Women in sport exam 1

Although under-represented in most aspects of college athletics, African American women are over-represented in _________ and ______________.

African American women are under-represented in most aspects of college athletics but are over-represented in basketball and track and field—the combined effects of history, tradition, role modeling, social class, and earlier opportunities.

Althea Gibson

Althea Gibson was another beneficiary of women's athletics at historically black institutions, having attended Florida Agricultural and Mechanical College for Negroes (now Florida Agricultural and Mechanical University) on an athletic scholarship. Gibson deserves special mention in this history for desegregating not one but two "country club" sports in the mid-1900s. Gibson got her start playing paddle tennis in New York's Police Athletic League. Black philanthropists, impressed with her talents, financed her participation in the ATA. Taking the mantle from the Peters sisters, Gibson won ten straight ATA championships between 1947 and 1956. All the while, ATA officials, black journalists, and white supporters, including former champion Alice Marble, lobbied the United States Lawn Tennis Association (USLTA) to desegregate the game. Unable to withstand the pressure, USLTA relented in 1950. Gibson entered the US National Championship at Forest Hills, becoming the first black athlete, male or female, to break tennis's color line. Six years later, she won the French singles event, the Wimbledon doubles title, and the US Nationals and repeated the same honors in 1958. In tennis's amateur era, however, Gibson was unable to support herself in the now lucrative sport. She turned her attention to professional golf, becoming the first African American woman on the tour.

"Although authorities explicitly maintain that testing for hyperandrogenism is not sex testing, it serves the same purpose: ___________________________________________________.

Although authorities explicitly maintain that testing for hyperandrogenism is not sex testing, it serves the same purpose: to define and defend a particular version of femaleness in order to uphold sex segregation in sport.

Identify the following athletes and explain how their stories shed light on policies for transgender athletes. Mack Beggs

As an alternative, some organizations insist that athletes compete as the sex assigned at birth. This was the situation for high school wrestler Mack Beggs. Designated female at birth, Beggs began his transition, including hormone therapy, at age fifteen. He wanted to compete as a boy, but Texas state athletic legislation forbade it. Beggs went on to win the 2017 Class 6A 110-pound girls' state wrestling championship. In addition to the overtly transphobic insults he endured, detractors took issue with his use of testosterone, a banned substance unless prescribed by a doctor, as it was for Beggs as part of his transition.

"As the history of sex testing demonstrates, assigning sex is ____________________________ as one might expect, which further complicates the issue of sex segregation."

As the history of sex testing demonstrates, assigning sex is not as easy or straightforward as one might expect, which further complicates the issue of sex segregation.

Since the 1930s, girls and women have been often forced to undergo "sex tests." How have these tests transformed since then to the present day?

In the 1930s, skeptics voiced concerns about "masculine"-looking women athletes, especially in track and field. Observers worried that competitors might either be men in disguise or athletes with differences of sex development (what they then called "hermaphrodites, At first, it was up to national governing bodies to check athletes prior to international competitions. In the 1940s, the IAAF and IOC required women athletes to produce affidavits from physicians that affirmed their sex. Men, it should be noted, have never had to prove that they are men. There are two assumptions here: (1) that women who record superlative performances are "too good" to really be women and (2) that "real" women could never compete against men.In 1966, the IAAF initiated its first standardized, pre-competition sex test by asking women at the British Empire and Commonwealth Games in Kingston, Jamaica, to undergo gynecological examinations. The women did not expect the ensuing "grope," as pentathlete Mary Peters described it in her Later, at the European Athletics Championships in Budapest, Hungary, the IAAF ordered all female athletes to submit to visual inspections or "nude parades" before a panel of three female physicians. As Time reported, The examination, as it turned out, was perfunctory. Lined up in single file, the 234 female athletes paraded past three female gynecologists. "They let you walk by," said one competitor afterward. "Then they asked you to turn and face them, and that was it."al assessment for the 1967 European Cup in Kiev, and the IOC adopted the procedure the following year, making it the standard sex test for more than two decades. Specifically, officials swabbed the inside of women's cheeks or harvested a hair root for chromosomal analysis.

Major League Baseball officially banned women from its league until what year?

Major League Baseball's official ban on women lasted until 1992, and although a number of women have played high school, college, and semi-professional baseball with men, none have suited up for a Major League team.

"Still, several organizations enforce uniform rules that make it impossible for _______________ to compete without compromising their faith."

Still, several organizations enforce uniform rules that make it impossible for religiously observant women to compete without compromising their faith.

If such a high percentage of schools are not in compliance, why isn't something done?

Schools that do not comply risk losing federal funding, but that has never happened because the federal government does not actively investigate or enforce the law. An issue usually only comes to light when someone files a complaint, which is unlikely,The coach is probably not going to bring it up, because the coach is afraid of losing their job. The athlete is probably not going to bring it up, because they're afraid of retaliation. It really is an impossible situation."

What organizations did women and girls play baseball in throughout the twentieth century?

Softball, invented in the 1880s, flourished in the 1930s and 1940s as it firmed its position as the recreational and feminine equivalent to "hard ball." During World War II, while men in the major and minor leagues served in the military, baseball executives organized the All-American Girls Softball Baseball League, which became the All-American Girls Professional Baseball League (AAGPBL). Between 1943 and 1954, more than 600 women played baseball for Midwestern teams as a way to maintain public interest in the sport. This included several Cuban women, who previously played for a similar league, the Cuban Estrellas.14 Yet league officials refused to sign black women, ignoring a deep reservoir of talent. Since the nineteenth century, as historian Amira Rose Davis notes, African American women played on rural sandlots, segregated leagues and teams, and for the Young Women's Christian Association.15 In the 1950s, Toni Stone, Connie Morgan, and Mamie "Peanut" Johnson played in baseball's Negro National Leagues, but there were few professional opportunities for talented black women ballplayers.

Identify the following athletes and explain how their stories shed light on policies for transgender athletes. Renée Richards

The United States Tennis Association used a sex test to bar Renée Richards, born Richard Raskind, from the 1976 US Open (although Richards produced "gynecological affirmation that she is a woman," she has XY sex chromosomes). Richards took her case to court and, just days before the 1977 tournament, a judge ruled in her favor (Richards lost in the first round). As pundits debated whether her male genetics presented an unfair biological advantage, sport scholars Susan Birrell and C. L. Cole argue that a greater inequity resulted from the social advantages Richards received as Raskind, which included attending a boys' preparatory school, captaining the Yale tennis team, and greater overall access to competitive sport.

Homosexual

The prefix homo means same or alike. Although homophobia is the most common term used with regard to anti-gay attitudes and behaviors, activists advise against the use of the term homosexual to refer to gay/lesbian/queer individuals and their romantic, intimate, social, and sexual relationships. The word has a long clinical history used to pathologize and oppress people as mentally

International Quidditch Association (IQA)

The rules of the International Quidditch Association (IQA), which governs the sport based on J. K. Rowling's Harry Potter series, are unique with regard to issues of sex and gender. Seven players from each team take the quidditch field. Of those seven, there must be a maximum of four players "who identify as the same gender in active play on the field at the same time." The rules mandate a sex/gender-integrated sport. In addition, the IQA "accepts those who don't identify with the binary gender system and acknowledges that not all of our players identify as male or female. The IQA welcomes people of all identities and genders into our sport."

In addition to athletics, what additional areas Title IX address?

any education program Title IX applies to all public and private educational institutions that receive federal funds and addresses ten areas, including access to higher education, career education, education for pregnant and parenting students, employment, learning environment, math and science, sexual harassment, standardized testing, and technology. But it has become most widely known for its influence on sport.

Approximately _____% of all educational institutions are not in compliance.

approximately 80-90 percent of all educational institutions are not in compliance with Title IX.

There were three rationales used against women's participation in sport. Describe all three: Medical Aesthetic Social

arguments against a woman's participation in sport had to do with her presumed delicate constitution, combined with her obligation to devote her energies toward her ultimate purpose: bearing and raising healthy children and preparing herself for the "cult of domesticity." medical=what sport might do to women's reproductive function (myth of female frailty and theory of vital energy) every girl, it seems, has a large store of vital and nervous energy upon which to draw in the great crisis of motherhood. asthetic = sport is not something attractive women and girls excelled in. also sport participation made a girl or woman unattractive.Sport would cause "bicycle face" or other disfiguring afflictions, shrink a woman's chest, and build hideous, bunchy, butch-y muscles.The third concern was that women competing made an ungainly and unsightly spectacle. social=sport is really about masculinity and therefore contrary to idealized femininity.Sport would "masculinize" female athletes, confuse gender roles, and undoubtedly lead to social ruin.

Discuss why the lives of working-class women differed from the upper class. How did these differences lead to different modes of sport and physical activity for women and girls?

decorum and propriety were luxuries accorded to the upper classes. The daily lives of working-class women required active physicality, and they often lacked the discretionary income, time, and energy to devote to sport.

Heteronormativity

denotes the cultural assumption that heterosexuality is the "natural" and "normal" state of human being rather than one of many possible sexual identities and expressions.

Explain what the six manifestations of homophobia in women's sport are and provide an example of their impact on women's sport.

in which she argued that there are six manifestations of homophobia in sport—all of which still ring true today: silence, denial, apology, the promotion of a heterosexy image, attacks on lesbians, and a preference for male coaches.

What are some of the rule differences between women's and men's sports that Schultz discusses?

no contact less distance less time easier overall

"cisgender."

refers to individuals whose gender identity corresponds with their sex assigned at birth

Homonegativity

removes the problematic use of phobia from anti-gay beliefs and behaviors.

In addition to the sexualization of the athletes, what is another problem with the LFL?

they don't pay them the participants pay to play

"[T]hrowing is a _________ skill, not a ________ one."

throwing is a learned skill, not a biological one.

What is the "feminine apologetic"?

to describe women who "apologized" or compensated for their involvement in "masculine" sport by emphasizing traditional ideals of femininity.ompensatory acts included styling one's hair, makeup, and dress to conform to conventional beauty standards; downplaying the importance of sport in one's life; and asserting one's heterosexuality. An apologetic bearing ostensibly softened an athlete's image and assured spectators that sport participation did not threaten her femininity and, in turn, that her participation did not threaten the masculine center of sport.

Sexual prejudice

to represent negative attitudes based on sexual orientation, regardless of what that orientation is.

True or False: Sport reinforces gender stereotypes, which in turn influences participation in sport.

true

What is the "3-Prong Test" for compliance? Describe each prong. How many prongs does a school need to meet in order to be in compliance?

1.Substantial proportionality: This stipulates that the percentage of male and female athletes in an athletic program must reflect the percentage of full-time male and female students in the school's undergraduate population. 2.History and continued practice of program expansion: A school can show compliance by working to add more participation opportunities for the under-represented sex. 3.Full and effective accommodation of interests and abilities: A school can argue that the under-representation of one sex in an athletic program is not due to discrimination but, rather, to the interests and abilities of the sex in question, which the school has fully and effectively accommodated.

"Modern sport" began around ______________________________________.

1829????

What does the term "moderation" mean in terms of sport for girls and women?

At the same time, women physical educators began to worry about "excessive" competition and "violent" athletics. They were increasingly dismayed by the exploitation and sexualization of girls and women in male-governed, commercial sport. In addition, this type of sport favored the highly skilled few at the expense of the masses.By the 1920s, "moderation" became the primary curricular focus as educators attempted to suppress competitive and intercollegiate contests. Eventually, most women physical educators argued vehemently against highly competitive sports, including women's Olympic involvement, well into the 1950s. As an alternative, they promoted "play days" that emphasized cooperation under the banners of "play for play's sake" and "a sport for every girl and a girl in every sport."

Sport offers girls and women positive physical, psychological, social, academic, and professional benefits. What are some examples?

Athletic involvement correlates with higher levels of confidence and self-esteem, positive body image, motivation to achieve long-term goals, lower incidence of depression, and decreased suicidal thoughts and tendencies.

Describe the concerns about women's sexuality in sport in the following time periods: 1900 - 1930 1930 - 1945 1945 - 1960

Concern for women's unbridled heterosexual desires gave way in the 1930s to worries that sport made women both unattractive and unattracted to men. Either consequence, according to Cahn, signaled "heterosexual failure." In the post ww2 era of heightened homophobia and gender conservatism, women athletes, especially those who competed in working-class and stereotypically masculine sports, faced new pressures to assert their femininity and heterosexuality. Women physical educators changed their curricula to emphasize students' personal appearance and comportment. Once fierce guardians of separatism, these same physical educators realized that sex segregation only fueled the discipline's lesbian stereotype and so began to incorporate mixed-sex social events, such as dances and bowling.Hoping to avoid this very stereotype, sports executives and athletes adopted apologetic strategies

Stool Ball

English milkmaids incorporated their milking stools into a stick and ball game. "Stoolball" is an antecedent of both cricket and baseball, though men in both sports denied these "feminine" roots.

What sport is typically thought of as a sport for girls and women, but in the Netherlands, Argentina, Pakistan, South Africa, China, and elsewhere is a popular sport for boys and men?

For example, most Americans typically think that field hockey is a sport for girls and women. In the United States, there are no programs for high school boys or college men, although there is a national team, as well as club teams, and a semi-professional league. But in the Netherlands, Argentina, Pakistan, South Africa, China, and other countries, men's field hockey is wildly popular. In fact, it has been an Olympic sport for men since 1908, whereas women first competed on the Olympic stage in 1980.

What criteria does the IOC consider when making a decision whether to add a sport to the Olympic program?

For the IOC to consider adding a sport to the Olympic program, that sport must have an official international governing body, a requisite number of national governing bodies, a history of international championships, and, for women, must be played in at least forty countries on three continents. (For men, it must be played in at least seventy-five countries on four continents—a discrepancy that indicates women lag behind on a global scale.)

Title IX has not impacted all girls and women the same way. Identify four ways that some girls and women have not benefited from Title IX.

Girls in less privileged urban and rural areas do not have the same athletic opportunities as those in suburban and affluent schools and school districts. girls and women of color do not reap the same Title IX benefits as their white peers. " nationwide, 40 percent of heavily minority schools have large 'female opportunity gaps,' compared to only 16 percent of heavily white schools." The Institute for Diversity and Ethics in Sport's annual survey established that in 2015-2016, white women represented 72.6 percent of NCAA student-athletes across all divisions. In comparison, Latinas represented 5.1 percent of NCAA student-athletes, Asians/Pacific Islanders 2.4 percent, Native Americans 0.4 percent, At 9.3 percent of all NCAA student-athletes -Girls' athletic participation is further influenced by cultural, familial, and religious values. -Financial pressures may be such that families lack the money, time, or transportation required for athletic participation.

What were some of the "limited sporting activities" (p. 10) of women in ancient Greece and Rome?

Greek mythologies include tales of athletic women and goddesses, such as Artemis (the Roman Diana), goddess of the hunt, and an expert archer. The Amazons, a legendary tribe of warrior women in Greek mythology, were skilled at riding horses, fighting, and archery (DC Comics' Wonder Woman is an Amazonian descendent). In his epic poem The Odyssey, Homer describes a ball game played by Nausisca and her maidens. And Atalanta was a formidable, if mythological athlete who regularly bested men in hunting and wrestling. Hoping to avoid marriage and confident in her abilities, she declared that she would only wed the man who could beat her in a footrace. With that, Aphrodite, goddess of love, gifted three golden apples to a desperate Melanion, who tossed them at Atalanta's feet during the race, thus distracting her enough to win the race and her hand in marriage. Greek women did not compete at or attend events like Olympic Games,Panhellenic Games , Isthmian Games,Nemean Games and the ideology of separate spheres—which assigned men to public life and confined women to matters of the home—precluded most Greek women's athletic engagement.

Does sexual discrimination exist in countries that do not criminalize same-sex sexual contact?

Homophobic attitudes and practices exist even in ostensibly progressive countries. In South Africa, for instance, same-sex marriage is legal, and the constitution outlaws discrimination based on sexual orientation. Yet, LGBT South Africans face constant threats. This includes "corrective rape," a hate crime based on the belief that sexual violence will "correct" or cure individuals of their alleged orientation.

Who introduced sport to Smith College 1892, just one year after Jaimes Naismith invented basketball

In 1892, one year after Naismith invented basketball, Senda Berenson introduced the sport at Smith College. Basketball quickly became popular and spread throughout the country's colleges, high schools, Young Women's Christian Associations (YWCAs), and settlement homes.

What impact has Title IX had on girl's and women's participation in high school and collegiate sport?

In 1971, 300,000 American girls—one in twenty-seven—played high school sports. By 2017, on the occasion of Title IX's forty-fifth anniversary, that participation rate had increased tenfold. More than 3 million girls—two in five—counted themselves as high school athletes. Title IX has also significantly influenced women's participation in intercollegiate sports. In 1971, fewer than 30,000 women played varsity athletics. In 1982, the year that the NCAA took over the governance of intercollegiate women's sports, there were 73,351 college women athletes. As Title IX turned forty-five, that number had grown to 211,862, a sevenfold increase since the pre-Title IX era.

How does homophobia affect women's sport?

In addition to societal fears of violence and discrimination, homophobia in sport affects women in powerful ways. In 1998, sport activist and scholar Pat Griffin published her groundbreaking book, Strong Women, Deep Closets: Lesbians

Lucy Slowe

Many public facilities maintained the color line as well. Consequently, in 1916, a collective of African American professionals formed the American Tennis Association (ATA). Lucy Slowe was the first ATA female champion and, throughout the 1920s, women such as Lula Ballard, Isadore Channels, and Ora Washington jockeyed for ascendancy.

Magaret and Roumania Peters

Margaret and Roumaina Peters were shining examples of "race pride." The sisters ruled the ATA courts from the late 1930s to the early 1950s, and they attended Alabama's segregated Tuskegee Institute (now Tuskegee University) on athletic scholarships. At a time when women physical educators of all races and ethnicities shunned highly competitive sports programs, Tuskegee was a rarity. It was also a great success. Between 1937 and 1951, Tuskegee's Tigerettes track program dominated AAU competition, winning fourteen of fifteen outdoor titles and five of six indoor titles.

In what ways are things getting better for lesbian, gay, bisexual, and queer athletes? What role have athletes, sponsors, leagues, and other organizations played in that process?

More lesbian, gay, bisexual, and queer athletes are open about their sexuality than ever before. And a number of out lesbian athletes, including Martina Navratilova, Brittney Griner, Amelie Mauresmo, Rosie Jones, Abby Wambach, and Megan Rapinoe, have secured endorsement deals that would have been impossible in the twentieth century. Part of the attraction of signing lesbian athletes has to do with the lure of "pink dollars" or the purchasing power of the LGBT community. Throughout her storied tennis career, Navratilova had difficulty finding sponsorship deals. It was not until her 2000 Subaru commercial that the corporate world finally recognized her potential, after the car company established that it had a significant lesbian following and launched a campaign specifically aimed at lesbian consumers.

Greek Sports

Pausanias, writing in 175 CE, described maidens running short footraces in the Herean Games, staged in honor of the goddess Hera. In the Greek city-state of Sparta, girls and women exercised to prepare them for motherhood and to bear and care for healthy offspring. Spartan girls raced, wrestled, and threw the discus and javelin. The colony of Cyrene on the northern coast of Africa also boasted accomplished women athletes.

"Perhaps no woman in tennis has borne the brunt of nasty comments about her body more than _________________."

Perhaps no woman in tennis has borne the brunt of nasty comments about her body more than Serena Williams. Just as affronts to Mauresmo were tinged with homophobia, the vitriol hurled at Williams has as much to do with race as it does gender (or what queer black feminist Moya Bailey calls misogynoir to describe the convergence of racism and misogyny).

Homophobia

Psychologist George Weinberg coined the term homophobia in the late 1960s, and it has come mean negative attitudes, prejudice, or discrimination against gay, lesbian, bisexual, and queer individuals and groups. Critics of the term argue that "phobia" implies an individual's irrational, psychological fear rather than a larger systemic and cultural issue, such as racism or sexism,

Roman Sports

Roman citizens watched rather than something in which they participated. Men and women flocked to gladiator contests and chariot racing during this time. There is evidence that a few women fought as gladiators, but the combatants were primarily men.

Gender vs. Sex

Sex refers to biological or physiological characteristics that define male and female. sex does not always align neatly according to the male-female binary, but we typically think of it in that way. Gender has to do with the socially constructed roles, understandings, and expectations we have about how boys, girls, men, and women should look, think, and act. Gender, then, relates to masculinity and femininity or, more accurately, masculinities and femininities. It may be helpful to think in terms of gender roles, gender identities, and gender expressions, some of which enjoy greater privilege than others.

What is the "skirt theory"? How does that theory manifest in today's culture?

Some sports are marked by the lingering effects of the "skirt theory," built on the idea that the only sports acceptable for women at the turn of the twentieth century were those in which competitors could wear lengthy cumbersome garments, such as golf, archery, and croquet.

What are the associations between muscularity, manliness, and masculinity? And how do those associations affect girls and women?

Strong and noticeably muscular women, then, confuse traditionally gendered ways of thinking. Critics accuse muscular women of taking steroids, of being unattractive, or of being men. As a result, some women employ apologetic strategies to mitigate the supposed incongruity between their brawn and their femininity, and the fear of developing "manly" muscles has long served as a powerful way to dissuade girls and women from pursuing sport or developing their fullest physical potential.

Tennessee State Tigerbelles

Tennessee Agricultural and Industrial State College (now Tennessee State University) borrowed liberally from Tuskegee's program to develop the next preeminent track program in the nation. In 1955, with a team of just six athletes, Tennessee State won its first national AAU championship. The Tigerbelles would go on to defend that title every year from 1956 to 1968, losing the 1969 championship by just 1 point. Between 1948 and 1968, Tigerbelles accounted for twenty-five of the forty medals that US women won in track and field. Among them was the incomparable Wilma Rudolph, who won a bronze medal at the Melbourne Games of 1956 and three gold medals at the 1960 Olympic Games in Rome.

What invention of the 1880s led women finding "new physical, political, and sartorial freedoms"? What were some of these freedoms?

The invention of the safety bicycle (so named for its safety features, including front and rear wheels of equal size) led to the cycling boom of the 1880s. Six-day bicycle races replaced pedestrian events while, outside of competitions, women found new physical, political, and sartorial freedoms astride a bike.

medevial europe after fall of romans

The aristocracy delighted in medieval tournaments, in which women played auxiliary roles. Outside these tournaments, aristocratic women joined in field sports, such as hunting, horseback riding, hawking, and falconry. Middle-class women, it seems, were restricted to the role of spectator as men competed in archery, running, jumping, and wrestling contests. For the peasantry, sport happened during fairs and seasonal festivals. Women ran smock races (footraces that awarded smocks to the winners) and took part in folk football—a wild, no-holds-barred precursor to soccer, rugby, and American football.

"What counts as a sport also tends to favor those activities ________________________ and in accordance with what we think as _______________________________________________________." (p. 6)

What counts as a sport also tends to favor those activities invented by and for men and in accordance with what we think of as "masculine" attributes, such as strength, power, and aggression.

1920s as sport's "golden decade."

While it is true that many sporting heroes made their mark during this era, it was also a time of racial segregation, ethnic prejudice, and rank sexism.

"______________ face multiple and intersection forms of discrimination based on sex, gender, race, ethnicity, and often social class."

Women of color faced multiple and intersecting forms of discrimination based on sex, gender, race, ethnicity, and often social class.

"Women's rights are not just about women--they are about _______________________________________" (p. 5).

Women's rights are not just about women—they are about maximizing the potential of an entire community.

"Youth sports league and organizations that insist upon separation typically base the decision on _____________ and ________________."

Youth sports leagues and organizations that insist upon separation typically base the decision on social reasons and misinformation.

McDonagh and Pappano call for ____________ segregation rather than ______________ segregation.

against coercive sex segregation—that is, mandating separate teams, leagues, organizations, and competitions for male and female athletes. They are in favor of voluntary segregation, but they maintain that obligatory, institutionalized segregation perpetuates sex role stereotypes, limits women's opportunities, and relegates women to second-class status in sport and society. Instead, the authors propose a gender-neutral view and increased opportunities for coed participation at every level of sport. "There are physical biological differences between the sexes," McDonagh and Pappano concede, "but they are not as great as we have supposed, and the female difference is not necessarily a lacking.

Describe the "industry leagues."

athletics sponsored by an industry (e.g., insurance companies, banks, textile companies, and bottling plants), designed to benefit both employees and the business. The theory behind providing athletic opportunities was that they made for healthy, happy, and loyal workers, and helped advertise the company. Industrial sports for women began to take off in the 1920s and continued through the 1960s as teams and individuals competed in tennis, bowling, volleyball, baseball, softball, track and field, swimming, golf, and field hockey. Basketball was especially popular, and without industrial teams, Emery argues, the Amateur Athletic Union's (AAU) national women's basketball championship, first held in 1926, could not have survived.

As of May 2017, how many countries had criminal laws against same-sex sexual contact?

in May 2017 there were seventy-two countries with criminal laws against same-sex sexual contact. In Sudan, Iran, Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Mauritania, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Qatar, United Arab Emirates, as well as parts of Nigeria, Somalia, Syria, and Iraq, same-sex sexual contact is punishable by death. Still other countries have introduced laws forbidding LGBT "promotion." Russia, for example, banned the "propaganda of non traditional sexual relations" just one year before it was set to host the 2014 Winter Olympic Games.

What is the "muscle gap" in relation to women's and men's sport? What are some example of how women are "closing the gap"?

in the 1970s and 1980s, experts began to speculate that women were closing the "muscle gap." They forecast that women's performances were improving at such a rapid rate that they would soon equal, if not surpass, those of their male counterparts. Yet, the precipitous change was largely due to the fact that women were finally gaining access to coaching, training, equipment, sport science, and competitions, and by 1983, women's improvements started to level off. Since then, according to a 2010 study in the Journal of Sports Science and Medicine, the average performance gap between the best men's and women's performances has stabilized at about 10 percent.This varies according to the sport. The difference between the best men's and women's performances in the 800-meter freestyle swimming event is 5.5 percent, but in weightlifting, the top men outperform the top women by 36.8 percent.

What are some ways that "sport profoundly affects our daily lives" (p. 2)?

provides opportunities for physical activity and teaches important values, including a strong work ethic, teamwork, commitment, determination, leadership, goal setting, how to recover from setbacks and failure, how to perform under pressure, and the pursuit of excellence. Girls who play sport, in comparison to their non-sporting peers, show lower risks for obesity, certain cancers, diabetes, and osteoporosis.less likely to engage in risk-taking behavior, including smoking, illicit drug use, and risky or unprotected sex, and they are are less likely to become unintentionally pregnant

Heterosexism

represents an ideological system that denigrates non-heterosexual behaviors, identities, relationships, and communities.

In Colonial America

sporting practices were tied to geography, religion, ruling ideology, and social hierarchy. The Puritans of New England, for example, censured blood sports and gambling, but these and other pastimes prospered elsewhere in the colonies.The necessities and adverse conditions associated with settlement, homesteading, and frontier life often precluded sport as we think of it today. Still, women and men raced horses and boats, played games, and gambled on blood sports and other pastimes. Native American women participated in physical contests, footraces, and ball games. Later, enslaved women recalled African traditions and forged new recreational activities on those rare occasions they found themselves with respite from toil. Combative activities, such as boxing and wrestling, held multiple meanings during the era of slavery. Such pursuits were a way to assert status, played out in courtship rituals, and provided occasions for personal expression and entertainment. Importantly, combat sports were also a means through which individuals could resist violence and oppression.

against women in bycicle

women to lose their composure, to push their bodies in harmful and unseemly ways, and that cycling would lead to unchaperoned escapades with morally suspect suitors. Critics issued warnings about potential spinal deformities, uterine displacement, damage to women's reproductive organs, and the masturbatory effects of riding astride. Among the most preposterous arguments was that women would develop "bicycle face," a supposedly permanent condition marked by bulging eyes and clenched jaw.

Describe what gender equity is and how it informs an answer to the question: "Do we still need Title IX?"

"An athletics program can be considered gender equitable when the participants in both the men's and women's sports programs would accept as fair and equitable the overall program of the other gender." In other words, if a men's and a women's team were to swap funding, resources, coaching, and all aspects of the other's program, would both sides be satisfied? When the answer is "yes," across all sports, the athletic program is gender equitable. Simply stated, high school and college sports are still not equitable with regard to sex. In addition, boys' and men's programs continue to receive more funding, attention, and enjoy higher levels of prestige. Women lag behind in positions of power, including coaching and administrative positions (see Chapter 9). And, even after more than four decades of Title IX, the law is constantly under threat. Ideally, Title IX would not be necessary, but until gender equity is uniformly championed, accepted, and achieved, we cannot afford to lose it.

According to Pat Griffin, "femininity is a code word for ________________."

"Femininity," writes Griffin, "is a code word for heterosexuality"

Explain the three general aspects of Title IX as they pertain to athletics.

1.Participation: There must be equal opportunities for male and female students to participate in sports. This does not mean identical sports but, rather, equal participation spots. Football, with approximately 100 participation opportunities, tends to skew the numbers because there are no female equivalent sports that require that many team members. 2.Scholarships: At scholarship-granting colleges and universities, male and female student athletes must receive scholarship dollars proportional to their participation. 3.Other benefits: Sometimes called a "laundry list," these benefits include equitable (not necessarily equal) treatment in the provision of equipment and supplies; scheduling of games and practice times; travel and daily allowances or per diems; access to tutoring; coaching; locker rooms and practice and competitive facilities; medical and training facilities and services; housing and dining facilities and services; publicity and promotions; support services; and recruitment of student athletes.

What does Schultz mean when she says rule differences between women's and men's sport is gendered?

A number of sports have different rules for men and women, and they are "gendered" when the differences relate to dominant ideas about masculinity and femininity. The differences between men's and women's tennis are therefore gendered because they reflect beliefs about women's physical capabilities.

"Accustomed to the strain of working-class life and often shut off from the genteel sports of the elite classes _______________ and ______________ necessarily subscribed to different ideas about gender appropriateness."

Accustomed to the strain of working-class life and often shut off from the genteel sports of the elite classes, women of color and working-class women necessarily subscribed to different ideas about gender appropriateness.

What challenges exist in the acronyms used to identify sexualities?

Among the most common are LGBT (lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender), LGBTQ (where "Q" stands for queer or questioning), LGBTQIA (where "I" stands for intersex and "A" for either asexual or allied), and LGBT+ or LGBTQIA+, in which the "+" signifies the inclusiveness of gender and sexual identities not otherwise encapsulated by the anchoring acronym. Some advocates have offered LGBTQQIP2SAA as a dizzying abbreviation for lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, questioning, intersex, pansexual, two spirit, asexual, and allies. Others have reclaimed the once derogatory use of "queer" and recommend its use as a simplified umbrella term. Yet, as scholar-activist Dennis Altman argues, these terms, in an attempt to be inclusive, become almost meaningless and ultimately hide "the complex interconnections of desire, behaviour and identity in everyday life."11

"During the Victorian era, ___________________________ found themselves bound by dictates of gentility."

During the Victorian era (named for England's Queen Victoria, 1837-1901), white middle- and upper-class women found themselves bound by dictates of gentility.

woman playing baseball

From 1866 to 1935, according to historian Gai Ingham Berlage, girls and women thrived in amateur, semi-professional, and professional baseball.12 In the nineteenth and early twentieth century, college women took to intramural baseball with great enthusiasm. Working-class women of all religions, races, and ethnicities enjoyed the sport, and many joined barnstorming teams that toured the country to take on competitors at every stop. Several women played minor league baseball with men, including seventeen-year-old pitcher Virne Beatrice "Jackie" Mitchell, who pitched for the Chattanooga, Tennessee, Lookouts in 1931. In an exhibition game against the New York Yankees, Mitchell allegedly struck out both Babe Ruth and Lou Gehrig. Days later, Major League Baseball (MLB) commissioner Kenesaw Mountain Landis voided her contract on the grounds that the sport was "too strenuous to be played by women."

What are the "three Is" that have been used to historically segregate sport by sex?

In Playing With the Boys: Why Separate Is Not Equal, scholars Eileen McDonagh and Laura Pappano argue that there have been "three I's" historically used to justify sex segregation in sport: Women's physical differences from men are interpreted to mean that females are athletically inferior to men, that women will be injured if they "play with the boys," and that sex-integrated sports programs, particularly in contact sports, such as wrestling, are immoral by virtue of the close physical contact required or simply by virtue of the damaging results some believe such policies portend for society in general.

At the collegiate level, too, various factions debate whether cheerleading is a sport. In 2010, a federal district judge in Connecticut ruled it was not a sport and that Quinnipiac University violated Title IX by dropping its women's volleyball team to promote competitive cheer to varsity status

In response a number of schools banded together to form the National Collegiate Stunts and Tumbling Association (now the National Collegiate Acrobatics and Tumbling Association [NCATA]) and changed the name of their sport from competitive cheer to acrobatics and tumbling. In light of this circuitous evolution of cheerleading, it was somewhat surprising that in 2016 the IOC voted to provisionally recognize it as an Olympic sport.

What historical events took place in the 1940s, 1950s, 1960s, and early 1970s that led to physical educators to transform their philosophy about sport for girls and women?

In the 1940s and 1950s, a new generation of physical educators and students began to push for more competitive athletics. After studying the issue, physical educators conceded to the prevailing attitudes of the time, and a number of schools started offering varsity women's sports. In the Cold War era that followed World War II, the US Olympic Committee also began to reconsider its apathy toward women's sports, as American teams found themselves at a disadvantage in international competitions against Soviet and other Eastern Bloc countries that developed and promoted female athletics.n 1967, the American Association for Health, Physical Education, and Recreation's (now the American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance) Division for Girls and Women's Sports established the Commission on Intercollegiate Athletics for Women that, in 1971, became the Association for Intercollegiate Athletics for Women (AIAW), designed to govern, structure, and provide championships in women's college sport. The AIAW differed significantly from the NCAA, which, at the time, had no interest in governing women's athletics. The AIAW opposed the NCAA's commercial stance and instead adopted an explicitly educational philosophy that included minimizing travel during the week so that student-athletes could focus on their studies, allowing athletes to transfer schools without penalty, and, initially, prohibiting off-campus recruiting and athletic scholarships. Combined with the burgeoning women's movement and the enactment of Title IX (see Chapter 3), the 1970s was a revolutionary period in the history of women's sport. By 1980, the AIAW had nearly 1,000 institutional members, provided participation opportunities for approximately 125,000 college women, and offered 35 national championships in 17 sports. During this time, the NCAA, which repeatedly opposed Title IX throughout the 1970s, made motions to take over the governance of women's intercollegiate athletics.

What is "deliberate indifference" and how does it relate to Title IX cases and university athletics?

Investigators have since found that athletic administrators "affirmatively chose not to report sexual violence" to school and police officials, opting to protect the program's reputation rather than the safety of the accusers and the student body. The report concluded that "institutional failures at every level of Baylor's administration impacted the response to individual cases and the Baylor community as a whole."15

Is there compelling evidence that "sex sells women's sport"? Consider examples related to LPGA, WTA, and FIFA.

It is very sexualized In the spirit of selling sex, former FIFA president Sepp Blatter once remarked that women soccer players should "play in more feminine clothes like they do in volleyball. They could, for example, have tighter shorts." This was from a man who considered himself the "godfather" of the women's game. But does sex really sell women's sport? Signs point to no. It turns out that emphasizing athletes' sexuality does little to increase audience interest in or respect for women's sport. Furthermore, as one study determined, the "sex sells" approach also offends women and older men, two core constituents in the fan base for women's sports. In short, the study concluded that "sex sells sex, not women's sports."

How was the Lingerie Football League developed? Was it, and comparable spin-offs, successful?

It started with advertising executive Mitchell Mortaza, who thought that women playing tackle football in lacy bras, bikini bottoms, and garters (in addition to helmets and pads) would be a good way to fill the halftime of the 2004 Super Bowl. From a financial perspective, Mortaza was correct. Millions of viewers paid $19.95 each to watch a lingerie fashion show followed by the seven-on-seven Lingerie Bowl. In 2009, Mortaza expanded the halftime game into a league, with teams that included the Philadelphia Passion, the Dallas Desire, and the San Diego Seduction. Like-minded entrepreneurs established the short-lived Lingerie Basketball League (2011-2012) and have proposed a frostbite-inspiring Bikini Hockey League. In 2013, LFL executives rebranded the organization the Legends Football League, but the clothing and, arguably, the mentality behind it did not change very much. What is more, the LFL classifies its players as independent contractors rather than employees. As a result, it does not pay the players (in fact, the players actually pay to play) or offer workers' compensation, insurance, or health care, leaving the women, especially those who become injured, financially strapped.

What were "settlement homes" and how did they contribute to women's sport?

Settlement homes also offered educational, social, and recreational prospects to local communities. The Dennison Settlement House in Boston, for example, sponsored Chinese American women's basketball teams in the late 1920s and 1930s. A Jewish team backed by the Chicago Hebrew Institute won the 1921 Central AAU Girls' Basketball Championship, and Young Women's Hebrew Associations and similar religion-based organizations provided athletic outlets.26 In 1920s and 1930s California, Buddhist temples and Young Women's Buddhist Associations established basketball leagues and teams for Japanese American girls and women. Enthusiasm for the sport developed into "J-Leagues"—Japanese American community basketball leagues and tournaments that continue to thrive today.Athletic and country clubs, as well as clubs established for specific sports and competitions (such as figure skating and bicycle racing) regularly denied membership to African Americans, Jews, Asians, Latina/os, and those they considered of lower social standing.

What did sociologist Eric Anderson find out about co-educational experiences and mixed-sex sport after he interviewed former high school football players who went on to become collegiate cheerleaders on integrated squads?

Sociologist Eric Anderson interviewed former high school football players who went on to become collegiate cheerleaders on integrated squads. He found that the coeducational experience reduced the men's sexist beliefs and promoted their respect for the women as athletes and as individuals.5

Who was Babe Didrikson? Why is she a significant historical figure?

The most famous woman to emerge from American industrial leagues was Mildred "Babe" Didrikson (later Zaharias), who excelled in nearly every sport she tried. In 1930, as a junior in high school, Didrikson took a stenographer's position with the Employers Casualty Company of Dallas; but her real job was to play for the business's basketball team, the Golden Cyclones. During the next three years, she earned All-American honors and, in 1931, led the Cyclones to the national AAU championship.At the 1930 national AAU meet, Didrikson won the javelin and baseball throw. At the same competition the following year, she was the leading scorer, with wins in the long jump, a world-record performance in the baseball throw, and a national record in the 80-meter hurdles. The subsequent 1932 championships also served as the Olympic trials. Didrikson, the only member on the Employers Casualty team, won the shot-put, javelin, 80-meter hurdles, and baseball throw and tied for first place in the high jump to earn 30 points and the national team title—solely on her own. The second-place team, the Illinois Women's Athletic Club, included twenty-two athletes who, all together, scored 22 points. American Olympic officials limited Didrikson to three events at the 1932 Games in Los Angeles, where she won gold medals and broke world records in both the javelin and the 80-meter hurdles. She also tied for first in the high jump, but officials demoted her to silver-medal status, arguing she "dived" over the bar, which amounted to a breach of protocol but was not, apparently, a disqualifying offense. Didrikson turned to golf in the late 1930s.

Discuss how the question "Is cheerleading a sport?" is "connected to issues of power, privilege and politics" (p. 9)

The role of "cheer leader," as it originated in late nineteenth-century intercollegiate sport, was reserved for men, and there was a great deal of prestige associated with the position. "As a title to promotion in professional or public life,"In the wake of World War II, more girls and women began to cheer, and by the mid-1970s approximately 95 percent of all participants were female. It was during this time, and specifically with the passage of Title IX (discussed in Chapter 3), that the question of whether cheerleading is a sport became important. School administrators hoped they could count female cheerleaders as athletes to bolster their numbers and show compliance with the law that forbids sexual discrimination in any educational program that receives federal funds.However, the Office of Civil Rights ruled that cheerleading was an "extracurricular activity," not a sport, and that athletic departments could therefore not count cheerleaders as athletes under Title IX. collegiate cheerleading accounted for 64.8 and 70.6 percent, respectively, of all catastrophic injuries reported for girls and women in sportAccordingly, members of the American Medical Association made it a matter of policy to recognize cheerleading as a sport. The organization, along with a host of others, contends that the designation will make the activity safer by giving the athletes access to athletic trainers, equipment, and practice facilities, and by requiring proper certifications for coaches. some leaders of cheer organizations do not like this becoming a sport as This reclassification would require putting limits on eligibility, training periods, and the duration of a competitive season. The sports designation would also cut into the profits of the lucrative cheer industry, which operates independently from schools.

What are some examples of when girls have been disallowed to play sports because of the "supposed immorality of physical and social contract between male and female athletes."

The third "I" in McDonagh and Pappano's triad of rationales against sex-integrated sport has to do with the supposed immorality of physical and social contact between male and female athletes. A female presence in male sport purportedly violates its sanctity as a masculine preserve and disrupts the traditional gender order on which it stands. A female presence might also incite male arousal.

What opportunities exist specifically for LGBTQ athletes?

There are a number of competitions, teams, clubs, and leagues organized for LGBT athletes at local, regional, national, and international levels. The Gay Games, the largest international event of its kind, is based on the principles of "participation, inclusion, and personal best" and is open to all competitors of all sexual identities. Organizers originally called the competition the Gay Olympics, but just before the first games in 1982, the IOC and the United States Olympic Committee filed a lawsuit claiming exclusive rights to the word "Olympic," a move that many considered homophobic. Controversies within the Federation of Gay Games have led to the formation of the European Gay and Lesbian Sport Federation's EuroGames and the Gay and Lesbian International Sport Association's World Outgames.

"There are general physical differences between men and women but, as with any _____________________, they do not apply to everyone, and it is important to keep ____________ from veering into _______________."

There are general physical differences between men and women but, as with any generalization, they do not apply to everyone, and it is important to keep generalities from veering into stereotypes.

What sports are often considered to be "feminine" or "gender appropriate" for girls and women? What about sports "considered most masculine" for boys and men?

These tend to be individual sports that involve little physical contact between competitors while emphasizing grace, beauty, and artistic expression. It has therefore been less controversial for women to participate in sports such as tennis, gymnastics, and figure skating. The sports considered most masculine, such as boxing, football, rugby, and ice hockey, highlight aggression, collision, and violence.

What was the response of the IOC to Russia's ban of propaganda of nontraditional sexual relations prior to the 2014 Winter Olympic Games?

This led to concerns about the safety of athletes, fans, and allies who attended the games; discussions of protests and boycotts; and rebuke of the International Olympic Committee (IOC), which subsequently rewrote the Olympic Charter's nondiscrimination clause (Principle 6) to include sexual orientation.

Explain the role of Title IX to issues of sexual harassment and sexual assault?

Title IX prohibits sexual harassment and sexual violence because they are forms of sex-based discrimination. These crimes can adversely affect students' physical and mental well-being and academic performance, and they can create a hostile or abusive educational environment, thereby disturbing equal access to education and educational activities. Title IX requires schools to respond promptly, impartially, and effectively to accusations or suspicions of sexual harassment and sexual violence and to take appropriate steps to prevent sexually hostile environments. If an institution fails to adequately prevent, act on, or remedy the effects of a crime, the injured party can wage a Title IX complaint with the OCR. t does not matter if the accused or the accuser is a student or an institutional employee, or whether the misconduct takes place on or off campus. It also does not matter if the accuser or accused has any connection to sport, although a number of high-profile cases have involved athletic programs.

Does Title IX permit boys and men to play on girls' or women's teams? What are the stipulations?

Title IX typically works in favor of the sex that has the fewest opportunities—the "under-represented sex." This is not just about the sport in question but about the overall sports program. A high school boy may lobby to try out for a girls' volleyball team (provided there is no boys' team) on the grounds that boys are under-represented in volleyball at his particular school, but arbitrators would look at the entire athletic program to determine if boys have substantially fewer total sporting opportunities than girls.

Ora Washington

Washington won the ATA's national singles title eight times in nine years, and between 1929 and 1927, she won twelve consecutive doubles championships. She also excelled in basketball, playing for the Germantown Hornets, a team sponsored by a "colored" Philadelphia YWCA. Later, Washington captained a team backed by the Philadelphia Tribune, which regularly publicized the accomplishments of black sportswomen.

Does Title IX permit girls or women to play on boys' or men's teams? What are the stipulations? What is the "contact sports exemption"?

Yes, provided there is no female equivalent team. This means that if there is a girls' golf team, a girl typically cannot try out for the boys' golf team. It gets trickier in softball and baseball. Some people contend that the two sports are equivalent, but others counter that the differences in field size and dimensions, equipment, balls, rules, and strategies make them two different sports. Those who want to keep girls out of baseball also argue that it is a contact sport (LLBunsuccessfully tried this argument in the early 1970s) and should therefore fall under Title IX's contact sports exemption. Under the contact sports exemption, which includes "boxing, wrestling, rugby, ice hockey, football, basketball and other sports the purpose or major activity of which involves bodily contact," Title IX allows, but does not require, schools to let a girl or woman try out for a boys' or men's team. If the school allows her to try out and she makes the team, however, she must be treated equally to her male teammates.

"transgender"

a broad adjective used to describe people whose sex or gender identity does not match their sex assigned at birth. A transgender woman (or trans woman) is an individual assigned male at birth but who identifies as a woman; a transgender man's (or trans man's) original birth certificate indicates female, but he identifies as a man.

Is cutting men's programs (such as wrestling, swimming, gymnastics) a necessary step to comply with Title IX? Is it a recommended step? Why or why not?

but those losses also occurred between 1984 and 1988, a period during which Title IX was essentially without teeth. Cutting men's programs is not Title IX's "fault" but, rather, the consequence of those who make decisions about how to allocate resources. Indeed, dropping men's teams to comply with Title IX violates the spirit of the law. In 2003, the OCR issued a "Dear Colleague" letter addressing this issue. The document read that "nothing in Title IX requires the cutting or reduction of teams to demonstrate compliance with Title IX" and that this option was a "disfavored practice." Title IX is meant to provide opportunities, not take them away. The counterargument to these statistics is that men's basketball and football are usually the only revenue-producing sports and therefore subsidize women's athletic programs. Again, though, the numbers do not add up. In 2014, only twenty-four of the then 128 FBS schools generated more money than they spent.

What was the impact of the Civil Rights Restoration Act related to Title IX and the Grove City College v. Bell case?

in which justices ruled that Title IX only applied to specific programs that received federal funds, thus exempting most athletic departments. Within weeks of the decision, the US Department of Education closed nearly all of its investigations of complaints against college and high school athletic programs.The interpretation lasted until 1988, after Congress passed the Civil Rights Restoration Act that reversed the Grove City decision. As it stands today, if any program or student receives federal funds, the entire institution and all its programs must comply with Title IX.

Define "hyperandrogenism." How does it affect men and women? What do the stories about Caster Semenya and Dutee Chand suggest about how sport organizations think about hyperandrogenism?

is a condition in which an individual's body naturally produces high levels of androgens, or "male" hormones, notably testosterone. Both men and women produce testosterone, but women typically produce between 0.35 and 3.0 nanomoles of testosterone per liter of serum (nmol/L), whereas men produce from 10 nmol/L to 35 nmol/L. Hyperandrogenism affects men and women, but athletic authorities are only concerned with women who have "too much" testosterone—not men.This is at the low end of what is considered the "normal" male range and above the "normal" female range. Women diagnosed as hyperandrogenic can submit to testosterone-suppression treatments to bring them below the 10 nmol/L threshold before applying for readmittance to women's athletics. The IOC passed the same regulations in 2012.

Why is the phrase "throwing like a girl" typically seen as an insult to men and boys?

is typically used to insult boys and men by suggesting they lack the ability to throw effectively and, by extension, to impugn their masculinity.Scientists have determined that most of the differences between the ways that men and women throw are due to experience. Boys tend to learn to throw at an early age and are encouraged to practice the skill as they grow up. It is not the same for girls, who are less likely to learn to throw properly when they are young and do not have the same opportunities to cultivate proper throwing techniques.

List and describe a few of the examples of sex-integrated sport that Schultz includes.

mixed-sex sports that are structured to require both male and female participation. Examples of mixed-sex sports include paired figure skating; ice dancing; mixed doubles in tennis, curling, and badmintonand mixed team events and relays in biathlon, curling, alpine skiing, and luge. As discussed in Chapter 7, the IOC has added additional mixed-sex events to the Olympic program. These competitions are built upon distinguishing between men and women and making sure they are equally represented. Other sports, such as horse racing and dogsledding, are ostensibly gender-neutral, though few women compete at the highest ranks (notable exceptions include jockeys Julie Krone, Rosemary Homeister, and Tammi Piermarini and four-time Iditarod champion Susan Butcher). At the 2016 Olympic Games, women and men only competed against one another in sailing's Nacra 17 and equestrian events. Women have performed especially well in the equestrian discipline of dressage. Anky van Grunsven is the only rider to win gold in dressage in three successive Games (2000, 2004, and 2008), and at the 2016 Games, Charlotte Dujardin, Isabell Werth, and Kristin Bröring-Sprehe swept the event's individual medal count.

Was rebranding into the Legends Football League also mark a transition into a viable and sustainable professional women's sport league?

n 2013, LFL executives rebranded the organization the Legends Football League, but the clothing and, arguably, the mentality behind it did not change very much. What is more, the LFL classifies its players as independent contractors rather than employees. As a result, it does not pay the players (in fact, the players actually pay to play) or offer workers' compensation, insurance, or health care, leaving the women, especially those who become injured, financially strapped.

"Following the fall of the Roman Empire, sport in medieval Europe was divided strictly along ______________.

was divided strictly along class lines.

The Renaissance originated in Italy

women of this era ice skated; played stoolball and other ball games; boxed; and raced by foot, horse, and boat (in Venice). Noble women enjoyed sport as well. Mary Queen of Scotland hunted, Katherine of Aragon golfed, and Anne Boleyn was an archer.3

"Women who adopted so-called manly characteristic or pursued allegedly manly pursuits ______________ the established gender norms. In the process, they _______________ and often ____________ those norms to re-define femininity."

women who adopted so-called manly characteristics or pursued allegedly manly pursuits transgressed the established gender norms. In the process, they challenged and often transformed those norms to redefine femininity.

In bodybuilding, "women who do not fit the slim, toned aesthetic find it more difficult to ____________________________."

women who do not fit the slim, toned aesthetic find it more difficult to secure endorsements.