation involves one cultural group taking on the aspects of another cultural group. In a country, assimilation often happens when an ethnic group accepts the culture of the dominant ethnic or ruling group. These writers saw African people taking on French culture under colonial rule, and they opposed it. Out of this opposition emerged the Negritude Movement. The Negritude Movement emphasized African culture, values, and traditions. For example, African writers would be encouraged to use African subject matter and poetic styles. The result of this emphasis was to spur the desire for political freedom. Indeed, this movement contributed to the process of decolonization after World War II. The leader of the Negritude Movement was Léopold Sédar Senghor, who became the first president of the Republic of Senegal. In addition, the Pan-Africa movement promoted the independence of African countries. It also encouraged unity among black people worldwide. The African American W.E.B. DuBois influenced the formation of this group. An obstacle that Pan-Africanism faced to achieving unity was that each African nation had its own cultures and values. Other reformers used more radical techniques to effect change. One of these reformers was Frantz Fanon, a French-speaking psychiatrist from Mozambique working in Algeria. Fanon witnessed first-hand the degrading pressure that colonialism exerts on the colonized population. He found it so detestable that, like slavery before, he believed the oppressed should use any means possible, especially violence, to overthrow it. Though Fanon did not live to see a free Algeria, his work did much to shed light on the brutality of modern colonialism in Algeria and around the world. -Meiji Restoration: As you recall, in the late 19th century, Japan made a number of reforms during the Meiji Restoration. During this period, the Japanese government began a major effort to modernize the country. Many leaders realized that this modernization was necessary for Japan to compete with Western nations. First of all, Japan constructed modern industries, including coal mines and shipyards. However, only a few of these industries were successful. To spur economic growth, the government sold industries to private companies. This change proved to be successful, as private businesses expanded and became wealthy. Also, the Meiji leaders began to strengthen Japan's military. First, they gathered advice from European military specialists. Then they used this information to construct arsenals and naval shipyards. Indeed, by the late 1800s, Japan had become the strongest military force in East Asia. In addition, Meiji leaders realized that the government needed to be reorganized. To achieve this end, Japan formed its first constitution in 1889. The emperor remained the head of the government. However, the constitution set up a cabinet of ministers and a bicameral legislature. Even so, the Japanese people had little power. Instead, the prime ministers and Cabinet members controlled the government -Latin American Reform Movements: Mexico During the late 1800s, many people in Mexico viewed the rule of President Porfirio Diaz as oppressive. Radicals began a movement to remove him from office. Led by Ricardo Flores Magón, this movement came to be called the Regeneration. It formed a manifesto that called for a one-term presidency, civil liberties, free public education, and land reform. Diaz managed to suppress the Regeneration. However, many of the movement's reforms became part of the Mexican constitution of 1917. Brazil In 1894, Brazil's first civilian president came to power. However, only an elite landowning minority had the right to vote. Most of these landowners grew coffee. As a result, Brazil's presidents became known as the "coffee presidents" because they were controlled by the coffee growers. Then in the 1920s, members of the urban middle class began to protest against the coffee elite. Eventually, the protesters staged a coup that resulted in eight years of political unrest. During this time, protesters at public gatherings often expressed criticism of the "coffee government." Some of these protestors formed a group called the tenentes. The tenentes promoted economic and political development. Their plan involved removing the current politicians and modernizing the economy. They also supported trade unions, setting a minimum wage, and child labor laws. Brazil In 1894, Brazil's first civilian president came to power. However, only an elite landowning minority had the right to vote. Most of these landowners grew coffee. As a result, Brazil's presidents became known as the "coffee presidents" because they were controlled by the coffee growers. Then in the 1920s, members of the urban middle class began to protest against the coffee elite. Eventually, the protesters staged a coup that resulted in eight years of political unrest. During this time, protesters at public gatherings often expressed criticism of the "coffee government." Some of these protestors formed a group called the tenentes. The tenentes promoted economic and political development. Their plan involved removing the current politicians and modernizing the economy. They also supported trade unions, setting a minimum wage, and child labor laws. Jamaica During the 1920s, the people of Jamaica became increasingly dissatisfied with British rule. As a result, they proposed several government reforms. When the Great Depression hit in the 1930s, the people's unrest grew and rioting broke out. To deal with this crisis, Jamaicans formed their first labor unions and continued to demand more of a voice in the government. In 1944, the government set up a House of Representatives. All of Jamaica's citizens had the right to vote for the members of this body. Also, the government formed a Legislative Council and an Executive Council. By doing this, Jamaica created a bicameral system that is influenced by the British parliamentary system. Today, Jamaica has a parliament with a Senate and House of Representatives.

(6.01) -Describe the Caribbean revolutions in the following areas:

-Haiti: When news of the events of the French Revolution reached Haiti's shores, it drew divisions between the rich land-owning whites and poorer whites. Revolution soon broke out. Just a few years after the start of the revolution, in 1791, the slaves in the colony rebelled. In an effort to end the rebellion, the French passed laws first giving rights to free blacks and then abolishing slavery all together. This move by the French National Convention opened up an opportunity for the free-black General Toussaint L'Ouverture to assert his authority. L'Ouverture helped to rid Haiti of both British and Spanish influence. He then set about firmly establishing his own power. This resulted in increased tensions between mulatto and black Haitians. Thus, a war that had started between classes resulted in a race war between blacks and mulattos, whites and blacks, and blacks and mulattos both against whites. Nonetheless, by 1801, L'Ouverture had issued a constitution for the colony calling for a sovereign state. This was unacceptable to Napoleon, and he unsuccessfully attempted to retake the island and reinstitute slavery. This failure spelled the end of any colonial aspirations Napoleon or the French may have had. -Dominican Republic: The Spanish colony of Santo Domingo was quickly pulled into the conflict in Haiti. In 1801, L'Ouverture invaded the colony and proclaimed the abolition of slavery. However, this was short-lived; and colonial wrangling between France, Spain, and Great Britain caused disorder and uncertainty in the colony for a number of years. In 1808, Spain finally regained control, but with so many problems in Spain and in the other colonies, Spanish authorities showed little interest in the colony. In 1821, the Haitians themselves captured and occupied Santo Domingo, renaming it Spanish Haiti. This occupation lasted for 22 years, and the historical memory of this period continues to fuel bitter relations between the two countries. But in 1844, a number of wealthy backers and revolutionaries declared independence from Haiti. Despite several attempts by the Haitians to restore control and one successful but short-lived attempt by the Spanish to regain the colony, the Dominican Republic has maintained its independence ever since. -Cuba: Like other Spanish colonies, Cuba experienced attempts to establish independence in the early 19th century. However, unlike many of the others, slave-owners and other influential persons in Cuba considered the relationship with Spain essential for maintaining slavery in the island, which was a vital part of the colony's economy. There were, however, a few major revolts throughout the 19th century. The first, in 1836, was quickly put down and the organizers executed. The second, starting in 1868 and lasting for 10 years, was also quelled. But this rebellion had the effect of convincing the Spanish to abolish slavery in the island, which they did in 1884. The final rebellion, starting in 1895, brought in the forces of the United States and resulted in the Spanish American War of 1898. The United States had long been interested in the Spanish colony. When the Spanish attempted to end the rebellion by using brutal extermination tactics, many in the U.S. used this opportunity to negotiate an end to Spanish occupation. Ultimately, the United States was drawn into war with Spain and swiftly ended Spanish colonial control. Three years later, the United States handed over control of the island to the Cuban government. However, the United States maintained unofficial control over the governing of the island for decades afterwards.

(6.06) -Use the map on page 7 of 10 to compare revolutions in the following countries:

-Jamaica: Jamaica formed a House of Representatives in 1944. The event established the basis for self-government. Three years later, Jamaica constructed a branch of the University of the West Indies, which further helped the Jamaican people to prepare for independence. In 1958, Jamaica formed the West Indies Federation. This group united the British Caribbean islands into a unit of the Commonwealth. Then in 1962, Jamaica became an independent nation within the Commonwealth. -Libya: Italy invaded Libya and took control of most of the country by 1912. A Muslim brotherhood called the Sanûsîyah unified the Libyans around Islamic principles and offered strong resistance to Italian rule. Then during World War II, the Sanûsîyah agreed to assist the British with their fight against the Italians. In return, the British agreed that Libya would no longer be a subject of Italy. By 1942, the British had gained control of northern Libya. After the war, the United Nations voted that Libya should become an independent nation by 1952. The leader of the Sanûsîyah, Idris, became the king of an independent United Kingdom of Libya. -India: Mohandas Gandhi and many other Indians had been protesting for more than 20 years for India's independence from British rule. Finally, after World War II, Britain agreed to grant this independence. However, the Muslim league in India wanted the nation to be partitioned along religious lines into Pakistan and India. Pakistan would be primarily Muslim, and India would be mostly Hindu. British and Indian leaders agreed to the partition. In 1947, India and Pakistan became independent states. Then in 1948, Gandhi was assassinated on his way to a prayer meeting by someone angry over his concessions to Pakistan.

(7.06)What were some of the events that occurred during the Holocaust?

-Nuremberg Laws: a series of anti-Semitic laws in Nazi Germany -Concentration camps: guarded compounds for the detention or imprisonment of aliens, members of ethnic minorities, political opponents, etc., especially any of the camps established by the Nazis prior to and during World War II for the confinement and persecution of prisoners -Kristallnacht: he night of November 9, 1938, during which Nazis in Germany and Austria attacked Jews and their property -Final Solution: a Nazi policy that called for the murder of every Jew in German-occupied territories during World War II

(5.03) Describe the main achievement of each male scientist:

-Ptolemy: -Ancient philosopher and astronomer born in Egypt during the Roman Empire -Developed the geocentric theory of the universe -Copernicus: -Polish astronomer -Questioned the Renaissance view of science, ideas led to the Scientific Revolution -Theorized that the Earth orbited the Sun (heliocentric system) (heliocentric: having or representing the sun as the center) -Galileo: -Italian physicist, mathematician, astronomer, and philosopher -Used primitive telescope technology to develop his own more powerful telescope -Ability to follow individual stars, the moon, moons of Jupiter, and sunspots -Observed evidence that supported Copernicus' heliocentric theory -Tried by the Church and found guilty of heresy (Heresy: the willful and persistent rejection of any article of faith by a baptized member of the church) -Placed under house arrest for the remainder of his life -Keplar: -German astronomer -Along with Tycho Brahe (Tycho Brahe: Danish astronomer whose observations of the planets provided the basis for Kepler's laws of planetary motion), observed "new stars" so bright they could be seen during the day -During his lifetime, could not explain this; we know today that they were Supernovas (Supernovas: a star that suddenly grows brighter because it has experienced an explosion) -Took detailed measurements of movements of heavenly bodies -Determined that planets moved in oval paths rather than circles (Law 1 of planetary motion) -Discovered that planets move faster as they approach the sun and slower when they move away (Law 2 of planetary motion) -Calculated the distance of planets from the sun based on how long it took to go around the sun (Law 3 of planetary motion) -Bacon: -English philosopher, author, statesman, and scientist -Promoted and popularized inductive reasoning (inductive reasoning: reasoning from detailed facts to general principles); in contrast, during the Middle Ages, scientists used deductive reasoning (deductive reasoning: reasoning from the general to the particular (or from cause to effect)) -Rather than first coming up with a conclusion and trying to prove it, began all processes by observing, then creating an idea. -This shift in thought was one of the most important breakthroughs of the scientific revolution -Descartes: -French mathematician, philosopher, and writer -"Father of Analytical Geometry" -Inductive reasoning would be even more effective if math was added -Believed both nature and philosophy could be studied using mathematical analysis -Everything in the world except for God and the human soul could be analyzed as a machine -Believed that the best way to begin studying any subject was to doubt everything -Newton: -English mathematician and physicist -First to develop theories about the laws of force and motion -Developed ideas in calculus to help him further explore and explain his ideas -Discovered gravity, the force that pulls objects towards each other -All heavenly bodies have gravity, the strongest of which is the sun that holds the planets in orbit -His book Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy demonstrated how the new scientific thinking could apply mathematics to just about every aspect of science and nature.

(7.04) What happened at the Munich Conference?

-September of 1938 -British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain is warned that Germany is arming in preparation for invading Czechoslovakia -Chamberlain decides to set up a series of meetings with Adolf Hitler to negotiate a deal that would keep Europe out of another war

(6.05) What was the main role of each of the following men who helped to unify Italy?

-The Carbonari: They were a 19th century revolutionary group in Italy; the name means "charcoal burners." They were among the first to challenge the monarchies. They successfully led a revolt in Naples in 1820 to have the Spanish Bourbon king agree to a constitution for that region. However, no one could imagine a truly unified Italy. The country was too diverse politically, culturally, linguistically, and geographically. -Giuseppe Mazzini: Giuseppe Mazzini (1805-1872) was a patriot and a propagandist. He was forced into exile while in his twenties for his radical beliefs. In 1831 he founded the Young Italy movement. Members called for the creation of a republican nation of Italy free from Austrian rule. Many rallied around Mazzini, agreeing with his cry of "God and People" and call for a "Third Rome." Mazzini spread his ideas and increased his following through publications and speeches. Mazzini was called "the Prophet," preparing the way for future leaders in Italy's unification. -Count Camillo Benso di Cavour: Paving the road to Italian nationalism, Cavour started the Il Risorgimento newspaper in 1847. Cavour wrote and published articles in the newspaper advocating for war against Austria. He soon moved up through the ranks of elected and appointed political positions. He worked with the French to drive the Austrians out of Italy. In exchange, France gained the territories of Nice and Savoy. It was under Cavour's leadership that northern and central Italy gained independence. Firm in his belief in the importance of a constitution, Cavour designed the national constitution and served as the first prime minister of unified Italy under King Victor Emmanuel II of Italy. He also worked tirelessly to promote industrialization on the primarily rural peninsula. -Giuseppe Garibaldi: He was trained in guerrilla warfare and won military victories. In 1858, Cavour appointed the rebel Garibaldi an army general to fight Austria. Garibaldi returned a hero. In 1860, Cavour and Garibaldi's relationship soured due to the planned cession of Savoy and Nice (Garibaldi's hometown) to France. In response, Garibaldi led 1,000 men—known as Redshirts—to take the island of Sicily and Naples on the mainland from the Bourbon prince. Shouting the rallying cry, "For Italy and Victor Emmanuel," he won both Sicily and Naples by September 1860 and declared himself dictator of southern Italy. He planned a march on Rome; however, at this point Cavour re-entered the scene and preempted Garibaldi. Despite his unparalleled military accomplishments, Garibaldi was still seen as a rebel. By November 1860, he resigned as dictator and military general. Italy was officially unified in 1871 as a result of the Franco-Prussian War.

(7.02) How were the Western and Eastern Fronts Different?

-The Western Front: The Western Front opened with Germany's invasion of Luxembourg, Belgium, and parts of France at the very start of the war. In the Battle of the Marne, the French stopped the advancing German troops. But while the French stopped the advance, they couldn't make the Germans retreat, either. This was the end of significant troop movement on the Western Front. -The Eastern Front: The Eastern Front of the war, fought in Central and Eastern Europe, did not feature the trench warfare that characterized the war in the West. This was partially because the front in the Eastern theater was far longer than in the West. The bigger space to defend meant that soldiers were more spread out, and the line was therefore easier to break. The front was far more fluid than in the West, with constant troop movements.

(7.05) What were some of the effects of the atomic bomb blasts?

-The immediate effects of the nuclear bombs were devastating. Approximately 70,000 people died in Hiroshima, most of them from burns or falling debris, and 40,000 died in Nagasaki. The shock wave and the winds created by the nuclear explosion leveled the cities, leaving only a few concrete buildings and walls still standing. Four square miles, or approximately sixty percent, of Hiroshima was destroyed. -However, the initial damage of the bombing—burns, injuries and deaths from debris, and the structural damage—would only be the beginning. There was more invisible damage which would be even more devastating, and which would last much longer. -Many of the initial victims of the atomic bombs were vaporized or severely burned, and died instantly. However, many people who survived the initial explosion would fall victim to another effect of an atomic bomb: radiation poisoning. People who received high doses of radiation became ill within days or weeks of the bombings. Radiation sickness, or radiation poisoning, happens when people are exposed to high doses of certain types of radiation. This type of radiation usually comes from nuclear weapons and nuclear fuel. How severe the symptoms are depends on the level of exposure. It begins with nausea and vomiting and then leads to hair loss and a drop in blood pressure. Eventually, even years after the exposure to radiation, the person may develop cancer. It is estimated that as many as 20 percent of the deaths caused by the bombings resulted from radiation sickness. Long-term effects included leukemia, cataracts, and cancers of thyroid, breast, and lungs. Radiation also caused birth defects and intellectual disabilities. Many of these effects are still apparent sixty years after the bombings. People who were young at the time of the blasts are experiencing the lasting health effects of radiation exposure. The initial atomic explosions also created a condition called "black rain," where radioactive particles in the atmosphere fell to the ground as radioactive rain. The sticky black rain coated clothing, buildings, and skin and contaminated water and ground. It was also breathed in by people. It resulted in a lasting contamination of food and water sources. The contamination in the soil affected agriculture for a very long time. Ultimately, the death tolls from Hiroshima ranged from 90,000 to 166,000 from both the initial blast and the long-term effects. Nagasaki lost between 60,000 and 80,000 people. There were also long-term effects that did not have to do with health. There were social effects as well. The bombings destroyed entire families and greatly increased the number of orphaned children. The initial blast and radiation exposure killed many medical professionals, firefighters, and other service workers. Also, medical facilities were destroyed. The bombings did lead to the surrender of Japan on August 15, 1945, ending World War II. This would become known as V-J Day, for Victory Over Japan. On this day, Emperor Hirohito formally accepted the terms of the Potsdam Declaration.

(5.05) Describe the main idea of each philosopher:

-Thomas Hobbes: held a generally pessimistic view of human nature. In his work Leviathan (1651), Hobbes claimed that people were cruel, selfish, and greedy by nature. The natural state of mankind, according to Hobbes in a famous phrase, was "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short." He thought that people needed a strong government to control such instincts. Hobbes taught that people could avoid a miserable life by creating a social contract. This was an agreement to surrender some individual freedoms in return for safety and security. For Hobbes, who wrote during the English Civil Wars, a government had to possess absolute power to keep order in society. -What is a social contract?: the relationship between the governed and their governors or government -John Locke: also wrote about the relationship between people and their government. . The Glorious Revolution may have influenced John Locke to take a more optimistic view of human beings than Thomas Hobbes did. For Locke, the social contract was a cooperative choice by people to entrust power to their government. This choice reflected the "consent of the governed." If government does not carry out the will of the people, said Locke, the people possess the power to change their government. This was a major shift in thinking from previous notions. -David Hume: was less confident in the power of reason than other Enlightenment leaders. He believed that desire, not reason, governed human behavior. He is known as a skeptic and as a supporter of empiricism—the theory that knowledge comes only from direct experience through our senses. -Adam Smith: shared Hume's beliefs to a certain extent. Smith's first major work was entitled The Theory of Moral Sentiments (1759). In this book, he tried to answer the question, "What is the basis of human morality?" Smith's answer does not depend entirely on rationalism. Instead, he claims that morality derives from a feeling of sympathy between the person who completes an action and the onlooker. -Baron de Montesquieu: made a literary name for himself with his satire of French society, Persian Letters (1721). But his most influential work was a book of political philosophy entitled The Spirit of the Laws (1742). In this analysis, Montesquieu argued that the power of government should be divided into three branches. These were the executive, the legislative, and the judicial. This theory greatly influenced James Madison in the framing of the U.S. Constitution. Separation of powers and the restraint provided by checks and balances are key elements in the Constitution. Montesquieu's book was banned by the Catholic Church, but it enjoyed enormous success in the British colonies of North America. -Denis Diderot: Diderot co-founded and edited an enormous project. This was a universal encyclopedia, with entries on science, the arts, government, religion, and philosophy. The Encyclopédie, as it was known in French, took more than 20 years to produce. When it was finished, in 1772, it contained 28 volumes, 75,000 entries, and about 20 million words. The Encyclopédie was the Enlightenment forerunner of the Encyclopedia Britannica and of today's Wikipedia. But in an important way, the Encyclopédie was different. Its articles not only aimed to provide information, but also to guide the opinions of readers. Thus, the Encyclopédie encouraged education for all. It supported freedom of religion, and it criticized slavery. It did, in short, totally encompass the ideas of the Enlightenment. -Voltaire: The real name of Voltaire (1694-1778) was François-Marie Arouet. Like many leading figures of the Enlightenment, he was multi-talented. During a long career, he was a historian, a social critic, a novelist, and a philosopher who was famous for his wit. As a young man, Voltaire spent several years in exile as punishment for a quarrel. In England, he met many of the great writers and thinkers. He studied the ideas of Sir Isaac Newton and John Locke. Voltaire was impressed by the English respect for freedom of speech. After he returned to France, he took up the cause of liberty and pushed for social reform. In one of his most famous works, the short novel Candide (1759), he wrote about the ills of society using humor and irony. -Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Like Hobbes and Locke in England, Rousseau placed great emphasis on the theory of a social contract. One of Rousseau's most influential works, in fact, was entitled On the Social Contract (1762). The book began with this sentence: "Man is born free, but everywhere he is in chains." Rousseau believed that human beings, in their natural state, were innocent and good. It was society that corrupted them. Rousseau urged readers to try to recapture their natural goodness and simplicity. Two of his other major works were Émile and Confessions.

(6.05) Briefly describe the three main events that led to German unification:

-Zollverein: German for "customs union," it was started by Prussia in 1834 to increase trade and transport of goods and was ultimately the first step toward German unification -Seven Week's War: also known as the Austro-Prussian War; it was a war between Prussia and Austria (who received help from Bavaria, Saxony, Hanover, and other minor German states); Austria was militarily defeated after the Battle of Königgrätz on July 3, 1866 -Franco-Prussian War: or aptly named, the Franco-German War; it was a war between France and young Germany that lasted from July 1870 until France's surrender in February 1871; it marked the end of France's military domination and the beginning of Germany's military domination in Europe; resentment from the Franco-Prussian War led to the First World War

(7.07) What was the Marshall Plan? How did it help Western Europe's economy?

-formally known as the European Recovery Program, the $13 billion U.S.-sponsored aid program to rebuild Europe after World War II -The Marshall Plan, as the ERP is commonly called, catapulted the U.S. into world leadership. It was signed into law in 1948 and was in effect for four years. According to the plan, European nations, including Germany, received food, machinery, fuel, and other necessities. A total of $13 billion was spent across 16 countries to revitalize national economies, prevent the spreading of communism, and lift morale.

(7.07) Why was NATO formed?

-the European economies grew exponentially. Increased trade led to creation of the NATO(North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO): stands for the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, a military alliance that started in 1949 to protect member nations from the Soviet Union; cooperation fostered through the Marshall Plan helped to establish the NATO alliance ) which paved the way for the modern EU(European Union (EU): an international organization of European countries formed after World War II to reduce trade barriers and increase cooperation among its members). George Marshall won the 1953 Nobel Peace Prize for his work.

(5.06) Describe three effects of the French Revolution:

1) In addition to civil war battles within France, by 1794, the country faced numerous foreign wars, including wars with: Austria, Prussia, Britain, Holland, and Spain. These countries threatened to invade France to reinstate a monarchy. They were fearful that the revolution in France would spread across Europe. The demands of supporting multiple war fronts-on top of droughts and crop failures-led to severe food shortages. A law was passed mandating the death penalty for anyone found hoarding food. 2) In the beginning of December 1792, the National Convention passed a law imposing the death penalty on anyone who supported the monarchy. Right away, they tried and convicted King Louis XVI for treason against the people. Robespierre declared that, "Louis must die, so that the country may live." The king was beheaded on the guillotine on January 21, 1793; he was recorded only as "Citizen Louis Capet." Marie Antoinette was the former French Queen and surviving spouse of King Louis XVI. After Louis' execution, she was simply referred to as "Widow Capet." Although she made no attempt to rule, the revolutionaries felt threatened by her ties to the former monarchy. Known as one who clearly opposed the revolutionary National Assembly, Antoinette was falsely quoted as saying, "Let them eat cake" (in reference to the poor who had no bread), and falsely accused of abusing her own son. She was brought before the Revolutionary tribunal on October 14, and was quickly executed by guillotine on October 16, 1793. 3) Napoleon Bonaparte: A young French officer, who had been born on the island of Corsica, proved his military genius by leading soldiers to victory. By 1797, Napoleon Bonaparte had taken Rome and established a peace treaty with Austria. One year later, Bonaparte led his armies to victory in the French conquest of Egypt. Napoleon's reputation as a leader was widely recognized, and he was promoted to the rank of general. By 1799, the Directory was tainted by corruption. Now a war hero, Napoleon conspired with two of the five directors to overthrow the other three leaders of the government. This coup d'état, known as the Coup of Brumaire, replaced the Directory with a three-person Consulate. Beginning in 1799, Napoleon was the First Consul, and in August 1802, he declared himself the sole Consul for Life.

(5.05) What were 3 events or ideas that lead to the Enlightenment?

1) Influenced by Greco-Roman ideals, the Renaissance planted the seeds with the philosophy of humanism and its focus on the individual. 2) The Reformation challenged the traditional authority of the Church and furthered the ideas of individualism. In addition, the Scientific Revolution promoted observation, hypothesis, experimentation, and the analysis of cause and effect 3) Improvements in the education system and a sharp increase in the number of printed books helped form a society more hungry for knowledge than ever before.

(6.01) Why did the colonies in Latin America decide to fight for independence? What inspired them and what did they want to change?

1) People in Latin America were inspired by the ideas of the Enlightenment. They were spurred on by the success of the American Revolution. They admired the ideals of the French Revolution. 2) In 1800, Latin America was divided among four European powers. Beginning in 1808, this organization began to fall apart. 3) They were motivated by social inequality, economic injustice, and the desire to be free.

(5.06) Describe three events during the French Revolution:

1) The revolutionary government also actively suppressed Christian monasteries and convents and shut down churches all over France. Finally, the aristocracy was abolished. And priests were forced to take an oath to obey the state above the Church or God. 2) Robespierre, as head of the Committee for Public Safety, conducted the Reign of Terror. The instrument used to deliver punishment was the guillotine. Tens of thousands of French men, women, and children were decapitated. Some of the executed were aristocrats; others were simply ordinary citizens that were foolish enough to openly disagree with the committee. One of the committee's most radical members, Louis Saint Just, publicly stated, "You have to punish not only the traitors, but even those who are indifferent; you have to punish whoever is passive in the republic, and who does nothing for it. . . . The vessel of the Revolution can arrive in port only on a sea reddened with torrents of blood." 3) Committee for Public Safety and the Reign of Terror: the committee created by the National Convention to enforce the revolutionary ideals (1793-1795); Robespierre was the leader

(5.06) Describe three causes for the French Revolution:

1) There was an enormous gap between the wealthy few and the rest of French society. Stressed under difficult living conditions, the poor were further strained and enraged by increasing taxes. The monarch, King Louis XVI, used tax revenue from the poor to support wars and the luxurious lifestyle of nobles. People on the lower rungs of the social ladder became desperate. By the late 1780s, they had had enough of the current regime, which spurred protests like we see today. 2) The Enlightenment and American Revolution: The American Revolution in turn had a significant impact on the French people. First, the French supported the American patriots, donating funds and hoping to permanently weaken the British Empire. The British and the French had been enemies for centuries, so they were glad to help the rebel colonists. Assistance that the French gave the American colonists drained the French treasury. As bankruptcy loomed, the French king demanded more money through new taxes (mainly on the poor). The American Revolution also served as an example to the oppressed French people that revolution-in the truest sense of the word-was possible. The American revolutionaries' founding documents, strongly influenced by John Locke and other Enlightenment philosophers, awoke in the French a hopeful yearning for freedom. French revolutionaries borrowed heavily from the U.S. Declaration of Independence and the U.S. Constitution when crafting their own declaration and design of freedom. 3) By the late 1780s, France was forced to try to solve its revenue problems. Since the king was unlikely to slow down his spending, a solution on taxes had to be made. To deal with this problem, in 1789, the king convened a meeting of the Estates General in an attempt to solve France's financial woes.

(5.01) Name three aspects of modern Europe.

1- no 3- Additionally, the monarchies of Europe have given way to democratic governments based on constitutions. While some European nations continue to support monarchs, all of these monarchs are little more than figureheads with no political power.

(5.05) What were some of the effects of the Enlightenment? Include at least 3

1. In the United States, Enlightenment ideas strongly affected the Founding Fathers. American democratic institutions were shaped by students of the Enlightenment 2. Baron de Montesquieu's theories greatly influenced James Madison in the framing of the U.S. Constitution. Separation of powers and the restraint provided by checks and balances are key elements in the Constitution. 3. In art, architecture, and music, artists and composers filled their works with drama, tension, and grandeur. Perhaps you have heard of the musical composers Johann Sebastian Bach, Antonio Vivaldi, or George Frideric Handel? In many ways their works are more popular now than they were four hundred years ago.

(5.04) Describe 4 Innovations, Ideas, or Inventions in Modern Science: (Include the scientist responsible)

1. The Polio Vaccine (Jonas Salk) Polio was a disease that threatened children in America in the 1950's, it left them crippled for life if affected. Jonas Salk had then discovered a vaccination for Polio. Beforehand, in college, he studied flu and vaccinations. In his discovery, he found that if he injected a killed Polio virus into a healthy child, their body would grow an immunity to the disease. 2. Radioactivity (Marie Curie) Marie Curie was a Polish physicist and chemist who developed the concepts and theories of radioactivity and radium. Her work benefited x-rays in the future She received multiple Nobel Prizes for her work. 3. Theory of Relativity (Albert Einstein) Ever heard of the famous equation E=mc2 ? Well, this was a part of Albert Einstein's game-changing Theory of Relativity. It transformed modern physics as it explained the structure of space and time. 4. Blood Banks (Charles Richard Drew) Blood banks, a way to store blood for research, and those who need it. Charles Richard Drew had advanced their use to a much larger scale, which helped greatly during the war. He even pushed social issues along with it, and advocated for the mixing of white and black people's blood. He thought of it as an injustice to not do so.

(6.02) What was the Meiji Restoration?

A chain of events in the late 19th century that brought the emperor to power and began a process of social and industrial modernization

(6.04) How did imperialism impact Africa and other parts of Asia?

Africa: Under Belgian rule, the Congo was a brutal place. Greed and racist sentiment combined to make torture and brutality common tools for extracting resources out of the region. The legacy of this brutality persists even after gaining independence in 1960. Political repression in the 1970s was common. Corruption and mismanagement have plagued the economy. Leaders, rebel or otherwise, have tended to maintain power with violence and coercion. Asia: The Korean Peninsula had been a colony of the Empire of Japan for 40 years when it gained independence after World War II. Under Japan it had gone through rapid modernization and industrialization. It also suffered many attempts by the Japanese to suppress Korean nationality. When Japan was forced out, Korea found itself split into two groups. The north came under the control of those influenced by bitter war with Japan in China. In the south, control passed to those who maintained an exiled Korean government abroad. As a result, the south was able to build upon the industrial and economic foundations the Japanese had helped to build. South Korea is currently a stable democracy with the tenth largest economy in the world. North Korea remains a communist nation.

(7.02) What were some of the new weapons that were introduced during WWI?

Aircraft, gases, tanks, submarines, machine guns

(5.02)What are the differences between absolute monarchs and constitutional monarchs?

An absolute monarchy is one where the monarch has supreme or absolute power over their country. A constitutional monarchy is sometimes called a democratic monarchy. The monarch is not the head of state when it comes to government power. That role is usually given to an elected official such as a prime minister. Often, decisions about policy and economics are the responsibility of an elected parliament. The hereditary monarch is usually only a figurehead. A figurehead is a representative of the country with no real political power. In the modern world, the British monarchy is a constitutional monarchy because Queen Elizabeth II is the symbol of the government. However, the real political power lies with the parliament and the prime minister.

(6.02) What innovations led to the Industrial Revolution?

Beginning in the 16th and 17th centuries, changes in agricultural production began to change the way people understood farming. Things like the seed drill and the horse-hoe—resulted in a dramatic increase in the number of crops farmers could produce. Social and political factors also contributed to this change. Wealthy farmers and landowners in England controlled Parliament. They developed laws to enlarge their holdings. These laws fenced off, or enclosed, large areas of land that had belonged to villagers and townspeople. This enclosure system resulted in more efficient farming and an increased food supply. Fewer people were needed to manage the land. Thus, a large labor supply became available for other tasks. -The Second Agricultural Revolution: The Agricultural Revolution of the 18th century paved the way for the Industrial Revolution in Britain. New farming techniques and improved livestock breeding led to amplified food production. This allowed a spike in population and increased health. The new farming techniques also led to an enclosure movement. -The Textile Industry: the manufacture of goods such as clothing from different types of fabric, such as wool and cotton

(7.03) Each of these dictators took advantage of poor economic and social conditions in their countries in order to gain power. How did each one work to fix his nation's economy?

Benito Mussolini: Mussolini commanded respect and attention. He was known for giving flamboyant persuasive speeches, which aided his rise to power. By 1925, Mussolini had established a dictatorship and eliminated other political parties. The government then took control of schools, press, police, and industry. Also, Mussolini had the government act as a mediator between employers and workers to settle disputes. As you have learned, Mussolini dealt with the Great Depression by increasing the production of military products and the enlistment in the armed forces. This strategy worked well, which made the leader even more popular. He used his military arsenal in an attempt to transform Italy into a world power and rebuild the Roman Empire. To achieve this end, he conquered Ethiopia in 1936. During this same year, he formed an alliance with the German leader Adolf Hitler. Adolf Hitler: The Nazis had several goals. One of these goals was to unite the German people into one nation. This nation would incorporate Germans in Austria, Czechoslovakia, and other countries. Also, the Nazis wanted Jews and non-Germans to be deprived of German citizenship. Hitler gained support for the Nazi Party through speeches and appeals to feelings of resentment. For this attempted coup, Hitler was put in prison, where he wrote a book entitled Mein Kampf (My Struggle). In this work, Hitler outlined his plan for the future German nation. He claimed that the Germans were deprived of land in central Europe. He advocated Germans to acquire what he called lebensraum, or living space. To obtain this, he planned to take control of areas of Poland, the Soviet Union, and other nations to the east. Hitler insisted that the German people were a superior race that must be kept "pure." Vladimir Lenin: Then in 1917, Lenin led the Bolsheviks in an unsuccessful uprising against the government. To escape arrest, Lenin fled to Finland in July of 1917 where he wrote The State and Revolution. This work described how a revolution should be organized and what type of government should be established after the revolution succeeded. Lenin secretly returned to Russia from Finland in October of 1917 and gained the support of some troops and naval crews. Before long, the Bolsheviks overthrew the democratic government and gained control of Moscow. Joseph Stalin: Stalin used the secret police to arrest perceived enemies of the state and then had them executed or sent to labor camps. Scholars estimated that these so-called enemies numbered in the millions. Stalin was also known for his purges, during which he had anyone killed who threatened his power. The victims of these purges included leaders of the Communist Party and officers of the Soviet army. By 1939, Stalin had successfully eliminated most people who he believed threatened his power.

(7.04) Describe the political and military strategies Germany used during WWII:

Blitzkrieg: the total military onslaught by the Nazis, including air bombing, tank attacks, and infantry assaults Non-Aggression Pact: (1939) a peace agreement signed by Hitler and Stalin, which Hitler broke when the German military invaded the Soviet Union in 1941

(6.02) Why was the invention of the cotton gin so important to the textile industry?

But cotton had several advantages over wool. Cotton did not shrink as much as wool when it was washed, for example. Cotton also absorbed colored dyes better. Eli Whitney, an American entrepreneur, invented the cotton gin. This device had an amazing effect: an increase in the production of raw cotton by 5,000 percent.

(5.06) How did Napoleon lose power?

By April 1814, a group of allied nations forced Napoleon's unconditional surrender. The allies offered Napoleon exile on Elba, which he accepted. The Congress of Vienna (November 1814 - June 1815) then convened to ensure the sovereignty of the nations that Napoleon had conquered. With great ambition, Napoleon managed to escape from Elba. He made his way back to Paris where he dislodged King Louis XVIII from the throne. He again installed himself as the head of France. This brazen act impelled Austria, Britain, Russia, and Prussia to form an alliance to defeat Napoleon once and for all. Each ally sent 180,000 soldiers to fight Napoleon. Many battles were fought, and Bonaparte lost most of them. As he marched into Belgium in June 1815, he was still confident that he could defeat his archenemy, the British. Battle was engaged with the Duke of Wellington's forces at the Battle of Waterloo on June 18, 1815. The battle lasted all day and into the night. By its end, Napoleon and his army were thoroughly defeated. On June 22, Napoleon surrendered to the British. Following Napoleon's Hundred Days of rule after his first exile, King Louis XVIII returned to the throne in Paris. In July 1815, Napoleon was finally exiled to St. Helena, a British island. He died there in 1821.

(6.03) How does capitalism work? What is the relationship between the individual and the government?

Capital, the base of the word "capitalism," is money or property that is invested or used to produce goods and services. In a capitalist economy, the means of production are mostly or entirely in private hands. Business owners, such as factory owners, hope to make a profit on their investment. In a cycle, profits are often reinvested in the business to advance economic growth. Smith's central point was that the "invisible hand of the market" would act to regulate the economy according to supply and demand. The idea that governments should not interfere with markets is called laissez-faire economics. ** (2) Socialism: no true socialist economy exists; all contain aspects of capitalism; ex: Canada

(6.03) How did the Industrial Revolution take us from Mercantilism to Communism?

Capitalism emerged as a response to the excessive regulation of the state in the form of mercantilism; socialism emerged in response to the excessive exploitation brought about by capitalism; and communism resulted from the frustrations of those who saw socialism as structurally inadequate.

(6.03) Who is the person most associated with explaining how capitalism works?

Capitalism is a free enterprise system in which the means of production are either largely or entirely owned by private individuals who invest capital to make profits. Adam Smith (1723-1790). As you may recall, Smith believed that people behave in accordance with their own self-interest. Nonetheless, he argued, the self-interest of individuals often promotes the well-being of society as a whole.

(6.03) Who are the people most associated with explaining how socialism works?

Charles Fourier, Robert Owen

(6.03) How does socialism work? What is the relationship between the individual and the government?

Charles Fourier, for example, promoted the idea of cooperative communities that would have a responsibility regarding the social welfare of their members. Fourier believed that the competition typical of capitalism was wasteful. Many of the ideas of Robert Owen were similar to those of Fourier. Owen was a Welsh social reformer who became wealthy through his ownership of a cotton mill. Owen defied convention by raising wages for his workers, reducing working hours, and building schools for his employees. He promoted the necessity of education. Owen believed that through universal education humanity could achieve unprecedented harmony and progress. This belief, as well as some of his other ideas, caused him to be considered a utopian socialist. The early socialists were very idealistic. They believed that the new wealth generated by the Industrial Revolution would be put to the best use if it was employed cooperatively. The socialists, unlike the capitalists, favored a more even distribution of income. **(3) Communism: less of an authoritarian version of socialism and more of a theory that explains how capitalism will end; ex: China

(5.02) What was happening in England during the late 1680's?

Charles II was succeeded by his brother, James II, who was openly Roman Catholic and appointed many other Catholics to high government posts. This worried the English even more, since they feared he would restore Catholicism to England. James II also tried to repeal the Act of Habeas Corpus, which had been passed during the rule of Charles II and stated that a person could not be put in jail unless they had been charged with a specific crime. In 1688, seven members of Parliament decided it was time to make a change. They offered the English throne to James' older daughter Mary and her husband, William of Orange, who was a prince of the Netherlands. Both were Protestant. They agreed, and William landed in England with a large army. James II fled to France, and William and Mary were named joint rulers of England. Because not a single shot was fired or battle fought, this event was called the Glorious Revolution. William and Mary also swore to rule according to laws created by Parliament in a Declaration of Rights. This declaration made Parliament even stronger and protected the rights of English citizens: the Crown could not tax the people or keep an army during times of peace. Parliament had the right to meet often and hold open debates, as well as being freely elected by the people. Citizens had the right to fair and speedy trials. From then on, England had a constitutional monarchy, and no king or queen could rule there without the consent of Parliament.

(5.03) How did the idea of humanism lead to the Scientific Revolution?

During this same time, the Church was unable to provide a satisfactory explanation for significant natural disasters like the Great Famine and Black Death. Europeans began to observe the natural world around them more closely and tried to think of explanations for why things were the way they were. Because the Renaissance had brought with it the rediscovery of the ancient Greek and Roman civilizations, most of the Renaissance thinkers were following the writings of Aristotle, Ptolemy, and Galen. Likewise, Renaissance thinkers were influenced by the Islamic scholars that kept learning alive during the so-called Dark Ages of Europe. Scientists in the 1500s and 1600s began to realize that they needed to test out their ideas and perform experiments to see if they were correct. The Scientific Revolution would be a result of this shift from simply thinking about how something should work according to logic, to coming up with an idea and then testing it out with experiments and measurement. There were risks to approaching science in a new way.

(6.04) How did imperialism impact China?

Enterprising imperial nations had been plundering China as early as the 16th century, desiring the silk, tea, and porcelain that China possessed. By the Age of Imperialism, China was too weak to repel the onslaught of European powers competing for her resources. Britain, France, Russia, and later Japan and other nations, vied with each other for control of China's wealth. China had been so weakened by centuries of exploitation that European interlopers wrote their own rules and forced the Chinese to capitulate to their imperial demands. Opium Wars.

(7.03) How did the economic depression impact the following areas?

Europe: The war depleted the financial resources of these nations, and as a result, they compiled huge debts. Also, the war destroyed much of their infrastructure and industries, which needed to be rebuilt. In addition, most countries in Europe experienced major inflation. United States (1918-1929): The United States was one of the few countries that benefited from World War I. The industry of the United States was not harmed by the conflict, which took place overseas. Because of this, the United States gained a head start in changing from a wartime economy that focused on producing weapons to a peacetime economy that focused on producing consumer products. In fact, after the war, industry in the United States rapidly expanded. To encourage the buying of goods, the United States promoted buying on credit. With this method, a person could purchase a product with a small down payment and pay the rest with monthly installments. Soon purchases of consumer products soared. Americans became convinced that the U.S. economy was healthy and would continue to be so. Also, because of its booming economy, the United States became the main nation that loaned money to other nations. As a result, the U.S. economy strongly influenced the economies of nations worldwide. However, many people did not realize that the U.S. economy had hidden problems. Farmers did not share in the prosperity, and factories actually produced too many goods, a condition known as overproduction. United States (1929-1939): However, short-term investment had a serious drawback. If the stock went down, then the investor could not repay the loan and the bank that made the loan lost its money. To get its money back, the bank would insist that other borrowers repay their loans immediately. This caused a panic of selling stocks by people who bought their stocks on margin, which then caused the overall prices of stocks to plummet. The more stock prices fell, the more investors hurried to sell stocks. The above scenario partially caused the stock market crash of 1929.

(7.05) What are nuclear non-proliferation treaties?

Eventually the destruction caused by the bombings helped to advance the cause of nuclear non-proliferation treaties, bringing the Cold War to an end. Non-proliferation: preventing something from increasing or spreading

(6.02) What impacts did urbanization have on the US?

Factories: The factory system developed rapidly in the United States. (Organization of labor and production in which many people participate in creating goods or products and often live together in settlements near the factory buildings where they are employed.) Urban Growth: The industrialization of the United States and the growth of the factory system were directly related to the growth of cities. Urban growth, however, was largely unplanned. Urbanization frequently resulted in overcrowding. Many basic amenities we take for granted today were absent. There were no paved streets or sidewalks. There was no street lighting at night. Garbage was thrown out on the streets. Police and fire protection did not exist. Cities were often dangerous places, due to crime and the rapid spread of diseases like cholera. Erie Canal: Was made to get these goods to market required new innovations in transportation. (canal built between 1817 and 1825 to connect Albany, New York, on the Hudson River to Buffalo and Lake Erie)

(6.05) What were the effects of Germany's unification?

German unification brought a period of stability to the cultural landscape. This led to a number of intellectual achievements. To keep the desired peace, most German politicians learned to exercise diplomacy with the many neighboring countries. Possibly the most important effect of the unification of Germany is that it upset the delicate balance in Europe. It also established a pattern of war that would wreak havoc on Europe in the 20th century.

(7.01) What was the Schlieffen Plan?

In 1905, Count Alfred von Schlieffen, the German chief of staff, devised a mobilization plan for his nation. Germany knew that France wanted Alsace and Lorraine back and expected a French attack would come sooner or later. The Germans also knew that, because of the Dual Entente, Russia would probably support France in its attack. Schlieffen knew Germany could not fight a war on two fronts, against France in the west and Russia in the east, so he developed what came to be called the Schlieffen Plan.

(7.05) Why did President Truman decide to drop the atomic bombs on Japan instead of invading Japan?

However, others argue that the use of the atomic bombs on Japan brought a quick end to a war. President Truman felt that the alternative would have been an invasion of Japan itself by Allied forces, which would have had a high cost both in money and lives. He said, after the first bombing, "The world will note that the first atomic bomb was dropped on Hiroshima. We have won the race of discovery against the Germans. We have used it in order to shorten the agony of war in order to save the lives of thousands and thousands of young Americans. We shall continue to use it until we completely destroy Japan's power to make war." The argument is also made that the creation of nuclear weapons would serve as a deterrent for future wars. According to this viewpoint, governments of the world know that there is a power capable of destroying the entire earth. Because of this, they will strive harder to maintain peace.

(6.05) What was the purpose of the Concert of Europe?

Important goals of the Concert: control France after many years of war. develop a "balance of power" among the nations of Europe. uphold the agreements set by the Congress of Vienna

(7.02) What is "total war?

a conflict affecting not just battlefields and soldiers but also civilians, cities, and the countryside

(7.04) Why did the US enter WWII?

In August 1941, the United States and Great Britain had crafted and signed the Atlantic Charter, a document that defined the goals of Allied nations for, during, and after the war. The highlights were that: territorial adjustments would be made taking into consideration the people that it affected. the U.S. and Great Britain did not seek territorial gains as a result of the war's outcome. nations would have free access to raw materials. self-determination was a right of all people. an effort would be made to lower trade barriers. social welfare and global economic cooperation were recognized as being important. nations would work together to prevent fear. freedom of the seas was stated as being of importance. nations would work cooperatively towards disarmament. The signing of the Atlantic Charter was a primary reason that Germany declared war on the United States in December 1941, after the bombing of Pearl Harbor.

(5.02) In what part of Europe were absolute monarchies more popular? Why do you think that was?

In Eastern Europe, absolute monarchies developed because of the need for a strong central government. These countries were often less economically developed than those of Western Europe, and still relied on the feudal system of nobles and peasants. In countries like Prussia and Russia, a strong absolute monarch helped in many ways. They used this power to strengthen armies, gain new territory, and improve the economy. They even improved the relationships between the peasants and the nobles.

(5.02) What pushed citizens to replace their absolute monarchies with constitutional monarchies?

In the 17th and 18th centuries, as the church began to have less power over most people's lives and thinking, some societies began to look for new types of government. Citizens no longer wanted the church or an all-powerful monarch telling them what to do, when they themselves did not have any voice in their government. They were tired of royal absolutism, which meant that royalty had all the power and all the control. Often wars and economic troubles were the catalyst for change in government. Some absolute monarchs were good for their countries if they ruled wisely and made good decisions. However, an irresponsible absolute monarch could be dangerous and destructive.

(7.02) Why did the US finally join the war in 1917?

In March 1917, a revolution in Russia overthrew the monarchy and established a provisional government. But this new government was not popular either. The Russians were tired of the long war. In the farthest reaches of the former empire, non-Russian groups like the Poles, Latvians, Finns, and Estonians were fighting for independence. In some cases, these nationalist movements were encouraged by the Germans who occupied their territories.

(5.02) What is the most common way that citizens were able to change their absolute monarchies into constitutional monarchies?

In a monarchy, political change is not only difficult, it's often violent. Constitutional monarchies don't just emerge because people want them to. Kings don't want to give up the power they have. For this reason, constitutional monarchies are often the result of great violence.

(6.01) How would you describe the class system in colonial Latin America?

In a strict class system such as this one, how people are treated, what rights they have, and what they can expect to do with their lives are all determined by the position in society that they are born into—who their parents are. In the Spanish and Portuguese colonies, society was divided into a number of social classes. Example: Creoles: Europeans who had been born in the colonies and who owned most of the land, but they had no say in the government. They were second-class citizens, but at least they were citizens.

(5.01) Where does most of Europe (and the World's) population live?

In fact, most of the world's population lives within 250 miles of a coastline. Mountainous areas and deserts attract fewer inhabitants.

(6.01) What impacts did the Spanish War for Independence have on the Latin American colonies?

In general, the Latin American revolutions were led by wealthy creoles. They did not want to be under the thumb of the European powers. In some cases, they enlisted the aid of the lower classes with promises of a new, more egalitarian social order. And to be fair, many of the Latin American countries outlawed slavery sometime in the 19th century. But beyond that, there was no change to the social structure. So unrest was always bubbling just beneath the surface. In addition, the colonial governments had been authoritarian. South Americans had little experience with self-government prior to independence. Even in countries that claimed to be republics, the governments were usually established and supported by military force. Military rivals and insurrection by the lower classes were constant threats. This often meant that the rulers could not exert much power beyond the capital city. As a result, the countryside saw the emergence of caudillos. These were bosses who controlled a province or territory like feudal lords. A caudillo was usually a wealthy landowner who organized and paid for his own private militia. He controlled the upper and middle classes through military strength and force of personality. He controlled the lower classes because they depended on him for work. Sometimes a caudillo managed to gain control of a national government, as Bernardo O'Higgins did in Chile and Antonio López de Santa Anna did in Mexico. Finally, constant warfare and rebellion took its toll on the nations' treasuries. Wars are expensive, and the more people there are in military service, the fewer people there are to build roads, ports, or factories. The economies of the Latin American countries did not begin to stabilize and grow until late in the 19th century. After gaining independence from Spain and Portugal, did anything change in Latin America?

(7.04) Describe the following major events that occurred during WWII:

Invasion of Poland: On September 1, Hitler invades Poland. On September 3, Britain and France declare war on Germany. World War II officially begins. Operation Barbarossa and Battle of Stalingrad: More than three million Nazi forces and 3,000 tanks invade the Soviet Union, in violation of the Nonaggression Pact the two nations had signed. Stalin calls for Allied assistance, but it is largely the Soviet army that fights the advancing German forces. The German army headed deep into Soviet territory, which proved to be a mistake when winter arrived. The weather made it difficult for soldier reinforcements and supplies to be replenished. Many German soldiers starved or froze to death. The Soviet forces took advantage of the conditions and were able to consolidate their power to surround the German army in the Battle of Stalingrad. (Stalingrad: a city in Russia that was severely bombed by the Germans in November 1942). The Soviets were victorious on February 2, 1943. Hitler was not able to capture Moscow. Soviet victory at Stalingrad marks the failure of Operation Barbarossa and a turning point in the war on the eastern front. It is considered one of the largest battles in human history and the most brutal of World War II. Pearl Harbor: Japanese bomb Pearl Harbor. After the Japanese execute a surprise bombing attack on the naval base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, about 2,500 U.S. citizens are killed. The next day, President Roosevelt signs a declaration of war against the Japanese. Then Hitler declares war on the United States in support of Japan. The United States enters World War II on the side of the Allies with a "Europe first strategy." The threat to the Allies from Germany was greater than the threat posed by Japan. The United States focused their efforts to defeat the Nazis on the European front before turning their attention on Japan in what became known as the Pacific Theater. Battle of Midway: : The Japanese wanted to control Midway, which is just 1,000 miles from Hawaii. In this battle, U.S. forces defeat the Japanese. This decisive battle gives the United States the impetus and ability to begin to push the Japanese out of the Pacific. Battle of El Alamein: Before WWII, the Allied and Axis powers had interests in Africa, where they established many colonies. North African territories were considered to be strategic locations for trade and resources in the Mediterranean region. The turning point of the war in North Africa was the Second Battle of El Alamein. Under British General Montgomery, Allied forces in North Africa (mainly Libya and Egypt) attack the joint German-Italian army there. The Axis forces are under the skilled leadership of German Field-Marshall Rommel (German field marshal and head of the German North African campaign (1941-43)). During this battle, while Montgomery's forces fight a ground battle, Rommel's forces are pounded from the air by Allied bombers. The Axis army is on the run. Montgomery's forces chase the ragged remnants of Rommel's forces 1,500 miles across the Sahara before they finally surrender to Allied forces on May 12, 1943. D-Day (Normandy) Invasion: The Allies launch their strategic attack against the Nazis. Thousands of transport boats carry U.S. and British forces across the English Channel. The forces, under the command of General Dwight D. Eisenhower, land on the beaches of Normandy. The Germans had been fed false intelligence about a totally bogus invasion near Calais, so the Germans had moved most of their forces to that location. They were, therefore, unprepared for the Normandy invasion. The Normandy invasion began to turn the tide of the war. U.S. ground forces now fight with other Allied forces to push back the Nazis. Yalta Conference: When it became clear that the Allies were going to defeat Germany, Allied leaders met at Yalta in the Crimea to determine the shape and fate of postwar Europe. The "Big Three (Big Three: the three central Allied leaders, Winston Churchill, Franklin D. Roosevelt, and Joseph Stalin, at the Yalta Conference in February 1945)" conferees were British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt, and Soviet Premier Joseph Stalin. Four major decisions came out of this meeting. First, different sectors of Germany would be occupied by the Big Three, plus France. Second, a United Nations conference on this matter would be held a year later. Third, the USSR would be granted control of lands in Asia as compensation for fighting against the Japanese in the Pacific Theater. Fourth, Poland would be guaranteed a democratic government. Conference negotiations and agreements were kept secret, and critics claim that the Soviets received far more concessions than they were due.

(7.01) How did WWI go from a war between two nations to a World War?

July 5: Austria-Hungary had wanted to attack Serbia for some time, counting on a small, quick war to crush Serbia and Serbian nationalism with one brutal blow. The assassination in Sarajevo gives it the excuse it needs to start such a war. The empire realizes, however, that Russia might come to Serbia's aid. Austria-Hungary asks Germany if it would honor the Triple Alliance and come to their aid if needed. Germany sends word that it would defend Austria-Hungary if Russia attacks. July 24: Austria-Hungary issues a series of ultimatums to Serbia, giving Serbia 48 hours to agree to all demands or face attack. Austria-Hungary wants war, so it makes sure to demand things that no sovereign nation would agree to. July 25: Serbia agrees to all but one of Austria-Hungary's demands. Germany sends word to Emperor Franz Joseph that war was no longer justified and that he should find a peaceful solution. But by the time the message arrives, Austro-Hungarian troops are already shelling Belgrade, the capital of Serbia. July 28: Austria-Hungary declares war on Serbia. July 30: Russia mobilizes its forces along both borders. July 31: Germany issues two ultimatums, one to Russia and one to France. These ultimatums give Russia 12 hours to demobilize its forces and France 18 hours to agree to remain neutral if Germany and Russia go to war. August 1: Russia and France have no intention of agreeing to Germany's demands. Russia is bound by treaty to defend Serbia, and France is bound by the Dual Entente to defend Russia. The two deadlines pass, Germany declares war on Russia, and the kaiser orders the Schlieffen Plan into effect. Italy decides to stay neutral but later joins the Allied forces. August 2: Germany invades Luxembourg, demands the right to pass through Belgium. August 3: Observing the Treaty of London, which guaranteed Belgium's independence and neutrality, Britain sends its own ultimatum giving Germany five hours to call off the invasion. Germany ignores this ultimatum. August 4: Britain declares war on Germany. August 5: Austria-Hungary declares war on Russia. August 6: Serbia declares war on Germany. August 7: Montenegro declares war on Austria-Hungary. August 10: France declares war on Austria-Hungary. August 12: Great Britain declares war on Austria-Hungary; Montenegro declares war on Germany. *By the time war broke out in 1914, the Triple Alliance had become the Central Powers and the Triple Entente was renamed the Allied Powers. Over the course of the war, more nations joined and some even switched sides. Allied Powers -Great Britain -France -Russia -Italy (joined in 1915) -United States (joined in 1917 ) Central Powers -Germany -Austria-Hungary -Ottoman Empire -Bulgaria (joined in 1915)

(6.03) Who are the people most associated with explaining how communism works?

Karl Marx: founder of modern communism; wrote the Communist Manifesto with Engels in 1848; wrote Das Kapital in 1867

(7.07) What two organizations were created because of WWII? (Not the EU, that wasn't created until 1999)

League of Nations,

(7.01) What are the main causes of WWI? Be sure to include an example to represent each cause.

M- The M is for militarism. In the wake of the Franco Prussian War, Europe was struggling to find a new balance of power. The nations of Europe built up weapons and military forces in an effort to "one up" neighboring nations. At this point in history, Europe had a tendency to settle disputes through a good old-fashioned war, rather than diplomacy. In Germany, a relatively young nation at the time, leaders Kaiser Wilhelm the First and Count Otto von Bismarck were determined to make their country a major power. A- A, for alliances. The Germans realized that no matter how mighty their military, they would never be strong enough to withstand the forces of several European powers at once. So Bismarck arranged a series of alliances with several other countries to reduce the threat of war against Germany and to protect themselves in the event that war did occur. They also wanted to isolate France, who the Germans were convinced would try to recapture the disputed territories of Alsace and Lorraine. Here's how these alliances broke down. First, in 1879, Germany and Austria-Hungary formed the Dual Alliance. Fast forward a few years to 1882. The Dual Alliance added Italy to the mix and became the Triple Alliance. In 1888, Kaiser Wilhelm the First died and was succeeded by his grandson, Wilhelm the Second. When he allowed Germany's treaty with Russia to lapse, France saw an opportunity and formed the Dual Entente with Russia. Up until this point, Great Britain had maintained a policy of isolation from the rest of Europe. But seeing the alliances forming on the continent, the British decided going it alone probably wasn't smart any longer. They joined France and Russia, forming the Triple Entente. All these alliances resulted in a Europe where conflict between two nations could easily result in conflict between many (heavily armed) nations. N- nationalism, another powerful source of tension in Europe. National and ethnic pride has a way of stirring up strong emotions. In existing countries, nationalism took the form of extreme national pride. For ethnic groups like the Slavs, many of whom were living in lands ruled by Austria-Hungary, it took the form of a political movement calling for their own country. The movement was concentrated in the Balkans region, so nationalist tension there was especially high. Russia added to the tension, making it known they were protectors of their fellow Slavs in Europe. Many Russians called for all Slavs to be united in a federation...that would be controlled by Russia, of course. I- imperialist interests in the mix. As nations sought to expand their global empires, rivalries and competition developed. Germany was late to the empire building game, putting them in conflict with the established imperial powers. A- assassination—the event that sparked war. In 1911, a secret nationalist organization called the Black Hand formed with the goal of joining all Southern Slavs (called Serbs) in a united, independent Serbia. The leaders of the Black Hand believed that they could move closer to this goal by killing Austria-Hungary's Archduke Franz Ferdinand. They saw his policies as a threat to their plans for Serbia. The group sent seven agents to Bosnia, where Ferdinand was inspecting troops, to carry out the assassination. Their initial attempt to bomb the archduke's car failed. Later that day, the archduke and his wife made their way to the hospital to visit an officer who had been wounded during the earlier assassination attempt. When the archduke's driver made a wrong turn, by a mere accident of history, they encountered one of the assassins. The archduke and his wife were shot and both died within minutes. If Germany still held its alliance with Russia, the assassination might have remained a localized issue between Austria-Hungary and Serbia. In the Europe that existed in 1914, it triggered a series of events, igniting a powder keg that eventually exploded in global war.

(7.03) How Francisco Franco come to power in Spain?

Over the course of the war, one Spanish general, General Francisco Franco, gained a considerable amount of power. With help from Mussolini and Hitler, Franco's Nationalists achieved victory

(7.03) What were the delayed or long-term effects of WWI?

Many countries throughout the world faced difficult economic problems. As you have learned, the Treaty of Versailles was punitive toward nations on the losing side of the war. Because of this, Germany had to pay a huge amount of reparations for the cost of the war. This burden contributed to an economic crisis in the country, which included high unemployment. Eventually, the economic problems of Germany and many other nations, including the United States, led to the Great Depression. The social and political ramifications of this economic depression would be disastrous for much of the world.

(7.07) Why did the Soviet Union create the Warsaw Pact?

May 1955 saw the creation of two important political-military measures. West Germany was accepted into NATO and remilitarized. This greatly threatened the Soviet Union. Also, the Soviet Union formalized its East European alliance with the Warsaw Pact. This threatened the United States and Western Europe. Under the Warsaw Pact, the Soviet Union commanded the military of Albania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Poland, and Romania. Cold War tensions between the United States and the U.S.S.R. would increase for decades.

(5.06) What did Napoleon do once he was in power?

Not satisfied being Consul for Life, he crowned himself Emperor Napoleon I on May 18, 1804. The pope even consecrated the coronation. Soon after, Emperor Napoleon established his own lavish court and new order of nobles and aristocrats. In essence, Napoleon recreated the monarchy that the revolution had overthrown. He instituted a tax on salt and raised postal rates by 50 percent. His demands for money from the public were as onerous as the hated taxes imposed by the former king. He wanted to conquer and become emperor of all Europe. He quickly took control of Italy, Prussia, and Austria, and had been at war with Great Britain since 1803. He was obsessed with subduing the English and bringing them under French rule, but England didn't make it easy by sending payments to other European monarchies to help them fight the French.

(7.01) What does mobilization mean?

Preparing a nation for war is a complex operation. Soldiers have to be supplied and transported to the front lines, while new soldiers have to be drafted and given uniforms, weapons, and supplies. Food has to be delivered to the soldiers and support personnel wherever they may be. If navies are involved, ships have to sail to their areas of operations. This entire process is called mobilization.

(7.04) How did the US support the Allied forces during the first two years of WWII?

President Franklin Roosevelt and other leaders, however, recognized the threat Germany presented. And when Germany invaded Poland in September 1939, Roosevelt called a special session of Congress to revise the U.S. Neutrality Act of 1935. The revised act permitted the United States to sell weapons and other war materials to its Allies in Europe that were fighting Nazi aggression. Though U.S. contributions of armaments helped, they did little to turn the tide against the Nazis. When France fell to the Nazis in June 1940, Roosevelt greatly increased munitions and other weapons supplies to Britain. Slowly, Congress and the U.S. public were beginning to consider if the U.S. should take a greater role in the conflict in Europe.

(6.04) What are the purposes of imperialism? Why would a country participate in imperialism? Try to include Economic, Political, and Social reasons

Purpose: To succeed in the mercantilist system, to control resources necessary for industrialization, to fuel industrialism at home, to increase status, to become more competitive, to support racial bias and ideas of Social Darwinism. Why: The more colonies you had, the greater your prestige and power as a nation. The more successful your imperial ambitions, the better off your economy was. The annexation of these outposts was solely for the purpose of exploitation, and their people lacked all or most rights. Where it was impractical to directly control a region, an imperial power might incorporate it within its sphere of influence, an area mainly of economic control. Spheres of influence were created in places that were too difficult to take over completely and politically. China is one example where several European nations created their own spheres of influence in different parts of that nation.

(6.02) How the Industrial Revolution change culture? (Art, Literature, Photography)

Romanticism: became established in many of the arts. Artistic movement in Europe and the United States during the later 1700s and 1800s which rejected the Enlightenment emphasis on reason and valued imagination, personal emotion, and the natural landscape Negative Concepts: Romantic reactions to the Industrial Revolution were largely negative. In the 1790s, the English poet and engraver William Blake harshly criticized the abuse of child labor in London. In a famous poem called "Jerusalem," he denounced the "dark, satanic mills" dotting the English countryside. Blake believed that industrialization amounted to the exploitation of fellow human beings. Realism: artistic movement in the mid- to late 1800s that emphasized accurate portrayal of human lives and social conditions Impressionism: artistic style of the later 1800s that emphasized everyday subject matter and the changing quality of light Photography: Photography, a technique only made possible by the Industrial Revolution itself, is a particularly interesting medium for representing the Industrial Revolution. The realism of the photographs brings home the dirt and filth of industrialization in a way painting simply couldn't. The Danish-American photographer Jacob Riis was known for his social reform images. Riis focused on the poverty and abusive living conditions of immigrants in New York City.

(6.03) How does communism work?

What is the relationship between the individual and the government? Ideology in which the means of production are owned by the government and private property does not exist. Many people think of communism as a stronger, more authoritarian version of socialism. In some ways, this is a useful but simplistic way to think about communism. But in other ways, it distorts the difference between these two systems of ideas. In the most general sense, socialism is an ideology that seeks to regulate capitalism, whereas communism is a theory of socialism that explains how capitalism will be overturned.

(6.06) How has social media made it easier to organize and protest?

Social media has been used to spread news about successful uprisings. For example, after the Egyptian president resigned, Egypt received many thousands of tweets a day from neighboring nations. After the revolts in Egypt and Tunisia succeeded, many Arabs used social media to discuss the possibility of successful uprisings in their countries.

(6.06) How did F.W. de Klerk prevent a civil war in South Africa?

Starting the late 1800s, whites began to dominate the black people of South Africa. The whites had almost complete control of the government and gave blacks few political rights. Blacks were often forced to use separate and inferior facilities and schools than whites. In 1948, the government legalized racial separation with a system called apartheid (apartheid: a political system in South Africa from 1948 to the early 1990s that separated the different peoples living there based on race and gave privileges to those of European origin). This system greatly limited the rights of nonwhites. For example, nonwhites could not own land and could not even enter white neighborhoods. In addition, many blacks were forced to live in segregated areas. Led by Nelson Mandela, the African National Congress (ANC) protested apartheid through boycotts, demonstrations, and strikes. Also, many countries voiced their opposition to the system. Soon the government imprisoned Mandela. In 1989, F.W. de Klerk became the president of South Africa. He feared that apartheid could lead to civil war. As a result, he freed Mandela in 1990. In addition, de Klerk set up talks between the government and the ANC. Soon the government abolished all apartheid laws and, with the ANC, began to form a new constitution. In 1993, the government granted blacks the right to vote. The following year, South Africa had its first elections that were open to all races. Voters elected Nelson Mandela president. Then the government approved a new Constitution in 1996.

(6.04) How does the imperialism during the Age of Discovery compare to the imperialism during the Industrial Revolution?

The Age of Imperialism can best be understood as having occurred in two different periods. The first was a product of the Age of Exploration. This process resulted in the colonization of most of the Western Hemisphere by Spain, France, Britain, and Portugal. The second imperialist expansion occurred later and was largely a product of the Industrial Revolution. This process resulted in the colonization of most of Africa, the Middle East, India, China, and the South Pacific.

(5.03) Why did the Church think that science was a challenge to their authority?

The Church, whose prestige had been hurt by the Crusades and Papal Schisms, and whose authority was being questioned by the Protestant Reformers, did not want scientists questioning things that had previously been explained by the Church. Imagine a child boldly questioning an explanation his mom gave for something. Now, imagine that the mom was already super stressed out by major issues going on in the family. It might not go well, right? Well, during the Scientific Revolution, the mom was the Church, and the child was one of the many scientific revolutionaries.

(5.01) What are some important things to know about the European Union (EU)? Include at least 2

The EU's primary goal is to improve trade among its members, and each European nation is politically independent. Each has its own constitution, democratically elected government, and laws. However, EU nations often cooperate to enact a common foreign policy.

(7.06) How did the Holocaust finally end?

The Soviets were the first to liberate the Nazi camps in Poland. The Germans tried to hide the evidence of the mass killings by destroying the camps themselves. In the winter of 1945 the Soviets liberated Auschwitz, the largest of the camps. In addition to the emaciated people that they found, they also discovered thousands of pounds of human hair, clothing, gold taken from teeth, and jewelry. In the following months, the Soviets would liberate more camps in Poland and the Baltic states. U.S. and British forces were not far behind, as they began liberating German camps in the spring of 1945. Although hardened by combat, these soldiers were shocked at the horrors they found. For example, at Dachau, soldiers found 28 railway cars stuffed with corpses. Although many people were indeed liberated, not all of them were able to survive the wretched conditions they had endured. Many died from the effects of malnutrition and related diseases. It was only after the camps had been liberated that the world began to understand the full scale of the horrors of the Nazi regime. The survivors of this terrible ordeal would have a long road ahead of them. In total, the Nazis killed about 11 million people during the Holocaust, including about six million Jews.

(7.07) Why was the United Nations (UN) created?

The United Nations (UN) originated in January, 1942, before the end of WWII, when 26 countries signed a declaration "to employ its full resources, military or economic [in] the struggle for victory over Hitlerism." The full United Nations Charter was signed by 50 countries in June 1945 and ratified in October 1945. The UN has four main purposes: To keep peace throughout the world To develop friendly relations among nations To help nations work together to improve the lives of poor people, to conquer hunger, disease, and illiteracy, and to encourage respect for each other's rights and freedoms To be a center for harmonizing the actions of nations to achieve these goals

(7.07) How did WWII help lead to the Cold War?

The chilling relations between the United States and the Soviet Union became known as the Cold War. Neither side wanted a "hot" war, armed military conflict, but tensions and distrust increased. The Cold War began in 1945. In 1946, Stalin blamed World War II on "capitalist imperialism" and suggested that future wars were inevitable to stop capitalist imperialism. This passive-aggressive threat became a source of fear as both sides gained nuclear bombs and intercontinental missiles.

(7.05) What are some other uses of atomic technology aside from atomic or nuclear weapons?

The development of the atomic bomb also paved the way for later non-military discoveries using nuclear energy, such as nuclear-powered ships and submarines, nuclear power plants, and the use of nuclear medicine. It is possible that these developments would have taken much longer if not for the work of the Manhattan Project.

(6.05) What were the effects of Italy's unification?

The people of Italy spoke many different regional languages known as dialects. Most people lived in poor, rural areas and were not well educated. They could not read, write, or speak one another's languages. Geographically they were also separated, not only by mountains and waterways, but by the lack of roads, railways, and other infrastructure. In addition, the Catholic Church—based in Rome and led by Pope Pius IX—denounced the new nation of Italy. Italy's unification threatened the power of the Papal State that included Rome as its capital. When Italy occupied Rome, Pius IX retreated to the Vatican Palace and announced himself a prisoner. The next popes did the same. This tension was not resolved until February 11, 1929 when the Lateran Pacts were signed, establishing Vatican City as its own independent nation-state within Rome. Vatican City is in fact its own nation independent of Italy.

(7.02) What happened to Russia as a result of WWI? How did WWI cause a change in Russia's government?

The imperial monarchy of Russia brought the country into war despite poor preparation for a large conflict. The Russian forces lacked training, supplies, numbers, and morale. They lost battle after battle against the Germans. This showed the Russians that their country was no longer able to match the powers of Central and Western Europe. In addition, the economic effects of the war hurt the entire population.

(7.02) What were the conditions like for the soldiers fighting in the trenches of WWI?

The trenches were crude ditches, dug into the dirt, with walls over the heads of the soldiers. Perpendicular trenches allowed communication and supplies to come from the rear to the front. The trenches were muddy, dirty, and unpleasant. Many died from sicknesses contracted while living in the trenches.

(7.07) What was the Iron Curtain?

The reasons for this were now clear. One of the primary reasons why the League of Nations didn't work was because the United States never joined. But there were other problems, as well. The League had no military authority to maintain discipline or enforce any of its actions. Additionally, because the League resulted from the peace talks that Germany and others saw as illegitimate, they had no reason to accept the League. When the world got together to create the United Nations (UN) following the second war, they sought to overcome some of these problems. First, to make sure the United States would never retreat back to its isolationist tendencies, the UN headquarters was established in New York City. Second, negotiations over the UN started before the end of the war so that it was clear that the UN was separate from the ultimate peace. And finally, to ensure that nations would stay with the organization, the UN Charter was the product of the combined efforts of 50 nations. By contrast, the League Covenant was developed in secrecy by France, Italy, Japan, the UK, and the U.S. only.

(6.04) What is imperialism?

The system under which nations take over other countries either by conquering them or by gaining control over their political and economic systems

(7.05) How did the use of atomic bombs by the United States on Japan impact the Soviet Union?

The use of nuclear weapons on Japan began a nuclear arms race between the United States and Soviet Union that would take the world to the brink of total destruction numerous times over the course of the 20th century.

(7.04) How did the effects of WWI set the stage for WWII?

Their defeat in World War I was a deep humiliation for Germans. Some German people nurtured their sense of nationalism to bolster their pride. In some, this sense of fierce nationalism became so distorted that it led them to support the nationalist Nazi Party. The Nazi government, the Third Reich, whose capital was Berlin, promised to elevate the German ideal through conquest and rule of most, if not all, of the world. Nazi leaders spoke of a global "Thousand-Year Reich" that would reclaim German pride and impose a glorious German culture throughout the world.

(7.03) How Did Vladimir Lenin and Joseph Stalin make sure their governments stayed in power?

Their police forces. The victims of these purges included leaders of the Communist Party and officers of the Soviet army. By 1939, Stalin had successfully eliminated most people who he believed threatened his power.

(6.04) What role did propaganda play in imperialism?

These ideas worked to both justify the colonization of countries and to maintain the military and economic power that upheld the colony.

(5.02) Why might an absolute monarch claim divine right?

These monarchs made it clear that they were the supreme rulers and possessed all the power to rule their countries. They surrounded themselves with advisors who also believed in royal absolutism. If others opposed their power and behavior, they simply replied that they had a divine right. A divine right is a right given to them by God to rule. They also argued that this divine right made it so they only had to answer to the authority of God.

(7.05) What was the Manhattan Project?

These weapons had been developed as part of a secret government project called the Manhattan Project—a program established by President Franklin Roosevelt in June of 1942 specifically to develop an atomic bomb. It's easy to look back at 1945 from the vantage point of today and make judgments about the decision to drop these bombs. However, the atmosphere in the United States at that time was much different from what it is today. Since 1941, the country had been involved in a terrible war in both Europe and the Pacific, during which many Americans had died. There were also fears that the Germans were developing their own nuclear bomb. This would put all of Europe and the United States in danger. Even though the development and planned use of the atomic bomb was a secret, most people who knew about it felt that the United States had to strike first in order to protect itself.

(7.02) What were the immediate effects of WWI?

Treaty of Versailles: the treaty that ended World War I, establishing new nations and borders, and directing Germany to pay reparations to the Allies League of Nations: an international organization created to prevent another world war, it ceased to exist at the outbreak of the Second World War; the League of Nations was the precursor to the United Nations Aspects of Modern Culture: This massive loss of life transformed post-war society. Those who died or fought in the war became known as the "Lost Generation," a phrase coined by author Gertrude Stein and popularized by author Ernest Hemingway. Particularly in Europe, this generation was "lost" because so many of its men were dead or wounded, either physically or emotionally. Many survivors fled their home countries and became permanent expatriates, creating works of literature and art about the experiences of being part of a generation that was missing so many men.

(7.06) Briefly describe the genocide in each of the following areas:

Ukraine/Holodomor: In the early 1930s, the Soviet government took control of agriculture and artificially created a famine that resulted in the deaths of approximately eight million people. The Soviets sought to attack Ukrainian nationalism. At the time, Soviet authorities denied that the famine happened. Cambodia: Communists called the Khmer Rouge, led by Pol Pot, took control of the Cambodian government in 1975. The new government forced many urban people to move to rural areas and work as farmers. Soon, a decline in agricultural production caused widespread famine. About one million Cambodians died of starvation, forced labor, and execution. Many Cambodians fled to Thailand. Bosnia-Herzegovina: In 1992, Bosnia-Herzegovina, part of the Balkan Peninsula, declared independence from Yugoslavia. Yugoslavia was run by a Serbian-dominated government led by Slobodan Milosevic. The Serbs in Bosnia opposed independence, and backed by Milosevic, began a policy called "ethnic cleansing." This policy involved brutally attacking Bosniaks (Muslims) and Croats in Bosnia. During the next three years, about 200,000 people were killed and about two million people became displaced. A peace treaty was signed in 1995. Darfur Region of Sudan: Starting in 2003, an Arab militia organized by the Sudanese government began to kill thousands of non-Arab people in the Darfur region of Sudan. Despite a temporary ceasefire, the conflict continues to this day. Hundreds of thousands of people have been killed, and about two million people have been displaced.

(7.07) How were places like Germany and Korea divided after WWII

Upon Germany's surrender and following the plans drawn at the Potsdam Conference, Germany was divided into four occupation zones. Each zone was controlled by a separate Ally: Great Britain, France, the U.S., and the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union began to influence their zone, East Germany, toward communism. In response, the other three zones merged into West Germany in 1947. In 1949 it was officially recognized as the democratic Federal Republic of Germany. Things were also changing in Asia. Korea had been part of the Empire of Japan from 1910 until the end of World War II. When Japan surrendered in World War II, the Korean Peninsula was split along the 38th parallel. North Korea (the Democratic People's Republic of Korea) came under Soviet-sponsored communist control. South Korea (the Republic of Korea) began a democratic government with the help of the United States.

(5.01) How did the Thirty Years War change the way people viewed different religions?

When the war ended, there was a declaration of religious tolerance.

(5.01) How did Europe's population respond to end of the wars over religion and territory?

When the war ended, there was a declaration of religious tolerance. The idea of a Catholic empire, ruled by one leader and guided by the pope, was over. It was the beginning of modern Europe. In the mid-17th century, nearly every nation had one official religion. The official religion of a country or empire was that of its monarch. Italy and Spain were the most thoroughly Roman Catholic nations. Other countries, such as the Dutch Republic, were primarily Protestant. Some countries permitted those of a different faith to live within their borders, though often as second-class citizens. People with no religious beliefs dared not say so out loud. These days Europe is known for its religious tolerance and stable political systems.

(6.02) What were the impacts of coal and steam?

When wood started to become scarce in the early 1700s, England began to depend more and more on coal for fuel. Coal was also needed as a source of energy to smelt iron. James Watt's improvements made the steam engine much more efficient. Soon, steam power was being used in textile mills. Water power was no longer an essential requirement for mills, so they could be built almost anywhere. Efficient steam engines also revolutionized transportation. (Steamboats and steam-powered trains)

(7.05) What was the Potsdam Declaration?

a proclamation that defined the terms of surrender of Japan in World War II

(7.06) What was the Holocaust?

the mass murder of Jews and other groups under the German Nazi regime during the period 1941-1945

(6.03) What does ideology mean?

the set of ideas at the basis of an economic or political theory **Born out of the ideas of the Enlightenment and the social and economic changes created by the Industrial Revolution, let's look deeper into the 3 most popular economic theories. (1) Capitalism: the most popular economic system presently found in the world; ex: USA