World History; 1945-Present Timeline

2002

American Catholic church is scandalized by sexual abuse accusations against U.S. priests and accusation cover-ups by senior church officials. U.S. journalist Daniel Pearl (1963-2002) is kidnapped and murdered in Karachi, Pakistan by Islamic terrorists. JANUARY 2: Twelve more European nations establish the "Euro" as their national currency. (See also: European Union) JANUARY 10: The United States sends first al-Qaeda and Taliban prisoners to a holding facility at U.S. Naval Base Guantanamo Bay, Cuba. JANUARY 18: U.S. National Academy of Sciences announces its opposition to human reproductive cloning, but supports the harvesting of embryonic stem cells for medical research. JANUARY 29: U.S. president George W. Bush declares Iran, Iraq, and North Korea an "axis of evil" in his first State of the Union address. FEBRUARY: In response to increased suicide bombings by Palestinian terrorists, Israeli troops surround the Palestinian Authority headquarters in Ramallah demanding expulsion of Yasir Arafat (1929-2004). FEBRUARY 12: Former Yugoslavian president Slobodan Milošević's (1941-2006) trial for war crimes begins at The Hague. FEBRUARY 22: More than 25 years of Angolan civil war ends when UNITA rebel forces surrender to the Angolan government after rebel leader Jonas Savimbi (1934-2002) is killed in battle. FEBRUARY 22: Sri Lankan government and Tamil Tiger guerillas sign a peace treaty after 19 years of civil war. FEBRUARY 26: The Arab League approves Saudi Arabian peace proposal to extend unrestricted relations to Israel contingent upon Israeli withdrawal from occupied territories. FEBRUARY 27: A Muslim mob fire-bombs a train filled with Hindu activists in Gujarat, India; 1,000 killed in the bombing and ensuing Hindu retaliation. (See also: India) APRIL 11: The United States rejects ratification of the International Criminal Court (ICC) despite UN ratification. APRIL 12: Venezuelan president Hugo Chávez is forced to resign during a coup only to be reinstated two days later. MAY 5: French president Jacques Chirac is reelected in a landslide victory; he survives an assassination attempt by a student two months later. MAY 13: United States and Russia agree to cut two-thirds of nuclear arsenals over the next 10 years. (See also: arms control) MAY 16: Jan Balkenende is elected prime minister of the Netherlands. MAY 19: Sierra Leonean president Ahmad Tejan Kabbah wins a landslide reelection. MAY 20: East Timor becomes an independent nation; Xanana Gusmão is elected president, and Mari Alkatiri becomes prime minister. MAY 26: Lawyer Álvaro Uribe is elected president of Columbia; 14 people are killed by rebel forces during his inauguration several months later. JUNE 13: Hamid Karzai is elected president of Afghanistan). JULY: Northern Arabs and southern Christians in the Sudan sign a cease-fire agreement halting 19 years of civil war. JULY 3: American author Alice Sebold publishes The Lovely Bones. JULY 6: Afghan vice president Abdul Qadir (1956-2002) is assassinated in Kabul. JULY 11: French scientists report the discovery of a 7-million-year-old skull in Chad, Africa believed to be from a common ancestor of humans and chimpanzees. (See also: human evolution) JULY 16: The Irish Republican Army (IRA) officially apologizes to the families of 650 civilians killed in violence between Catholics and Protestants in Northern Ireland. JULY 25: U.S. corporate reform bill is passed in the wake of multiple corporate scandals; Enron, WorldCom, Tyco, Qwest, Global Crossing, ImClone, and Adelphia, among others, are placed under federal investigation for fraud and faulty accounting. JULY 30: Democratic Republic of the Congo signs another series of cease-fire agreements with Rwanda and Uganda despite continuing hostilities. AUGUST: President of Zimbabwe Robert Gabriel Mugabe orders approximately 3,000 white land owners to vacate land without compensation under his new land redistribution policy; he is reelected president in a controversial election on August 8. SEPTEMBER: The Cathedral of Our Lady of the Angels, designed by Spanish architect Jose Rafael Moneo, opens in Los Angeles, California amid protests due to continuing Catholic church sex scandals. (See also: Roman Catholic Church) SEPTEMBER 16: Former communist Branko Crvenkovski is elected prime minister of Macedonia. SEPTEMBER 17: Scientists discover a galaxy and a new type of black hole using the Hubble Space Telescope. SEPTEMBER 19: Deposed Ivory Coast president General Robert Guei (1941-2002) and his interior minister Emile Boga Doudou (1952-2002) are killed during an attempted military coup. SEPTEMBER 22: German chancellor Gerhard Schroeder is reelected in a close race with conservative Edmund Stoiber. OCTOBER: Britain reassumes rule of Northern Ireland when the governing assembly is suspended in protest of a suspected Irish Republican Army (IRA) spy ring. OCTOBER 10: Hungarian author and former Auschwitz prisoner Imre Kertész wins the Nobel Prize in literature. OCTOBER 12: 202 vacationers and workers are killed in Kuta, Bali when Islamic terrorists explode a car bomb outside a local club. OCTOBER 23-26: Chechen rebels detain 763 hostages in a Moscow theater demanding an end to war in Chechnya; Russian forces release a gas in the theater, killing the rebels and 117 hostages. NOVEMBER 6: Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva is elected president of Brazil. NOVEMBER 18: UN weapons inspectors are permitted to return to Iraq after a UN resolution is passed demanding that Iraq disarm or face "serious consequences." NOVEMBER 19: The oil tanker Prestige sinks off the coast of Spain and begins leaking oil from a 20-million-gallon cargo. NOVEMBER 24: Austrian chancellor Wolfgang Schuessel is reelected after breaking ties with the right-wing Freedom Party in September. (See also: Jörg Haider) DECEMBER 5: Scientists map the differences between mice and human genomes and discover that the two genetic structures are very similar. (See also: Human Genome Project) DECEMBER 7: British composer Nicholas Maw (1935-) premieres his opera Sophie's Choice at Covent Garden. DECEMBER 19: Roh Moo Hyun is elected president of South Korea. DECEMBER 27: Mwai Kibaki is elected president of the Republic of Kenya.

1950

Chilean poet Pablo Neruda (1904-73) publishes his epic General Song. British novelist Doris Lessing publishes The Grass is Singing. Soviet Union and China sign a treaty of alliance and co-operation. North Korean forces invade South Korea and start the Korean War; UN troops land at Ichon, liberate Seoul, and invade North Korea; China sends troops to aid North Korea. Jordan annexes the West Bank and east Jerusalem. Viet Minh forces under Ho Chi Minh defeat the French at the Battle of Cao Bang in Vietnam. Chinese invade Tibet. India becomes a federal republic with Jawaharlal Nehru (1889-1964) as prime minister. Gustav VI (1882-1973) becomes king of Sweden. French foreign minister Robert Schuman (1886-1963) proposes a plan for the integration of the French and German coal and steel industries.

1976

Deaths of Mao Zedong (b.1893) and Prime Minister Zhou Enlai (b.1898) cause a leadership crisis in China. U.S. Viking probes send back pictures from the surface of Mars. Legionnaire's disease is identified in the United States. U.S. novelist Paul Theroux (1941-) publishes The Family Arsenal. Coup overthrows Isabel Perón in Argentina. U.S. author Alex Haley (1921-92) publishes Roots: The Saga of an American Family. Schoolchildren demonstrating in Soweto are killed by South African security forces. Israeli commandos raid Entebbe airport in Uganda to free hijacked passengers. Jimmy Carter is elected U.S. president. Seychelles becomes independent. U.S. linguist Noam Chomsky publishes Reflections on Language.

1985

French secret agents blow up the Greenpeace ship Rainbow Warrior in New Zealand. Headquarters of the Hong Kong and Shanghai Bank , designed by British architect Norman Foster, opens in Hong Kong. German novelist Patrick Süskind publishes Perfume. International whaling commission bans commercial whaling. Famine in Ethiopia is partially alleviated by funds raised by the international Live Aid pop concert. US and the EC impose economic sanctions against South Africa. Earthquake devastates Mexico City. Palestinian terrorists hijack the cruise ship Achille Lauro and attack Israeli airline desks at Rome and Vienna airports. Spain re-opens its border with Gibraltar. Mikhail Gorbachev becomes general secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.

2004

JANUARY 3: US space rover Spirit lands on Mars and sends vivid pictures back to earth; second U.S. rover Opportunity lands on Mars on January 25. JANUARY 4: Lawyer Mikhail Saakashvili is elected president of Georgia. JANUARY 4: Afghan leaders of the loya jirga approve a new constitution establishing a two-chamber parliament, an office of the president, equal rights for women, and a new name for the nation—the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan. JANUARY 9: Former Iraqi president Saddam Hussein (1937-2006) is designated a prisoner of war by the U.S. Department of Defense. JANUARY 14: Iran's religious Guardian Council bars reformist candidates from running in parliamentary elections; President Mohammad Khatami announces his entire administration will resign in protest, prompting the council to reinstate candidates. JANUARY 23: CIA chief weapons inspector David Kay steps down announcing that his team failed to find evidence of biological, chemical, or nuclear weapons in Iraq; Kay asserts the need for an investigation into U.S. intelligence reports before the war in Iraq. FEBRUARY 3: Abdul Qadeer Khan, the creator of Pakistan's nuclear bomb, admits to having sold nuclear secrets to North Korea, Iran, and Libya in the 1980s and 1990s. To the shock of much of the international community, he is pardoned by President Pervez Musharraf. FEBRUARY 6: Under political pressure, U.S. president George W. Bush creates a bipartisan commission to investigate intelligence reports cited as the cause for the Iraq war. FEBRUARY 24: Russian president Vladimir Putin fires the prime minister and his Cabinet just before presidential elections; Viktor Khristenko becomes acting prime minister. FEBRUARY 24: An earthquake in Morocco causes hundreds of deaths. FEBRUARY 29: Jean-Bertrand Aristide, Haiti's first democratically-elected president, is ousted from power and forced into exile after weeks of violent protest against his regime. MARCH 11: Multiple bombs explode in commuter trains in Madrid, Spain, killing 202 people and injuring 1,400. Terrorists linked to al-Qaeda are suspected. APRIL 30: U.S. and international media outlets release photos showing American troops committing acts of extreme physical abuse and sexual humiliation against Iraqi prisoners at the Abu Ghraib prison. MAY 1: 10 new countries join the European Union (EU): Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, the Slovak Republic, and Slovenia. MAY 12: News organizations report that Nicholas Berg, an American civilian in Iraq, has been beheaded by Islamic extremists; a videotape of Berg's execution is shown worldwide. MAY 17: Same-sex marriage becomes legal in Massachusetts following a November 2003 ruling by the state's supreme court that banning same-sex marriage would violate the state constitution. JUNE 5: Ronald Reagan, 40th president of the United States, dies at age 93. JUNE 18: Croatia becomes a candidate country for the European Union, with 2009 as its expected year of induction. JUNE 21: SpaceShipOne, the first privately-funded, manned spacecraft, launches to a distance of 62 miles above the earth. JUNE 28: Paul Bremer, head of the U.S.-led coalition in Iraq, officially transfers sovereignty to an interim government led by Prime Minister Iyad Allawi. JUNE 28: The U.S. Supreme Court rules in Rasul v. Bush that inmates detained by the U.S. government at the Guantanamo Bay prison in Cuba are legally entitled to challenge their imprisonment. The ruling contradicts the Bush administration's position that it has the right to detain indefinitely anyone it identifies as an enemy combatant. JULY 9: In a unanimous, bipartisan report, the Senate Intelligence Committee finds major intelligence failures by the CIA and other agencies leading up to the war in Iraq. The committee reports that most of the Bush Administration's pre-war judgments about Iraq's weapons of mass destruction were overstated or not supported by intelligence. JULY 25: Lance Armstrong leads the U.S. cycling team to an unprecedented sixth victory in the Tour de France. AUGUST 13: The 2004 Summer Olympics begin in Athens, Greece. AUGUST 15: Venezuelan president Hugo Chavez wins a mid-term referendum held to determine whether he will serve the remainder of his term. The recall effort was organized by opponents of Chavez's populist platform. AUGUST 24: A report sponsored by the Pentagon finds that torture and sexual abuse at Abu Ghraib prison reflected a systemic failure of the U.S. Department of Defense and could not be solely attributed to the actions of a few deviant soldiers. AUGUST 24: Two passenger planes that departed from Moscow crash within minutes of each other due to explosives planted by terrorists; all passengers and crew are killed. One week later, a bomb explodes outside a Moscow subway station, killing at least 10 people and injuring more than 50. Chechen separatists are believed to be responsible. SEPTEMBER 1: Terrorists linked to Chechen warlord Shamil Basayev seize a school in Beslan, in the Russian territory of North Ossetia, holding over one thousand students, teachers and parents hostage. Over 300 are killed, about half of them children, and hundreds more are wounded. SEPTEMBER 4: Hurricane Frances hits Florida, killing four residents, and leaving six million without power. The hurricane is one of four that battered the southeastern United States in August and September. SEPTEMBER 20: Indonesian citizens vote in the country's first direct presidential elections, choosing former general Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono as president over the incumbent Megawati Sukarnoputri. OCTOBER 7: The Nobel prize in Literature is awarded to Elfriede Jelinek of Austria. OCTOBER 8: The Nobel prize in Peace is awarded to Wangari Maathai of Kenya. OCTOBER 9: Hamid Karzai wins Afghanistan's first democratic presidential election. OCTOBER 27: The Boston Red Sox win baseball's World Series for the first time in 86 years. OCTOBER 29: European Union (EU) heads of state and foreign ministers sign the new European Constitution; however, all 25 EU member states must ratify it separately before it can be adopted. NOVEMBER 3: George W. Bush is elected for a second term as president of the United States, defeating his challenger, Senator John Kerry of Massachusetts. NOVEMBER 11: Yasser Arafat, president of the Palestinian National Authority, dies at age 75. DECEMBER 16: The world's tallest bridge, the Millau Viaduct, opens in the Massif Central mountains of southern France. At 1,122 feet, its tallest pillar rises higher than the Eiffel Tower. DECEMBER 17: The European Council votes to begin the multi-year process of negotiation for admitting Turkey to the European Union. DECEMBER 26: Voters in Ukraine elect Viktor Yushchenko as president in a second runoff election, following a month-long drama that started when Yushchenko's opponent, Prime Minister Viktor Yanukovich, was declared the winner in a runoff election that observers declared fraudulent. Yushchenko's supporters staged a massive uprising, known as the Orange Revolution, until the Supreme Court invalidated the results and called for the second runoff. DECEMBER 26: An earthquake of magnitude 9.0 strikes off the coast of Sumatra, Indonesia, triggering massive tidal waves that devastate parts of Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Thailand, and India, and also cause major destruction in Somalia, Myanmar, Maldives, and Malaysia. Over 200,000 people are killed, more than half of them in Indonesia.

2011

MID-JANUARY: More than 800 people in the Serrana region of Brazil die in the aftermath of heavy rainstorms. The torrential storms bring on flooding and numerous mudslides that cause houses to collapse in the hilly region. JANUARY 8: Six people—including U.S. federal judge John Roll—are shot and killed during a "Congress on your Corner" event in Tucson, Arizona. U.S. congressional representative Gabrielle Giffords and 12 other people are wounded during the attack. The accused gunman is 22-year-old Jared Lee Loughner. JANUARY 9-15: Voters in southern Sudan overwhelmingly choose to secede from Sudan and to create an independent country. The referendum is part of a 2005 peace agreement that ended the Sudanese civil war. JANUARY 12: Lebanon's coalition government collapses when 11 out of 30 cabinet members abruptly resign. Ten of those who resigned are members of the Hezbollah party, which objected to the government's cooperation with the United Nations (UN) on an investigation of former prime minister Rafiq al-Hariri's assassination in 2005. JANUARY 14: The president of Tunisia, Zine al-Abidine Ben Ali, flees the country and goes into exile after a popular uprising overthrows the ruling Constitutional Democratic Rally (RCD) party. Ben Ali had been president of the country since 1987. JANUARY 24: An explosion in Domodedovo airport in Moscow, Russia, kills 35 people and injures more than 160. Authorities state that the explosion was caused by a suicide bomber, although no organization claims responsibility in the immediate aftermath of the bombing. FEBRUARY 2: President Ali Abdullah Saleh of Yemen announces that he will not run for reelection in 2013 nor will he allow his son to succeed him. The announcement was prompted by widespread protests throughout the country, with demonstrators accusing Saleh and his government of corruption. Saleh became president of North Yemen in 1978 and the president of Yemen in 1990, when North Yemen and South Yemen united. Despite Saleh's announcement, protests continue throughout the country. FEBRUARY 11: President Hosni Mubarak resigns in response to countrywide protests. A high poverty rate, widespread unemployment, and recent protests in neighboring Tunisia precipitated the Egyptian demonstrations. The Egyptian military assumes control of the government after Mubarak's departure. FEBRUARY 14: The largest protests since 2009's "Green Revolution" occur in Tehran, Iran. Two demonstrators are killed during a clash with security forces. President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad speaks dismissively about the protests and vows to punish opposition leaders. FEBRUARY 15: The prime minister of Italy Silvio Berlusconi is indicted for two crimes: paying an underage woman for sex and later using his influence to demand her release from police custody when she was arrested for theft. A court trial is scheduled for early April 2011. FEBRUARY 18: Four people are killed and more than 90 are injured after the Bahraini riot police break up peaceful protests in Pearl Square, located in Manama, the nation's capital. The protests continue a regional trend, with recent uprisings in Tunisia and Egypt sparking demonstrations across the Middle East. The Bahraini government vows to crack down on future protests in response. FEBRUARY 18: Japan prematurely ends its annual whale hunt in the Antarctic Ocean, blaming the environmental group Sea Shepherd Conservation Society for interfering with its whaling operations. Sea Shepherd vessels had been chasing the Japanese whaling fleet since the hunt began in December. Although commercial whaling is banned by the International Whaling Commission (IWC), whaling for scientific purposes is permissible, and the excess whale meat is allowed to be sold commercially. FEBRUARY 21: Libyan military aircraft fire on protesters assembled in Tripoli, Libya, killing at least 60 people. The protestors, who continue to demonstrate throughout the country, had initially gathered in response to food shortages, with many spurred by similar demonstrations taking place in north Africa and the Middle East. Like those protests, the Libyan uprising has involved criticism of the government, with many in the army having turned against leader Muammar al-Qaddafi. The dictator first came to power through a military coup in 1969. FEBRUARY 21: A 6.3-magnitude earthquake strikes near Christchurch, New Zealand. At least 110 people die as a result, but the death toll is expected to rise as aid workers clear the debris. MARCH 3: Global food prices reach a new record high, rising 2.2 percent in February. The UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) cites the volatility of the oil market, droughts in eastern Europe, and flooding in Australia as contributing factors to the rise in prices. MARCH 9: The International Court of Justice (ICJ) orders Costa Rica and Nicaragua to refrain from sending military, security, or civilian personnel to the disputed San Juan River border region until the court settles the dispute. The ruling is a result of Costa Rica's appeal to the world court in January to order Nicaraguan troops away from the San Juan River that runs along the countries' border and to halt Nicaragua's dredging efforts there. MARCH 11: A 9.0-magnitude earthquake occurs off the coast of Honshu, Japan. Shortly thereafter, a tsunami forms, which causes extensive flooding along the entire coast of northeastern Japan. Thousands of deaths result from the earthquake, and thousands remain missing after the tsunami reaches Japan. Damage to two of the country's nuclear power plants force thousands of residents in the surrounding areas to evacuate. MARCH 14: Thirty-seven Afghanis die following an attack by a suicide bomber at an army recruiting center in Kunduz province. The blast is one of the more recent Taliban attacks that relies on mass casualty attacks to destabilize the Afghan government. MARCH 18: Jean-Bertrand Aristide returns to Haiti just days before the country's scheduled presidential election. Aristide was Haiti's first democratically elected president, serving two terms in office until 2004, when he was ousted in a military coup. MARCH 18: The Yemeni military shoot and kill at least 45 protesters during a demonstration in Sana. More than 200 demonstrators are wounded as they occupy the capital's main square in order to demand governmental reform. MARCH 19: U.S., French, and British forces attack Libyan military positions in air strikes that kill more than 63 Libyans. The Libyan army announces a cease-fire following the air strikes, though Muammar al-Qaddafi, leader of the north African nation for 42 years, vowed revenge against undeserved "naked aggression." The strike allows the western coalition to enforce a UN-mandated no-fly zone in Libya and is the largest intervention in the Arab world since the 2003 U.S.-led invasion of Iraq. MARCH 22: Up to one million people from the Ivory Coast flee violence in the city of Abidjan, according to the UN Refugee Agency. The Ivory Coast has descended to the verge of civil war following a disputed election in November 2010, which Alassane Ouattra is recognized internationally to have won. Incumbent Laurent Gbagbo has refused to step down, saying the results were rigged. APRIL 6: The Portuguese government requests aid from the European Union (EU) amid sharply deteriorating financial conditions. After months of resisting a bailout, the nation of 10.5 million has experienced soaring borrowing costs and deepening political instability. Portugal becomes the third member of the euro zone after Greece and Ireland to seek assistance from the EU. APRIL 11: Former Côte d'Ivoire president Laurent Gbagbo surrenders to French soldiers after a military assault on his Abidjan compound where he had been holed up for days. Gbagbo is transfered to the forces of his UN-recognized successor, Alassane Ouattara, following months of political deadlock during which Gbagbo refused to recognize his rival's presidential election victory. Gbagbo's arrest concludes months of fighting that resulted in the deaths of hundreds of Côte d'Ivoire citizens. APRIL 18: The announcement of Goodluck Jonathan's presidential election victory sparks rioting in the north of Nigeria, where voters favored former military leader and opposition candidate, Muhammadu Bubari. The Civil Rights Congress of Nigeria reports more than 500 deaths, and the displacement of tens-of-thousands of Nigerians. APRIL 19: Voters in Haiti overwhelmingly choose popular singer and carnival entertainer Michel Martelly as the victor in a landslide presidential runoff race against former first lady Mirlande Manigat. Allegations of voter fraud forces authorities to delay certifying results from the election, as some Haitian politicians demanded a recount and others a fresh election. APRIL 19: Fidel Castro resigns from Communist Party leadership, ceding power to his brother Raúl. His announcement comes as delegates of the Sixth Communist Party Congress prepare to vote on measures that could bring term limits to key posts. Fidel Castro has served in the Central Committee of the party as first secretary since the party was formed in 1965. APRIL 20: Syria's government drafts a bill to lift the state of emergency rule, in force for 48 years, after weeks of citizen protests against the regime of President Bashar Assad. Demonstrations continue across Syria after authorities arrest Mahmoud Issa, a popular leftist opposition figure. The draft law was passed as a concession by Assad in the face of increasingly determined mass protests against his authoritarian rule. APRIL 24: The Taliban orchestrates a massive jailbreak from a prison in Kandahar, Afghanistan, allowing more than 470 prisoners to escape from a 1,050-foot (320-meter) tunnel that Taliban militants dug. The tunnel bypasses government checkpoints, watchtowers, and concrete barriers topped with razor wire, and it allows the escapees, mostly Taliban insurgents, to flee without a shot being fired. The Kandahar breach underscores the vulnerability of the Afghan government in the south, despite an abundance of troops, funding, and advisers. APRIL 26: Yemen's president Ali Abdullah Saleh accepts a deal to resign from power, paving the way for the country's first political transition in modern history. The proposed deal, which was designed by neighboring Arab countries, grants immunity to Saleh and his relatives provided that the president cedes power to his vice president 30 days after the plan is accepted by Saleh and his umbrella group of opposition parties. Yemeni demonstrators in support of the ouster of Saleh, Yemen's leader of 32 years, continue to protest, doubtful that Saleh will keep his promise. APRIL 27: Tibetan exiles elect Harvard legal scholar Lobsang Sangay as their new prime minister. Sangay, who has never lived in or visited Tibet, replaces the Dalai Lama, who made a formal announcement in March that he was stepping down. The election of Sangay marks a political change that reverses centuries of tradition in which the top monk also guided the Tibetan government. APRIL 30: Iraqi lawmakers approve a controversial $400 million settlement for Americans who claim they were abused by Saddam Hussein's regime during the 1990 U.S. invasion of Kuwait. The settlement is part of a deal brokered in 2010 between Baghdad and Washington that sought to end legal battles by U.S. citizens and former American troops who claim to have been tortured and traumatized during the conflict. Many Iraqis do not feel as though they should have to pay for Sadam's wrongdoings, seeing themselves as victims of both the dictator's regime and of the 2003 U.S.-led invasion. APRIL 30: Hong Kong lawmakers pass legislation giving low-paid workers a minimum hourly wage. The new legislation, which affects roughly 10 percent of the population, is an attempt to narrow the city's formidable wealth gap between its rich and the poor. Unions asked for a minimum wage of HK$33 ($4.24) an hour but will instead be paid HK$28 ($3.60) an hour. MAY 4: Rival Palestinian political factions Fatah and Hamas sign a landmark accord aimed at ending their nearly five-year rift. Egypt mediated the talks between Palestinian Authority president Mahmoud Abbas and Hamas leader Khaled Meshaal, both of whom agreed to create an interim government including the two parties and to begin the process of calling presidential and legislative elections in one year. Both factions have been locked in a bitter conflict since Fatah and the Bush administration attempted to overthrow Gaza's Hamas-led government in 2006 after Hamas won Palestinian national elections. MAY 4: Satellite images obtained by Amnesty International reveal that four prisons in the wilderness of South Pyongan, South Hamkyung, and North Hamkyung provinces in North Korea may contain more than 200,000 political prisoners. The prison camps, which the organization believes have been around since 1950, appear to be growing in size based on a comparison of satellite pictures from 2001 by Reuters. Amnesty International has since taken the testimony of 15 former inmates and prison guards from the camps, with many survivors reporting that the scarcity of food led some inmates to eat rats or pick kernels out of animal waste to survive. MAY 12: Uganda's parliament shelves the consideration of an anti-homosexuality bill that would force gays and lesbians to serve life in prison. Originally introduced in 2009, the legislation once called for the execution of homosexuals and has been criticized by countries around the globe. The bill would require Ugandans to notify the government whenever they witnessed homosexual activity and would mandate a seven-year prison sentence for anyone who "aids, abets, counsels or procures another to engage [in] acts of homosexuality." MAY 15: Twenty-seven people are killed on a remote jungle ranch in a Guatemalan village close to the border of Mexico in what a police spokesman has described as "the worst massacre we have seen in modern times". Nearly all of the victims were found decapitated. Authorities believe that Los Zetas, a paramilitary Mexican drug gang, may have carried out the killings. MAY 15: Dominique Strauss-Kahn, head of the International Monetary Fund (IMF), is arraigned at a Manhattan Criminal Courthouse and charged with attempted rape, sexual assault, and unlawful imprisonment. He is accused of sexually assaulting a hotel maid who was cleaning his New York City hotel suite. Strauss-Kahn was expected to resign from the IMF, which he has led since 2007, to challenge Nicolas Sarkozy for the French presidency in 2012. MAY 21: Iceland's most active volcano, the Grimsvotn erupts, sending a white plume 18,000 feet into the air. A series of 50 small earthquakes followed the eruption, with the largest measuring a magnitude 3.7. Iceland is one of the world's most volcanically active countries and though eruptions occur frequently, they rarely cause deaths. MAY 21: More than 25,000 demonstrators take to the streets of Spain to protest the government's economic policies and high youth unemployment rate. The demonstrations, which have spanned major cities such as Barcelona, Madrid, Valencia, and Seville occurred on the eve of Spain's elections, despite a ban on protests ordered by the Spain's electoral commission. The protest is reported to have begun spontaneously nearly six days earlier, with a sit-in by young Spaniards in Madrid's Puerta del Sol. MAY 26: Former military general Ratko Mladic is arrested in Serbia after more than 15 years on the run from genocide charges. Serbian officials have announced that Mladic, who is wanted on 11 counts of war crimes, will be extradited to The Hague, where he will stand trial for his role in the 1995 Srebrenica massacre and the siege of Sarajevo. His arrest has long been seen as a precondition for Serbia's membership in the European Union (EU). MAY 30: Chancellor Angela Merkel announces that Germany will shut down its 17 nuclear power plants by 2022. The decision to phase out nuclear power, which provides roughly 22 percent of Germany's energy, comes amid widespread public protest sparked by the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant disaster in Japan. Merkel announces the plans after more than 100,000 antinuclear protesters gathered in cities across Germany. JUNE 6: More than 80,000 Greeks gathered in the streets of Athens in the largest show of opposition to a new round of austerity measures designed to ease the country's debt crisis. Prime Minister George Papandreou announced plans to push a campaign that would impose 6.4 billion euros ($9.37 billion) in extra austerity in 2011 alone. The austerity measures were a response to the 110 billion-euro bailout deal it received from the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and European Union (EU) countries. JUNE 9: Egypt reopens its border with the Gaza Strip after maintenance work temporarily halts operations. The Rafah terminal, the only crossing along the border, initially reopened on May 28, four years after the nation and Israel closed their borders to Gaza, which had come under the power of Hamas, a militant, Islamic revivalist group. The 1.5 million Gaza residents who had been barred from traveling since 2007 welcomed the new policy, which extends terminal operations to six days a week. JUNE 12: Turkish prime minister Recep Tayyip Erdogan's conservative Justice and Development Party, known by its Turkish acronym AKP, scores a third consecutive election victory since it first won parliamentary majority in 2002. Kurdish independent candidates made a strong showing in the election, with 36 of them winning seats in the 550-seat assembly. JUNE 20: After a day of consideration, a criminal court judge sentences former Tunisian president Zine el-Abidine Ben Ali and his wife to 35 years in prison after being tried in absentia for embezzlement and misuse of public funds. The couple faced accusations of theft and unlawful possession of large sums of foreign currency, jewelry, archaeological artifacts, drugs, and weapons. In addition, the court ordered the ousted president and his wife to pay 91 million Tunisian dinars ($66,500 USD). The two fled Tunisia in January after Ben Ali was forced from power in an uprising that triggered a series of protests across the Arab world. JUNE 21: Flooding brought on by torrential rains that began in early June causes widespread damage across eastern, southern, and southwestern China in what state media has described as the worst damage to some areas in decades. More than 180 people have been added to the death toll as floods have triggered landslides and cut power and telecommunications. The Ministry of Civil Affairs reports that the rains have caused about $5 billion in damages and displaced more than 1.6 million people. JULY 5: The Wall Street Journal reports that several Western companies, including Cisco Systems, an American-based consumer electronics and technology corporation, are poised to help build a massive new video-surveillance project in China that officials say will prevent crime. Named "Peaceful Chongqing" for the city in which it is being built, the surveillance network will be comprised of as many as 500,000 cameras installed over the course of three years. Human rights advocates argue that the system could be used to target political dissent and that Chinese police could use surveillance footage to identify people in political protests. JULY 9: South Sudan becomes the world's newest independent state, having won its independence from Sudan in a January referendum. Though a peace deal was brokered in 2005 that ended decades of fighting with the north, many issues remained unresolved between North Sudan and South Sudan, including disputes over borders and oil payments. Salva Kiir, a former military commander of the Sudan People's Liberation Movement (SPLM), becomes South Sudan's first president. JULY 12: The Israel Knesset passes a controversial new law that punishes anyone who advocates for boycotting Israel or the occupied West Bank. Under the new law, any person or organization—including journalists—calling for the boycott or divestment of Israel or the occupied West Bank can be sued by the boycott's targets without having to prove that they sustained damage. The new measure has drawn criticism from around the world, denouncing the legislation as an attack on freedom of expression and free speech. JULY 12: The U.K. Parliament votes to oppose media mogul Rupert Murdoch's takeover bid of the BSkyB satellite network, dashing his hopes of a rapid expansion into television, in the wake of a major phone-hacking scandal that has engulfed Murdoch's media empire. Evidence has emerged that suggests his reporters hacked the voicemails of thousands of people, including politicians, child murder victims, September 11 victims, and families of British soldiers killed in war. The newspaper at the center of the scandal—News of the World—has since ceased publication. Founded in 1843, the paper was described as the biggest-selling English-language newspaper in the world. JULY 13: A series of simultaneous explosions in the Indian city of Mumbai kill 24 people and injure more than 100 others, resulting in the deadliest attack on the city since 2008, when gunmen killed 165 Indians in a three-day raid in Mumbai. Officials have called the blasts an act of terrorism, stating that the attacks appear linked to Indian Mujahideen, an indigenous terrorist group. JULY 13: Japan wins the soccer World Cup, beating the top-ranked U.S. women's team. The United States gives away two opportunities to win when it committed a mistake on defense, allowing Japan to tie the game during regulation play. Japan nails three of its first four penalty kicks, for a shootout final of 3-1. JULY 14: Doctors without Borders, an independent medical humanitarian aid organization, condemns the Central Intelligence Agency's (CIA) use of an elaborate fake vaccination campaign in Pakistan in order to gain access to the compound where wanted terrorist Osama bin Laden was hiding. According to the organization, the scheme could affect future access to communities and populations that are already skeptical of outside assistance. In early July, The Guardian published a report detailing the program that was reportedly initiated to obtain DNA from the al-Qaeda leader's family. Though the medication used in the campaign was real, the medical professionals carrying out the deception failed to provide the full course of vaccinations. JULY 21: Somalia's president appeals for immediate humanitarian aid, asking for $300 million in the next two months to contain the spread of the severe drought, due to poor harvests and infectious disease outbreaks, that threatens the country. Tens of thousands of Somalis have died, and nearly half the population—3.7 million people—remains in a state of crisis. JULY 22: Twin attacks kill 77—eight when a blast rips through Oslo's government headquarters and 69 in a mass shooting at a nearby youth camp. Police identify the suspect in the terrorist attacks as Anders Behring Breivik, a 32-year-old ethnic Norwegian. Though Breivik claims he is part of a European and United Kingdom right-wing network, Janne Kristiansen, Norway's domestic intelligence chief, believes that Breivik acted alone in his attacks around Oslo. JULY 23: Two high-speed bullet trains from the first generation of China's express trains, or "D" trains, traveling along the country's east coast collide. The first is struck by lightning, causing it to lose power and stall on its elevated track line. The second train hits it from behind, derailing two of the stalled cars onto the ground below. More than 33 passengers die, and 190 suffer injuries. JULY 24: Cadel Evans wins the Tour de France and becomes the first Australian to capture cycling's most prestigious title. The Australian rider finished the Tour de France twice before in second place, and is, at 34, the competition's oldest winner since Henrí Pélissier took the title in 1923. AUGUST 4: The U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) estimates that the famine in Somalia has claimed the lives of more than 29,000 children under the age of five in the past 90 days. The estimate, which accounts for nearly 4 percent of Somalian children, is based on nutrition and mortality surveys verified by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). The Horn of Africa, which is plagued by cyclical drought, is experiencing its lowest rain levels in 60 years. What was once a 10-year drought cycle is now occurring every other year and is combined with rising food costs and a 20-year conflict in Somalia. AUGUST 5-8: Standard & Poor (S&P) downgrades the United States's top-tier credit rating from AAA to AA-plus in a decision that shakes world financial markets. International stock values plummet around the globe in the wake of S&P's decision—the dollar weakens against the euro. On Wall Street, the Dow Jones plunges 634.76 points on the first trading day since the S&P downgrade, the worst drop since December 2008 and the sixth-largest point decline ever. The Obama administration dismisses S&P's downgrade of U.S. credit rating. AUGUST 5: The Thai parliament elects Yingluck Shinawatra, the country's first female prime minister. Though Yingluck's party won the majority in Parliament in the July elections, Thailand remains politically divided between the pro-army establishment and the Red Shirts, who helped usher Yingluck into power. Yingluck, whose brother was toppled and exiled in a military coup in 2006, will become Thailand's 28th prime minister. AUGUST 6-10: Widespread rioting and looting occurs across England and parts of Wales over the course of five days following a peaceful protest against the fatal shooting of 29-year-old Mark Duggan by London police officers. Five people die and six civilians are injured, while more than 186 British police officers suffer from injuries. The Association of British Ensurers estimates that damages from the riots will cost as much as 200 million pounds (328 million USD). AUGUST 26: Prime minister Naoto Kan announces his resignation from the country's top leadership position, which he had held since June 2010. His departure is due in part to the government's mismanaged response to the earthquake and tsunami along Japan's northeastern coast in March and the nuclear crisis that occurred as a result. Kan is the fifth prime minister in Japan to step down in the past five years. AUGUST 27: Following a day of debate, parliament votes to adopt a law that calls for a central, independent anticorruption agency to monitor the Indian government and public officials. The legislation decision is preceded by two weeks of protests that brought hundreds of thousands of Indian citizens into the streets in support of their leader, Anna Hazare, an anticorruption activist who drew national media attention when he went on a 12-day hunger strike in protest of the Indian government. SEPTEMBER 3: More than 430,000 Israelis take to the streets in rallies across Israel to demand social justice, a lower cost of living, and government responses to middle-class concerns in the country's largest-ever demonstration. Up to 300,000 people take part in Tel Aviv, 50,000 in Jerusalem, and 40,000 in Haifa in a demonstration that is the culmination of 50 days of protests against government practices. SEPTEMBER 4: Iran successfully connects its first nuclear power plant to the national grid after more than four decades since construction began. The Bushehr facility, a $1 billion, 1,000-megawatt plant on the Persian Gulf coast, was a project started by Siemens, a German engineering firm, in the 1970s. SEPTEMBER 6: In the wake of the United Nation's (UN) review of Israel's deadly raid on a Gaza-bound Turkish flotilla, Turkey announces its suspension of all military, trade, and defense with Israel after the country refused to apologize for the deaths of nine Turkish activists on board. Since the report's release on September 2, Turkey has expelled Israel's ambassador, and Turkish prime minister Recep Tayyip Erdogan has vowed to support the Palestinian territories' attempt to be recognized as an independent state by the UN. SEPTEMBER 12: A massive fire kills more than 75 people after a fuel tank bursts at a depot belonging to the Kenya Pipeline Company spills fuel into an open sewer flowing through Nairobi. Nairobians seeking to siphon fuel from the leak are injured when an explosion results. At least 112 burn victims number among the injured. SEPTEMBER 13: Heavy monsoon rains trigger severe floods in southern Pakistan, killing more than 200 people. As flooding damages nearly 1 million houses and 4.2 million acres of land, more than 300,000 Pakistanis are displaced. Many residents are without shelter or food, prompting Pakistan officials to appeal for international aid. SEPTEMBER 15: Social Democrat leader Helle Thorning-Schmidt becomes Denmark's first female prime minister after winning the country's general election by a narrow majority. Thorning-Schmidt, who ran on a bid to raise taxes and increase government spending, and the center-left bloc she represents take 89 parliament seats, while the center-right bloc, which has been in power for 10 years, and the anti-immigration Danish People's Party (DPP) takes 86. SEPTEMBER 25: King Abdullah gives Saudi Arabian women the right to vote and run in municipal elections. Women are also eligible to join the Shura Council, a consultative body to which Abdullah appoints members. The proposed changes will not go into effect until the next election cycle in 2015. SEPTEMBER 27: Defense minister Stephen Smith announces that Australia's female soldiers will be able to serve in frontline combat. The move also allows Australian women to serve in the infantry and artillery units, as well as in Special Forces. Australia becomes the fourth country after Canada, Israel, and New Zealand with no restrictions on female enlistment. OCTOBER 5-12: A Liberian-flagged container ship strikes the Astrolabe Reef off the coast of New Zealand, setting off a lengthy oil slick. Officials estimate more than 220 to 330 tons (200 to 300 metric tons) of heavy fuel has spilled from the hull. New Zealand's environment minister, Nick Smith, believes that the spill could prove to be the country's "most significant maritime pollution disaster in decades." OCTOBER 13: The Slovakian parliament approves a $600 billion plan to expand the European Union's (EU) financial rescue program after voting down the bailout measure earlier in the week. Slovakia is the last of the 17 euro-zone nations to approve the fund's use as the continent's main weapon against the global debt crisis. OCTOBER 20: Muammar al-Qaddafi is captured and killed after rebel forces overrun the ousted leader's hometown and final stronghold of Sirte. The death of Qaddafi, who ruled Libya since 1969, comes eight months after the first protests of his longtime rule erupted. OCTOBER 23: Thai authorities call for a five-day holiday, warning residents of Bangkok to evacuate the capital ahead of impending floodwaters. More than 2.5 million are affected by the heavy floods, which are the worst to hit Thailand since 1942. OCTOBER 23: Argentine president Cristina Fernández de Kirchner scores a landslide reelection victory, claiming 53 percent of the vote. Kirchner, who took over the office for her late husband Néstor Kirchner when he died in October 2010, earns the widest margin of victory in an Argentine presidential race since the end of the country's military dictatorship in 1983. OCTOBER 23: A 7.2-magnitude earthquake strikes southeast Turkey, resulting in the deaths of more than 604 people and injury of 1,140 others. The town of Ercis, near the Iran border, is hardest hit with roughly 80 multistory buildings collapsing to the ground. Turkish rescuers work through the night to clear the debris and rubble in the hopes of locating survivors. OCTOBER 25: The moderate Islamist Nahda Party wins Tunisia's first-ever democratic election, just nine months after the nation's Arab Spring protests spurred a wave of demonstrations across the region. The party, which was banned and persecuted under the reign of former president Zine el Abidine Ben Ali, receives 40 percent of the vote. OCTOBER 27: King Abdullah appoints Interior Minister Prince Nayef bin Abdul Aziz to the position of crown prince, nearly a week after Saudi Arabia's crown prince Sultan died of colon cancer. The appointment marks the first time a family council is asked to approve the king's selection, creating a more regulated succession process. OCTOBER 28: Prime Minister David Cameron announces that female heirs will be given equality with men in the rules governing succession to the throne. The changes to the centuries-old rules are agreed to unanimously by the 16 nations of which Queen Elizabeth II is monarch. OCTOBER 31: Libya's National Transitional Council (NTC) elects Abdel-Rahmin El Keib to the post of prime minister. El Keib, a former council representative from Tripoli, had a key role in financing the uprisings against Muammar al-Qaddafi and organizing the rebellion. NOVEMBER 11: Greece swears in a new prime minister to head an interim government amid ongoing economic turmoil. Lucas Papademos, a former European Central Bank vice president, will serve a three-month term before new elections in February 2012. Papademos replaces outgoing prime minister George Papandreou, who resigned shortly after canceling his plan for a national referendum on an austerity measure demanded by euro-zone countries in return for a massive financial bailout. NOVEMBER 12: Italian prime minister Silvio Berlusconi resigns, stepping down after Italy's parliament passes an austerity package demanded by the European Union (EU). Berlusconi's 17-year reign was marred by scandals, from his "bunga bunga" parties to his role in the euro-zone debt crisis. Italy selects Mario Monto, a former EU commissioner, as prime-minister-designate following Berlusconi's resignation. NOVEMBER 20: Spanish conservatives defeat the Socialist Party to take 186 of 350 parliamentary seats, winning the biggest parliamentary majority in nearly 30 years. The Socialists, who have led the country since 2004, win 110 seats in the historic Spanish election. NOVEMBER 22: South Korean lawmakers ratify a long-stalled free trade agreement with the United States. In the 151-to-7 vote, opposition lawmakers largely abstain from voting, and one politician sets off a tear gas canister inside the parliament as a sign of protest. It is the largest trade deal since the United States has signed since the North Atlantic Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) with Canada and Mexico in 1994. NOVEMBER 23: Yemeni president Ali Abdullah Saleh agrees to step down following months of massive protests against three decades of autocratic rule. Saleh signs a resignation agreement that transfers power to his vice president in return for immunity from prosecution. Saleh is the fourth Arab leader to be forced from power since the Arab Spring demonstrations began in the Middle East and North Africa. NOVEMBER 30: The International Criminal Court (ICC) arrests the former Ivory Coast leader Laurent Gbagbo and orders him to face charges of murder, rape, and inhuman acts. Nearly 3,000 people were killed and more than a million displaced in a four-month civil war after Gbagbo refused to cede power to Alassane Ouattara in a 2010 election. Gbagbo is the first head of state taken into custody by the ICC since its creation in 2002. LATE DECEMBER-JANUARY: Intense rainstorms from a combination of the La Niña weather system and Tropical Cyclone Tasha cause extensive flooding throughout Australia's Queensland province. More than 30 people are killed due to flooding, and the storms cause billions of dollars in economic damage. DECEMBER 2: President Thein Sein approves Myanmar's first law permitting peaceful protests. The new legislation includes requirements that demonstrators must notify authorities five days in advance of when, where, and for what purpose they will be protesting. Police can deny permission to protestors but must explain why. DECEMBER 10: Liberian president Ellen Johnson Sirleaf and Leymah Gbowee, a Liberian activist, receive the 2011 Nobel Peace Prize. Sirleaf, Africa's first female president, and Gbowee jointly share the honor with Tawakkol Karman, a leading figure in Yemen's democratic movement. DECEMBER 12: After more than 20 years in overseas prisons, Manuel Noriega is extradited to Panama where he will serve the rest of his sentence for murder, corruption, and embezzlement charges. The former Panamanian leader spent 20 years in an American prison before his extradition to France in 2010, where he was convicted of money laundering. DECEMBER 17: North Korean leader Kim Jong Il dies of a heart attack at 69. State media announces that Kim's son Kim Jong Un will be his successor. DECEMBER 18: Václav Havel, the dissident playwright and former first president of the Czech Republic, dies at the age of 75 after suffering from a history of chronic respiratory problems. Detained countless times, Havel spent years in jail for his political activism before he was elected president in 1989. Havel is credited for Czechoslovakia's smooth transition to democracy and membership in the European Union (EU). DECEMBER 24: Cuban president Raul Castro pardons more than 2,900 Cuban prisoners in a sweeping amnesty prompted by an upcoming visit from Pope Benedict XVI. DECEMBER 31: Iraq prime minister Nouri al-Maliki declares December 31 a national holiday that commemorates the withdrawal of U.S. troops from the country more than eight years after the U.S. invasion.

1993

Indian novelist Vikram Seth publishes A Suitable Boy. Polish composer Witold Lutoslawski (1913-94) writes his fourth symphony. World Trade Center, New York City, is damaged by a terrorist bomb; six people are killed and ca. 1000 injured. U.S. government agents storm the headquarters of the Branch Davidian cult in Waco, Texas. Israel and the PLO reach a peace agreement in Washington, D.C. EC establishes a single market. Czech and Slovak republics are established as separate states. Yeltsin orders tanks to attack rebels in the Moscow Parliament. UN declares safe areas in Yugoslavia including Goradze and Srebrenica.

1956

U.S. engineer Alexander Poniatoff (1892-80) invents a video tape recorder. Implantable heart pacemaker is invented. U.S. engineer Jack Backus leads a team that devises the FORTRAN computer programing language. Sudan and Morocco become independent. British dramatist John Osborne (1929-95) writes his play Look Back in Anger. British philosopher A.J. Ayer (1910-89) publishes The Problem of Knowledge. Revolutionary Fidel Castro lands in Cuba. U.S. singer Elvis Presley (1935-77) releases Heartbreak Hotel. Nasser becomes president of Egypt and nationalizes the Suez canal; Israel invades Egypt; Britain and France send troops but withdraw under international pressure. British deport Archbishop Makarios (1913-77) from Cyprus. Hungarian prime minister Imre Nagy (1896-1958) takes charge of an anti-communist uprising that is quickly crushed by Soviet troops. Solomon Bandaranaike (1899-1959) is elected prime minister of Ceylon (present-day Sri Lanka). France cedes its colonies on the subcontinent to India. Islamic republic of Pakistan is declared.

1951

U.S. engineers John Eckert and John Mauchly build UNIVAC I, the first commercial computer. U.S. novelist J.D. Salinger publishes Catcher in the Rye. British composer Benjamin Britten (1913-76) writes his opera Billy Budd. French artist Fernand Léger (1881-1955) designs stained glass windows for the church of Sacre Coeur at Audicourt in France. Twenty-second amendment to the U.S. constitution limits presidents to two terms of office. British troops occupy the Suez canal zone. Libya gains full independence under King Idris I (1890-1983). North Korean and Chinese forces take Seoul; UN forces recapture the city and halt a communist offensive at the Battle of Imjin River. Iran under Prime Minister Muhammad Mossadegh (1880-1967) nationalizes the oil industry and occupies the port of Abadan. Marshall Plan economic aid to Europe ends. Winston Churchill (1874-1965) is elected British prime minister. Leopold III (1901-83) of Belgium abdicates in favor of his son Baudouin (1930-93). West Germany is admitted to the Council of Europe.

1983

Yitzhak Shamir becomes prime minister of Israel. U.S. and French troops are killed in bomb attacks in Beirut. Filipino politician Benigno Aquino (b.1932) is assassinated. U.S. poet and author Alice Walker publishes her novel The Color Purple. Italian novelist Italo Calvino (1923-85) publishes Mr Palomar. French phsyician Luc Montagnier identifies the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) as the infective agent that causes AIDS. Pioneer 10 leaves the solar system. Turkish north Cyprus declares its independence under Rauf Denktas. Yuri Andropov (1914-84) becomes president of the Soviet Union. Green party wins its first parliamentary seats in West Germany. Martin Luther King Day is inaugurated in the United States. U.S. cruise missiles are located at airbases in Britain. Martial law ends in Poland. U.S. marines invade Grenada and overthrow a revolutionary government. U.S. president Ronald Reagan announces the development of a Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) or "Star Wars" defense system; he also announces support for the Nicaraguan Contras.

1977

Chinese "Gang of Four", including Mao's wife, are expelled from power; Deng Xiaoping (1904-97) becomes Chinese premier. Menachem Begin (1913-92) becomes prime minister of Israel. General Zia al-Huq (1924-88) seizes power in Pakistan. British biochemist Frederick Sanger dicovers the full sequence of bases in DNA. U.S. engineer Paul MacCready designs a human-powered aircraft. Apple II personal computer is introduced. U.S. and Panama sign a treaty for the return of the canal zone to Panama. Adolfo Suarez is elected prime minister of Spain. Jean Bokassa (1921-96) proclaims himself emperor of a Central African Empire. Pompidou Center art gallery, designed by Richard Rogers and Italian architect Renzo Piano, opens in Paris. British novelist Paul Scott (1930-78) publishes Staying On. German commandos free hijacked passengers at Mogadishu in Somalia. e SeMogadishu, hostage rescue in. Cuban troops assist Ethiopian forces against rebels in Eritrea. Czech political reformers form the Charter 77 organization. Dutch marines rescue hostages on a train hijacked by South Moluccan terrorists. South African political activist Steve Biko (b.1956) is murdered in police custody.

1974

India explodes an atom bomb. U.S. paleotologist Donald Johanson discovers "Lucy"—a partial skeleton of Australopithecus afarensis—in Ethiopia. Bar codes are introduced in U.S. shops. Ethiopian emperor Haile Selassie (1892-1975) is deposed and a republic is declared. U.S. author Erica Jong publishes her novel Fear of Flying. U.S. author Robert Pirsig publishes Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance. Junta of Greek colonels abdicates power. U.S. president Nixon resigns over the Watergate scandal; Gerald Ford (1913-2006) becomes president. U.S. journalists Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein publish their All the President's Men. Isabel Perón assumes the presidency of Argentina on her husband's death. Terracotta army in China is discovered. Greek nationalists stage a coup in Cyprus and declare union with Greece; Turkish troops invade and conquer half the island. Illegal Irish Republican Army (IRA) intensifies its bombing campaign against British targets. Valéry Giscard d'Estaing becomes president of France. Left-wingers seize power in a bloodless revolution in Portugal.

1994

Rail tunnel opens between Britain and France. Fragments of comet Shoemaker-Levi impact on Jupiter. World Wide Web (WWW) is created. Terrorist Carlos is arrested in Khartoum and taken to France for trial. U.S. troops withdraw from Somalia. (See also: Somalian Civil War of 1991— ) Chechenia declares independence from Russia. (See also: Chechen Revolt of 1994-96) Presidents of Burundi and Rwanda are killed in an air crash; inter-tribal violence and civil war erupt in Rwanda. African National Congress (ANC) wins the South African elections; Nelson Mandela becomes president. Palestine National Authority takes control of the Gaza Strip and Jericho. Zapatista National Liberation Army leads a revolt in Chiapas state in Mexico. U.S. troops invade Haiti.

2007

JANUARY 1: Romania and Bulgaria become members of the European Union (EU). JANUARY 3: North Korea's foreign minister Paek Nam-sun dies. JANUARY 4: Fiji's coup leader, military commander Frank Bainimarama, returns executive power to ousted president Ratu Josefa Iloilo. In turn, Bainimarama becomes interim prime minister in an effort to help create a democratic government in the island nation. JANUARY 10: U.S. president George W. Bush announces that he will deploy more than 20,000 additional soldiers to Iraq. The majority will be stationed in Baghdad in an attempt to secure the city. JANUARY 10: Daniel Ortega assumes the presidency of Nicaragua in a ceremony attended by more than a dozen world leaders. Ortega had recently been reelected, after being voted out of office in 1990. JANUARY 11: China successfully tests a missile that destroys one of the nation's own weather satellites. The United States becomes concerned that China could destroy U.S. spy satellites over the Taiwan Straits, thus opening the door for a Chinese invasion of Taiwan. JANUARY 15: Leftist economist Rafael Correa is sworn in as the president of Ecuador. Correa promises radical change, including rewriting the country's constitution to battle corruption. JANUARY 19: Turkish-Armenian journalist Hrant Dink is shot to death outside his newspaper office in Istanbul. A day later the police capture his killer, 17-year-old Ogun Samast. Dink caused controversy with his articles on the mass murder of Armenians by Ottoman Turks during World War I. JANUARY 20: Senator Hillary Rodham Clinton (D, NY) announces her entry into the 2008 U.S. presidential race along with Barack Obama, John Edwards, and Bill Richardson, among others. JANUARY 22: India completes its first step toward developing a program to send astronauts into space. After spending 11 days in orbit, a reusable space capsule successfully lands in the Bay of Bengal. JANUARY 25: In his State of the Union address, U.S. president George W. Bush appeals to a Democratic Congress to cooperate with him on a variety of issues including his recent increase of troops in Iraq, the budget, Social Security, Medicare, and Medicaid. JANUARY 25: Ecuador's recently elected defense minister Guadalupe Larriva is killed when the military helicopter she and her 17-year-old daughter are riding in collides with another helicopter. She was the first woman to hold the position of defense minister. JANUARY 28: While on trial for genocide in a Baghdad court, Saddam Hussein's cousin Ali Hassan al Majid, known as "Chemical Ali," admits that he ordered the mass killings of Kurdish villagers during the 1988 al-Anfal military campaign. FEBRUARY 1: Two men are arrested in Boston for creating a bomb scare that closed bridges and part of the Charles River. Electronic light board devices intended to promote the Cartoon Network show Aqua Teen Hunger Force were mistaken for explosive devices. Network owner Turner Broadcasting System, Inc., apologizes soon after. FEBRUARY 1: A ban on smoking in public places in France goes into effect. The ban includes workplaces, schools, airports, and hospitals. FEBRUARY 2: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change releases a report concluding that global warming is "very likely" due to human activity. FEBRUARY 4: The U.S. military announces that four helicopters that recently crashed in Iraq were downed by ground fire. This is the first time the U.S. military has publicly admitted losses due to Iraqi ground fire, forcing the U.S. military to change tactics. FEBRUARY 10: At a security summit in Munich, Germany, Russian president Vladimir Putin criticizes the United States for its use of force around the world and says that it is fuelling a nuclear arms race. FEBRUARY 11: Senator Barack Obama (D, IL) announces his bid for the 2008 Democratic nomination for the U.S. presidency. FEBRUARY 12: Portuguese prime minister Jose Socrates begins drafting legislation to make abortions legal in Portugal until the 10th week of pregnancy, despite a low turnout at a recent vote for it to be legally binding. FEBRUARY 12: A German court orders the release of former Red Army Faction member Brigitte Mohnhaupt, who spent 24 years in prison for her involvement with multiple kidnappings and the murders of leading German industrialists in the 1970s. The Red Army Faction, also known as the Baader-Meinhof Gang, was a militant left-wing group that claimed responsibility for more than 30 deaths over its nearly 30 years in existence. FEBRUARY 12: Taiwan's post office and petroleum companies dropped China from their names and replaced it with Taiwan. While the change was made to end confusion over Chinese and Taiwanese owned firms, the United States opposed it, warning that it might disrupt Taiwanese relations with China. FEBRUARY 12: An Iraqi court changes the sentence of ex-Iraqi vice president Taha Yassin Ramadan from life in prison to execution by hanging after prosecutors appeal the verdict. He was sentenced for his role in the 1982 killing of 148 people in Dujail, Iraq, after a failed assassination attempt on Saddam Hussein. FEBRUARY 13: Former governor of Massachusetts Mitt Romney announces his bid for the 2008 Republican nomination for the U.S. presidency. FEBRUARY 14: After winning Turkmenistan's recent election with nearly 90 percent of the vote, President Gurbanguli Berdymukhamedov takes office. FEBRUARY 16: An Italian judge orders 26 U.S. citizens—most of whom are CIA agents—and seven Italians to stand trial for the 2003 kidnapping and torture of Egyptian cleric Osama Mustafa Hassan. FEBRUARY 16: International legislators from 13 countries sign a new pact on climate change. Part of the non-binding agreement encourages all countries, including developing nations, to set and meet goals for cutting greenhouse gas emissions. FEBRUARY 18: At least 28 bombs are detonated in southern Thailand killing three people and wounding more than 50. The attacks, coordinated by Muslim insurgents, come after the new military-imposed government tries a more flexible approach to dealing with the rebels. FEBRUARY 19: At least 66 people were killed in bomb blasts on a train traveling between India and Pakistan. The governments of both countries denounce the incident, hoping not to damage their often-tense relationship. The militant Islamic groups Lashkar-e-Tayyiba and Jaish-e-Mohammed are among the groups suspected to be responsible. FEBRUARY 19: Civil unions for gay couples become legal in New Jersey. In 2006 year, Governor Jon Corzine had signed a law granting same-sex couples the same rights and benefits as opposite-sex married couples. FEBRUARY 19: Maria Consuelo Araujo, the foreign minister of Colombia resigns after both her father and her brother, Senator Alvaro Araujo, are arrested on suspicion of being linked to the paramilitary groups AUC and FARC. FEBRUARY 20: Anglican leaders abroad give an ultimatum to the U.S. Episcopal church, saying that they have until September 30 to end the appointment of gay clergy and support of same-sex couples or face expulsion. The U.S. church gave no immediate response to the ultimatum. FEBRUARY 20: An appeals court upholds the U.S. anti-terrorism law that restricts the rights of prisoners held at the U.S. military base in Guantánamo Bay, Cuba, from appealing their detention before U.S. federal judges. FEBRUARY 21: British prime minister Tony Blair announces that he will begin pulling British troops out of Iraq, due to increased stability in the country. Denmark also decides to pull most of its troops out by August. FEBRUARY 23: The United States and South Korea agree that the United States will return control of South Korea's military back to the country in 2012. Since the end of the Korean War in 1953, the South Korean military has been under the control of U.S.-led UN troops. FEBRUARY 23: Pakistan successfully test-fires the Shaheen II ballistic missile, a newer version of its long-range, nuclear-capable missile. FEBRUARY 24: Former Cuban revolutionary and political prisoner Mario Chanes de Armas dies at the age of 80 in Florida. Chanes de Armas fought alongside Fidel Castro during the Cuban Revolution in 1953. He was sentenced to 30 years in prison in 1962 for allegedly attempting to assassinate Castro, and in 1993 was permitted to leave Cuba for Miami, Florida. FEBRUARY 27: The Chinese stock market suffers its worst day of trading in 10 years after rumors of inflation and a crackdown on illegal share offerings and trading cause the country's leading investors to sell off many of their shares, negatively affecting markets in Asia, Europe, and the United States. FEBRUARY 27: Two Pablo Picasso paintings are stolen from the home of Diana Widmaier-Picasso, the painter's granddaughter, in Paris while she is asleep. FEBRUARY 28: After months of flooding that killed 35 people and affected more than 72,000 families, Bolivian president Evo Morales officially declares a national disaster. FEBRUARY 28: Senator John McCain (R, AZ) announces his bid for the 2008 Republican nomination for the U.S. presidency on the talk show "Late Night with David Letterman." MARCH 1: Ramzan Kadyrov is confirmed as Chechnya's new president. A former Chechen rebel fighter, he later switched sides, becoming the republic's prime minister, and was accused of widespread human rights abuses during that time. MARCH 1: Senegal's president Abdoulaye Wade is re-elected, taking nearly 56 percent of the vote. MARCH 2: Romano Prodi is reconfirmed as Italy's prime minister. Prodi had resigned after losing a foreign policy vote, but he later won confidence votes in both houses of Parliament. MARCH 5: Estonia's prime minister Andrus Ansip retains power in the world's first election that includes online voting. MARCH 6: An earthquake with a magnitude of 6.3 strikes the western Indonesian island of Sumatra killing 70 people and injuring hundreds. MARCH 9: The European Union (EU) agrees to increase renewable energy use by 20 percent by 2020. MARCH 9: Turkish politician Doğu Perinçek is found guilty of racial discrimination for denying that the 1915 Armenian massacre constituted genocide during a speech in 2005. Denial, belittlement, or justification of genocide violates Switzerland's anti-racism legislation. MARCH 11: The French president Jacques Chirac announces that he will not seek a third term in office. MARCH 13: Scientists announce the Cassini spacecraft's discovery of several sea-sized deposits of liquid on the surface of Titan, Saturn's largest moon. MARCH 14: During a hearing at the U.S. military's Guantánamo Bay prison camp in Cuba, top al-Qaeda operative Khalid Sheikh Mohammed admits that he was the mastermind behind the September 11, 2001, attacks on the United States. He also admits responsibility for 31 other plots including the 1993 attack on New York's World Trade Center and a plot to assassinate Pope John Paul II. MARCH 19: During a hearing at the U.S. military's Guantánamo Bay prison camp in Cuba, suspected al-Qaeda operative Waleed bin Atash admits plotting the bombings of the USS Cole and two U.S. embassies in Africa. MARCH 19: The Airbus A380, the world's largest passenger plane, arrives at John F. Kennedy International Airport in New York, marking its first voyage to the United States. MARCH 20: Former Iraqi vice-president Taha Yassin Ramadan is hanged as punishment for his part in the killing of 148 Shias in Dujail during the 1980s. MARCH 21: Russian president Vladimir Putin declares a national day of mourning for three unrelated disasters. On March 17 a plane crashed in central Russia, killing seven people; two days later 104 died in an explosion in a coal mine in Kemerovo, Siberia; and one day later, 62 people died in a massive fire at a retirement home in the southern Russia. MARCH 23: The Iranian coast guard detains 15 members of the British navy, accusing them of trespassing in Iranian waters. Five days later, ranking officer Faye Turney is broadcast on the Iranian state television wearing a head covering. She confesses to trespassing and says that the prisoners are being treated well. The British government officially dismisses the video as coercion propaganda by the Iranian government, calling the detention of the British crew "wrong" and "illegal." MARCH 24: In protest of Iran's decision to pursue a nuclear energy program, the United Nations Security Council approved a unanimous resolution to ban Iranian arms exports, and partially freeze financial resources of 28 key Iranian groups with connections to the nuclear program. MARCH 25: Donald Tsang wins a second term as Hong Kong's chief executive, the territory's top political position. Democracy and universal suffrage candidate Alan Leong challenges the reelection of the Beijing-backed Tsang. Hong Kong citizens have no voice the election; a small group of local business leaders and legislators choose the chief executive by secret ballot. MARCH 26: Ian Paisley of the Democratic Unionist Party of Northern Ireland and Gerry Adams of Sinn Féin agree to share power in a new government slated to begin on May 8. The next day emergency legislation to enact the deal is rushed through Northern Ireland's parliament. MARCH 26: The remaining 600 British troops in Bosnia-Herzegovina return to the United Kingdom, 15 years after their initial deployment as UN peacekeepers. MARCH 27: Australian Guantánamo Bay prisoner David Hicks pleads guilty to assisting al-Qaeda in terrorist activities. The plea sparks an international controversy due to the alleged abusive conditions at Guantánamo and military tribunal process. Members of the Australian senate protest that his plea is the result of unjust methods. MARCH 27: Chilean president Michelle Bachelet fires four top ministers after polls show waning support for her government. Sergio Espejo, the former transport minister, is let go especially after changes to Santiago's metro system result in chaos for riders and the death of two people due to overcrowding. MARCH 28: Guinean president Lansana Conte announces the naming of a new government. Prime Minister Lansana Kouyate immediately announces that the new government will tackle the country's domestic problems. APRIL 2: Ukrainian president Viktor Yushchenko dissolves parliament. Many Ukrainians protest the move, seeing it as a political check against the Ukrainian prime minister, Viktor Yanukovych. APRIL 4: A team of scientists from Denmark, England, and France announce their development of a process to convert all blood types to Type O, known as the "universal donor." Jack Goldstein, an American cell biologist whose research aided the European team, predicts that it will take at least three years before the process can be implemented in blood banks. APRIL 4: Serzh Sargsyan is sworn in as the new prime minister of Armenia after the previous prime minister, Andranik Margaryan, dies of a heart attack. APRIL 5: The 15 British navy crewmembers are released for no stated reason and flown back to the United Kingdom. A further controversy unfolds when Leading Seaman Faye Turney and Arthur Batchelor, the youngest of the 15 crewmen, sell their stories to the British media. APRIL 5: Ivoirian rebel leader Guillaume Soro is named prime minister of Côte d'Ivoire. Soro, who seized control of the northern regions in September 2002, will work alongside his former enemy, President Laurent Gbagbo. Soro announced that his main objective is to achieve credible government elections within the next 10 months. APRIL 8: Charles Simonyi, an American billionaire and former Microsoft engineer, becomes the world's fifth "space tourist" when he visits the International Space Station in a Russian rocket. Simonyi, who paid more than $20 million for the trip, claims is a marriage of his two great passions—aviation and engineering. APRIL 10: Five people are killed in Casablanca, Morocco, when three suspected Islamic militants blow themselves up during a police inquiry in connection with a previous suicide bombing on March 11. A fourth suspect is shot before he can detonate the explosives strapped to his body. One policeman is killed by the explosions. APRIL 11: 33 people are reported killed and 222 injured by two terrorist bombings in Algiers, the capital of Algeria. The Islamic terrorist group al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb takes responsibility for the bombings, one of which destroys the front part of the building that houses Prime Minister Abdelaziz Belkhadem's office. The second bombing takes place at a police station in a suburb of Algiers. Terrorism experts note that the date coincides with other terrorist bombings such as March 11, 2004, in Madrid, March 11 of this year in Casablanca, and the September 11th attacks the United States. Some experts feel that this date may be taking on a symbolic meaning for terrorists. APRIL 12: A bomb explodes in the cafeteria of the Iraqi parliament. Eight people are killed, including two members of the parliament, while at least 23 are injured. Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki denounces the bombing as a "criminal, cowardly act". APRIL 18: Five bombs explode in a busy intersection in Baghdad, killing at least 171 people and wounding another 150. The victims—mostly civilians—were waiting in an area for buses that travel to Shiite quarters of the city. APRIL 23: Former Russian president Boris Yeltsin dies of heart failure at the age of 76. Yeltsin was Russia's first democratically elected leader and was a key figure in the Soviet Union's downfall. APRIL 25: The legislative assembly in Mexico City legalizes a bill allowing abortions to be performed during the first 12 weeks of pregnancy. City law had previously allowed abortion only in cases of rape, if the woman's life was at risk, or if the fetus suffered severe defects. APRIL 25: Astronomers discover a new planet outside the Earth's solar system that may have the capacity to support life. The planet, about one-and-a-half times the size of the Earth, exists in a temperate zone and may contain liquid water. APRIL 26: Myanmar (formerly Burma) and North Korea agree to restore diplomatic relations after more than 20 years. Burma broke ties with Pyongyang because it suspected that the North Korean government was behind a 1983 bombing in Rangoon, an attack that coincided with a visit by South Korea's president. APRIL 27: A blackout hits Colombia affecting more that 80 percent of the country, forcing the stock exchange to suspend trading and trapping people in elevators for several hours. An undetermined technical glitch at a substation in Bogota that quickly spread to the rest of the country is blamed for the blackout. APRIL 30: Venezuelan president Hugo Chavez announces that Venezuela will pull out of the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund, accusing those organizations of exploiting small countries. MAY 4: Britain's Queen Elizabeth II visits the historic Jamestown settlement in Virginia to commemorate the 400th anniversary of the first permanent English settlement in the United States. It is the queen's first trip back to the country since her 1957 visit to celebrate Jamestown's 350th anniversary. MAY 5: A Kenya Airways flight crashes in a swamp in Cameroon, killing all 114 passengers onboard. The flight was headed toward Nairobi from Yaounde, Cameroon's capital. MAY 6: Conservative Party leader Nicolas Sarkozy wins France's presidential election. MAY 9: Northern Ireland's major Protestant and Catholic parties join together to form a power-sharing government, ending three decades of sectarian conflict in the province. MAY 10: After four days of high-level military talks between North and South Korea regarding cross-border train tests and the disputed western sea border, the two countries come to an agreement. Both nations will create a joint fishing zone in the West Sea and provide security guarantees for a rail test-run across the border for the first time in 50 years. MAY 10: British prime minister and Labour Party leader Tony Blair announces that he will resign from both offices on June 27 after 10 years in power. MAY 12: Samoa's King Malietoa Tanumafili II dies at the age of 94. One of the world's longest reigning monarchs, he had been in power since the country gained independence from New Zealand in 1962. MAY 14: Chang Chun-hsiung is named as Taiwan's new prime minister. MAY 15: The head of Colombia's national police force, Jorge Daniel Castro, and the country's intelligence chief, Guillermo Chavez, both resign after the discovery that police and security officials had illegally recorded phone calls of opposition politicians, journalists, and members of the government. MAY 16: Alex Salmond becomes the first Nationalist Party leader to be elected first minister of Scotland in the party's 73-year history. MAY 18: Chinese archaeologists studying ancient rock carvings on cliff faces announce the discovery of over 2,000 pictorial symbols dating back at least 8,000 years. The discovery provides evidence that Chinese symbols may be thousands of years older than originally thought. MAY 18: Paul Wolfowitz, the embattled president of the World Bank, announces he will resign his position on June 30. Wolfowitz had been under fire since it was revealed that he gave a pay raise to his female companion Shaha Riza, a bank employee. World Bank officials claimed that this created a "conflict of interest", that broke the bank's code of conduct. MAY 18: U.S. treasure hunting company Odyssey Marine Exploration announce the recovery of 17 tons of silver and gold coins from a sunken colonial-era ship found in the Atlantic Ocean. With an estimated value of (US) $500 million dollars, the shipwreck may be the richest treasure yet to be discovered. MAY 22: The British government charges ex-KGB agent Andrei Lugovoi with the poisoning death of Alexander Litvinenko, a former Soviet agent who had sought asylum in Great Britain. Russian prosecutors refuse to hand over Lugovoi, citing a clause in the Russian constitution that prohibits the extradition of any Russian citizen. Litvinenko, an outspoken critic of the Russian government and of President Vladimir Putin, died of radiation poisoning in a London hospital in November 2006. MAY 27: Syrian president Bashar al-Assad wins another seven-year term in an uncontested election. MAY 28: Venezuelan president Hugo Chavez closes down Radio Caracas Television, the country's most watched station and the only media outlet for political opposition, causing thousands to protest. Accusing the station of supporting a failed coup attempt in 2002 and of violating broadcast laws, Chavez announces that the government will not renew its broadcast license. MAY 28: The United States and Iranian representatives meet officially for the first time in 27 years. Topics include Iran's support for militias in Iraq. MAY 29: A British finance expert and four security workers are abducted from Iraq's finance ministry by kidnappers wearing police uniforms. The scale of the attack, which included the use of up to 40 police vehicles, suggests that the terrorists may have been working from within the Iraqi police force. MAY 30: Thailand's constitutional tribunal ban ousted Thai prime minister Thaksin Shinawatra and 110 senior officials from his Thai Rak Thai Party from political office for five years. The party itself is forced to dissolve after the court finds it guilty of violating electoral laws. MAY 31: Valdis Zatlers is chosen by Latvia's parliament as the country's new president. Zatlers, a top surgeon, had been criticized for taking cash presents from patients. JUNE 1: The Metyktire, a Native tribe that has never had contact with the outside world, is located in a remote region of the Amazon in Brazil. JUNE 7: Leaders of the G8 nations (Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Russia, Japan, the United Kingdom, and the United States) agree to seek a 50 percent reduction in global greenhouse gas emissions by 2050 in an effort to prevent climate change. JUNE 12: Former Serbian rebel leader Milan Martic is sentenced to 35 years in prison for war crimes in Croatia. Martic led the self-declared Krajina Serb republic in the early 1990s. JUNE 13: Former Israeli prime minister Ehud Barak is elected chairman of Israel's Labor Party and Vice Premier Shimon Peres is elected as Israel's ninth president. JUNE 13: Walid Eido, an anti-Syrian member of the Lebanese Parliament, is killed along with his son and eight others in a car bomb attack. Eido, who supported the United Nations investigation of Syria's ties to the 2004 assassination of former Lebanese prime minister Rafik Hariri, is the latest anti-Syrian politician to come under attack in Lebanon. JUNE 14: Fighters from the Hamas Party seize full control of Palestinian Authority agencies in Gaza. Palestinian president Mahmud Abbas dissolves the Palestinian Unity government and declares a state of emergency. JUNE 14: Bertie Ahern is elected as Ireland's Taoiseach for a third successive term and names his new cabinet. JUNE 14: Former United Nations secretary general Kurt Waldheim dies of heart failure at the age of 88. JUNE 15: Seven Britons accused of plotting to blow up U.S. financial institutions and stage bomb attacks in Britain are sentenced to 136 years in prison. JUNE 16: Tuiatua Tupua Tamasese Tupuola Efi is named the new leader of Samoa, replacing Malietoa Tanumafili II, who died in May. JUNE 19: It is announced that China has bypassed the United States in CO2 emissions by 8 percent, becoming the top CO2 producer in the world. JUNE 20: Kazakhstan's president Nursultan Nazarbayev dissolves parliament and calls for early elections in August. Critics say the move is intended to give Nazarbayev more power. JUNE 21: Japan changes the name of Iwo Jima to Iwo To, its original name. The island was the site of one of the most brutal battles of World War II. JUNE 24: Gordon Brown becomes Britain's Labour Party leader and prime minister, replacing Tony Blair, who recently stepped down. JUNE 24: An Iraqi court sentences to death three former aides of Saddam Hussein, including Ali Hassan al-Majid, known as "Chemical Ali," for their role in Operation Anfal, a genocide campaign during the 1980s that resulted in the deaths of 180,000 Kurds. JUNE 27: Kyrgyzstan's president Kurmanbek Bakiyev signs into law a bill abolishing the death penalty and replacing it with life sentences. JUNE 29: An excavation team in Spain unearths the oldest hominid fossil ever found in Western Europe. The fossil, a tooth, is approximately 1.2 million years old. JUNE 29: British police diffuse a car bomb in the theater district of central London. The bomb is discovered shortly after new British prime minister Gordon Brown is sworn in. JULY 4: Japan swears in its first female defense minister, Yuriko Koike. The former defense minister, Fumio Kyuma, had resigned over a controversial speech in which he declared that the 1945 atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki were justified. JULY 4: It is announced that the Russian city of Sochi has been chosen to host the 2014 Olympic Winter Games. JULY 4: Nearly four months after being kidnapped in Gaza by a militant group called the Army of Islam, BBC reporter Alan Johnston is freed. JULY 7: The Live Earth concerts, which were organized by former U. S. vice president Al Gore to bring attention to the problem of global warming, took place in nine host cities around the world. JULY 8: It is announced that for the first time, delegates from the Arab League will visit Israel to discuss its peace plan, which proposes full Arab recognition of Israel in exchange for Israel's withdrawal from all areas captured during the 1967 Six-Day War, as well as the creation of a Palestinian state. The meeting comes shortly after Israel releases 250 Palestinian prisoners. JULY 8: Chandra Shekhar, India's former prime minister, dies of cancer at age 80 in New Delhi. JULY 9: Poland's deputy prime minister Andrzej Lepper is fired amid charges of corruption within his Samoobrona Party. Although it appeared that early elections might be necessary to maintain a government majority, the crisis was quickly diffused. JULY 11: Four bombers were found guilty of conspiracy to murder by a British court and sentenced to life in prison for leading a failed al-Qaeda plot on July 21, 2005, to detonate explosives on London's public transport network. JULY 15: A law allowing women to abort during the first 10 weeks of pregnancy goes into effect in Portugal. JULY 15: Shimon Peres is sworn in as Israel's president. While the 83-year-old Nobel laureate's position does not give him the power of policymaking, he will be in charge of granting pardons and commuting sentences for prisoners in Israeli jails. JULY 17: A passenger airplane in Sao Paulo, Brazil, skids across a busy road while attempting to land, killing more than 200 people. JULY 19: A war crimes court in Sierra Leone sentences three militia chiefs including Alex Tamba Brima and Santigie Borbor Kanu to 50 years each and Brima Bazzy Kamara to 45 years for human rights violations including mutilation and child slavery. JULY 20: It is announced that the most important haul of Viking treasure since the 19th century has been found in Britain. The treasure dates from the 10th century JULY 21: Pratibha Patil is named India's first female president. JULY 23: Mohammad Zahir Shah, the former king of Afghanistan dies at age 92. The country's last king, he was in power for 40 years before being ousted in a 1973 coup. JULY 27: After eight years in office, Steve Bracks, the premier of Victoria, Australia, resigns. Shortly afterward, Deputy Premier John Thwaite also resigns. Bracks and Thwaite both endorse John Brumby, Victoria's current treasurer, to become the next premier. JULY 27: India and the United States finalize a nuclear deal guaranteeing India fuel supplies to help meet its increasing energy demands. The deal also provides access to U.S. nuclear technology if India agrees to open inspections of its facilities. The agreement ends three decades of U.S. sanctions against India after that nation conducted its first nuclear test in 1974. JULY 31: Archaeologists in Egypt discover remnants of what is believed to be the ancient city of Rhakotis while searching for Greek and Roman ruins in Alexandria's East Bay. The findings include 3,000-year-old building materials that may have been used to construct the city 700 years before Alexander the Great invaded Egypt in 332 BCE. JULY 31: The United Nations Security Council authorizes the use of 26,000 troops and police in the war-torn region of Darfur. The directive also allows the peacekeeping force, the world's largest, to use force if needed to protect civilians. JULY 31: After 38 years, "Operation Banner," the British army's support role for the police in Northern Ireland, comes to an end. British troops were sent to the area in 1969 to quell ongoing violent clashes between Catholics and Protestants. AUGUST 1: British Airways and Korean Air Lines both plead guilty to charges of price-fixing for fuel charges on passenger and cargo flights. British Airways was fined a record £121.5 million by the United Kingdom's Office of Fair Trading. The company was fined an additional $300 million by the U.S. Department of Justice for infractions against American laws. Korean Air Lines was also hit with a fine by the U.S. Justice Department for their participation in the price-gouging scheme. AUGUST 2: In an attempt to lay claim to valuable Arctic territory, Russian explorers put their country's flag on the seabed 4,200 m (13,100 ft.) below the North Pole. Other nations that border the area, including Canada, the United States, and Denmark, reject this claim. They argue that simply planting a flag does not guarantee Russia the right to the disputed territory, which is thought to contain oil, gas, and mineral reserves. AUGUST 2: Iturriaga Neumann, a fugitive exgeneral from the Pinochet era, is captured by authorities on Chile's Pacific coast. Sentenced to five years in prison in connection with the disappearance of a political activist in 1974, Neumann had denied involvement in the incident and fled authorities in June. AUGUST 6: Japan marks the 62nd anniversary of the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki with solemn ceremonies. Japanese prime minister Shinzo Abe spoke at the Hiroshima gathering and called for the elimination of all nuclear weapons. AUGUST 10: The Congolese Work Party (PCT) and other affiliated groups, headed by Republic of the Congo president Denis Sassou-Nguesso win 90 percent of the seats in a parliamentary election. AUGUST 10: Hamid Ansari, the ruling United Progressive Alliance (UPA)-Lefts candidate is elected India's vice president, narrowly defeating Najma Neptullah of the National Democratic Alliance (NDA) by 233 votes. AUGUST 13: Michael Somare wins his second straight term as Papua New Guinea's prime minister. This marks the fourth time Somare has been elected to the position. AUGUST 15: An earthquake with a magnitude of 7.9 hits the coast of Peru killing more than 300 people and injuring more than 1,000. AUGUST 15: Japan agrees to resume direct aid to the Palestinian government. Japan withdrew aid in 2006 when Hamas formed a government but reinstated its financial support after Palestinian Authority president Mahmoud Abbas ousted Hamas in June 2007. AUGUST 18: Russian president Vladimir Putin announces that after 15 years, the Russian air force will resume regular, long-range patrols by bomber planes carrying nuclear weapons. AUGUST 19: Kazahkstan president Nursultan Nazarbayev's Nur Otan Party wins control over parliament. AUGUST 19: In the first public vote since former prime minister Thaksin Shinawatra was exiled from power, the Thai people approve a new constitution that promises a democratic government. AUGUST 22: As part of the Disarmament, Demobilization, and Reintegration (DDR) program run by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), 3,500 ex-militia members in an unstable area of the Democratic Republic of the Congo agree to disarm and reintegrate back into society. AUGUST 24: Widespread forest fires break out in Greece, displacing thousands of people and killing at least 60. Two previous series of forest fires also ravaged the countryside in June and July 2007. Experts blame the fast-spreading infernos on high winds, dry climate, and arson. AUGUST 26: In the Pacific island country of Nauru, President Ludwig Scotty's reformist government retains a majority of seats in parliament for another term in a general election. AUGUST 28: Hugo Salas Wenzel, an ex-general to Chilean dictator Augusto Pinochet, receives a life sentence for his part in the murder of 12 rebels who attempted to assassinate Pinochet in 1986. AUGUST 28: Turkey's foreign minister Abdullah Gül is elected president. Gül's Islamist background sparks controversy and protests from secularists. AUGUST 31: At the end of a weeklong United Nations (UN) climate conference, 158 nations agree to basic goals that include the reduction of greenhouse gasses in industrialized countries by 2020. MID-SEPTEMBER: The largest anti-government protests in Myanmar (Burma) since 1988 take place as Buddhist monks lead citizens in protest through Yangon, the country's largest city, and other cities in mid-September after the government raises the cost of fuel by 500 percent. At the end of the month the ruling military junta begins a crackdown on demonstrators, firing into crowds of protestors and killing more than nine people. U. S. president George W. Bush imposes sanctions on the country as punishment for the crackdown. Myanmar's security forces raid several Buddhist monasteries, arresting hundreds of monks believed to be involved in leading the protests. In addition, the government cuts Internet access and instates a curfew on Myanmar's two main cities, Yangon and Mandalay. SEPTEMBER 1: Pedro Miguel Gonzalez Pinzon is elected president of Panama's national assembly. Gonzalez Pinzon is wanted in the United States for his part in the 1992 murder of a U.S. soldier, though a Panamanian court acquitted him of charges 10 years ago. SEPTEMBER 1: China introduces new regulations on choosing the next Dalai Lama, giving the government control over the final selection and violating the Tibetan spiritual process of selection. SEPTEMBER 3: Japan and Chile sign a free trade agreement, marking Japan's first economic agreement with a South American country. SEPTEMBER 3: The former prime minister of Bangladesh, Khaleda Zia, and her son are arrested by the country's interim government and charged with extortion and corruption. SEPTEMBER 5: Wenceslao Ayapan and Esmeralda Uyun, candidates within presidential hopeful Rigoberta Menchú's Encuentro por Guatemala Party, are shot and killed. About 50 politicians and their family members have been killed in the last four months of the presidential election season. Political analysts suggest organized crime may be behind the killings. SEPTEMBER 5: British prime minister Gordon Brown launches an international program to improve the health-care systems in some of the world's poorest countries by bringing together several nations and high profile donors to better utilize foreign aid. SEPTEMBER 6: U.S. District Judge Victor Marrero rules against a part of the USA-PATRIOT Act in favor of the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), which challenged the act's increase to the investigative powers of law enforcement. SEPTEMBER 11: Russia tests the world's biggest non-nuclear bomb, nicknamed the "Father of All Bombs". The bomb is said to be four times as powerful as the U.S. built Massive Ordinance Air Blast, also known as MOAB, or the "Mother of All Bombs." SEPTEMBER 11: Orette Bruce Golding is sworn in as Jamaica's eighth prime minister. SEPTEMBER 12: Japan's prime minister Shinzo Abe resigns from his position after several scandals and a low approval rating. SEPTEMBER 12: Russian president Vladimir Putin fires Prime Minister Mikhail Fradkov and appoints Viktor Zubkov to the position. SEPTEMBER 12: Joseph Estrada, the former president of the Philippines is sentenced to life in prison on charges of corruption and embezzlement while in office. An army-backed revolt expelled him from the presidency. SEPTEMBER 13: After 22 years of debate, the United Nations General Assembly approves a non-binding declaration on the rights of indigenous peoples. The declaration asks countries to give more control to tribal peoples over the land and resources they once possessed and to return confiscated territory or pay compensation. SEPTEMBER 13: Oscar Temaru is elected president of French Polynesia after former president Gaston Tong Sang is ejected from the position due to a no-confidence vote by lawmakers who want more independence for the territory. SEPTEMBER 17: Buddhist monks in Myanmar (formerly Burma) begin protests against the military regime that rules the country. The monks vow on September 19 to continue the protests until the regime is replaced by a democratic government. SEPTEMBER 19: Antoine Ghanem, a member of the anti-Syrian governing coalition, and at least seven other people are killed by a car bomb less than a week before Lebanon's parliament is due to elect a new president. SEPTEMBER 19: 270 people are reported dead and more than 600,000 homeless, after weeks of flooding in 17 African countries. SEPTEMBER 21: Chile's Supreme Court votes in favor of extraditing former Peruvian president Alberto Fujimori back to Peru on charges of human rights abuses and corruption during his presidency from 1990-2000. Fujimori has been under house arrest in Chile since 2005. SEPTEMBER 25: Yasuo Fukuda is elected prime minister of Japan by the lower house of parliament. SEPTEMBER 26: A section of a massive bridge under construction in Can Tho, located in southern Vietnam, collapses. At least 45 people die and 82 are injured. SEPTEMBER 27: Zimbabwe's parliament passes a bill, pushed by President Robert Mugabe's government, giving local owners majority control over foreign-owned companies, including banks and mining. Opposition members protest by walking out of parliament, arguing that the legislation will make a small number of individuals rich while deterring foreign investment in the country. SEPTEMBER 30: After a series of small earthquakes, a volcano erupts on the Yemeni island of al-Tair in the Red Sea, killing four people. OCTOBER 3: NASA and Russia's space agency sign an agreement to cooperate in the search for water on the moon and Mars. The event also marks the 50th anniversary of Sputnik, the first successful satellite launched into space. OCTOBER 4: North Korean president Kim Jong Il and South Korean president Roh Moo Hyun hold a summit to discuss relations between the two countries. The two leaders sign a declaration to bring "permanent peace" to North and South Korea and to officially end the 1950-1953 Korean War. OCTOBER 4: Thirty-two hundred miners trapped deep in a mineshaft in South Africa are rescued after a day-long effort. The South African mining industry has often come under scrutiny for lax safety standards and dangerous working conditions. OCTOBER 5: Japan's lunar explorer, Kaguya, which was launched last month, successfully enters orbit around the moon. The orbiter will deploy two smaller satellites that will collect data on the moon's geology and environment. OCTOBER 9: Japan extends economic sanctions on North Korea for another six months in response to the country's slow return of Japanese nationals kidnapped in the late 1970s and early 1980s. OCTOBER 10: The Soyuz-TMA 11 spacecraft is launched from the Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan to the International Space Station. The spacecraft carries the first Malaysian astronaut, Sheikh Muszaphar Shukor, and the first female space station commander, Peggy Whitson. OCTOBER 12: The Nobel Prize winners for 2007 are announced. Doris Lessing wins the Nobel Prize in Literature; Albert Fert and Peter Grünberg win the Nobel Prize in Physics; Gerhard Ertl wins the Nobel Prize in Chemistry; Mario R. Capecchi, Sir Martin J. Evans, and Oliver Smithies win the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine; Al Gore and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change win the Nobel Prize for Peace. OCTOBER 13: At least 20 people die and 10 are injured after a landslide at an open pit gold mine in Colombia. OCTOBER 13: Anonymous U.S. and foreign officials with access to intelligence reports confirm that an Israeli air-strike against Syria in September targeted a partially constructed nuclear reactor. OCTOBER 15: Singapore Airlines is the first to receive Airbus's A380 superjumbo jet, the world's largest commercial jet aircraft. The double-decker aircraft arrived 18 months behind schedule due to construction delays. OCTOBER 16: The Dalai Lama receives the congressional gold medal in the United States from President George W. Bush. China warns that the award of the medal will damage relations with the United States, claiming that the Dalai Lama seeks to make Tibet independent of China. OCTOBER 18: A suicide bomber strikes the motorcade of former Pakistani prime minister Benazir Bhutto, killing at least 136 people and injuring 387 more. Bhutto was returning to Pakistan after eight years of self-imposed exile in London on charges of corruption. OCTOBER 21: A dozen Turkish soldiers are killed by a troop of rebels from the Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK), a separatist Kurdish militia operating near the Iraq-Turkey border. OCTOBER 22: Polish voters choose Donald Tusk's Civic Platform Party over incumbent prime minister Jaroslaw Kaczynski's Law and Justice Party. In Poland's most-attended parliamentary election since the fall of communism, analysts claim that a higher youth turnout ultimately favored the Civic Platform's promise of economic reform. OCTOBER 24: China launches its first lunar orbiter, Chang'e I, from the Xichang launch center in Sichuan. Named after a Chinese moon goddess, the orbiter is the first of several projected moon missions for China's developing space program. OCTOBER 25: Nine French citizens are arrested in Abeché, Chad, for organizing the illegal removal of 103 African children from the country. The nine citizens work for Zoe's Ark, an organization that claims to rescue orphans of the violent Darfur conflict and place them in homes in France and Belgium. The French Foreign Ministry is investigating the incident. OCTOBER 29: Cristina Fernández de Kirchner wins the presidential election in Argentina with 45 percent of the popular vote. The first formally elected female president of Argentina, Fernández de Kirchner is the wife of current president Néstor Kirchner. NOVEMBER 1: Nikola Spiric, a Serb, resigns his position as prime minister of Bosnia-Herzegovina in protest of reforms designed to bring the country in line with EU (European Union) regulations. The reforms, introduced by EU representative Miroslav Lajcak, impose changes to the state cabinet so as to prevent ethnic disputes from affecting parliamentary decision-making. NOVEMBER 2: Heavy rains cause extreme flooding in Mexico, with water covering more than 70 percent of the state of Tabasco. The flooding affects more than 1 million people, leaving some 300,000 trapped in their homes. NOVEMBER 2: S. P. Thamilselvam, a key leader and negotiator of the Tamil Tigers, and five other officers are killed during an air strike by the Sri Lankan government. The strike is retaliation for a rebel attack against a Sri Lankan army airbase two weeks previous. The Tamil Tigers were formed in 1976 with the goal of securing a separate homeland for the Tamil minority in the northeast region of Sri Lanka. NOVEMBER 4: Pervez Musharraf, president and former head of the armed forces of Pakistan, declares a nationwide state of emergency on the grounds that the country is under terrorist threat and that he must "preserve the democratic transition". He suspends Pakistan's Constitution, fires the Supreme Court chief justice, and orders hundreds of police officers to patrol the capital city of Islamabad. NOVEMBER 4: Center-left leader Alvaro Colom wins the presidential election in Guatemala with a margin of five percent over his opponent, Otto Perez Molina. This is Colom's third campaign to win the Guatemalan presidency. NOVEMBER 5: In Yongbyon, North Korea, a U.S.-led team of technicians begin disabling a nuclear facility that makes weapons-grade plutonium. As part of a deal brokered in February with the United Nations, North Korea will receive aid in the form of crude oil or other kinds of energy in exchange for ending all plutonium production. Further stipulations of the agreement include discontinuing any nuclear intelligence talks with other nations. NOVEMBER 8: Eighteen-year-old Finnish high school student Pekka-Eric Auvinen kills seven students and the principal at his school in Tuusula, Finland, before attempting to kill himself. Just hours before he began the massacre, Auvinen posted a video on YouTube showing him brandishing the gun. NOVEMBER 8: Georgian president Mikheil Saakashvili declares a state of emergency following a statement by Badri Patarkatsishvili, a television station owner, that he wanted to overthrow the Georgian government. Police and special forces in Tblisi, the capital, use rubber bullets and tear gas to break up anti-government protests on the streets and shut down Patarkatsishvili's television station, Imedi Television. Patarkatsishvili accuses Saakashvili of corruption and spurning the democratic process in Georgia, and he promises to run against the president in the upcoming January elections. NOVEMBER 10: At an Ibero-American summit for Spanish and Portuguese speaking countries in Chile, Venezuelan president Hugo Chavez verbally attacks the former Spanish prime minister Jose Maria Anzar, calling him a fascist. Although his microphone is silenced, Chavez attempts to interrupt the response of Spain's current prime minister, José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero. In frustration, King Juan Carlos of Spain asks Chavez, "Why don't you please shut up?" (in Spanish, "Por que no te callas?"). NOVEMBER 13: International news sources report that Computational Research Laboratory (CRL), a communications and information subsidiary of the Indian conglomerate Tata Group, has built the fastest supercomputer in Asia. Named "EKA" ("one" in Sanskrit), it is listed by the supercomputer benchmarking website The500.org as the fourth-most powerful supercomputer in the world, able to perform more than 117 trillion calculations per second. NOVEMBER 14: A violent earthquake measuring 7.7 on the Richter scale hits Chile, killing two people, injuring hundreds, and leaving more than 4,000 without homes. Aftershocks the following day leave an additional 15,000 people homeless. NOVEMBER 15: American scientists successfully clone embryos from an adult monkey, proving that primate cloning is scientifically possible, and opening up the possibility of cloning human embryos for stem cell research. Embryonic stem cells could be used to treat numerous diseases, including many forms of cancer and diabetes. NOVEMBER 16: More than 3,000 people are reported dead and millions left homeless in Bangladesh as Cyclone Sidr hits the coast and travels north past Dhaka, the capital city. The current storm is the most destructive since the 1991 cyclone that killed 143,000 people. NOVEMBER 17: Georgian president Mikheil Saakashvili reinstates normal government rule after declaring a state of emergency on November 4 in response to anti-governmental protests in the capital city of Tblisi. NOVEMBER 17: The Democratic Party of Kosovo (PDK) wins the most parliamentary seats in Kosovo, the small region that is formally a province of Serbia. The party is led by Hashim Thaci, a former rebel fighter, whom many expect to realize the separatist ambitions of most non-Serbian Kosovars. Political analysts in the region view Thaci as next in line for premiership of the disputed territory. NOVEMBER 18: An oil pipeline near Hawiyah, Saudi Arabia, erupts during the night killing 40 people and injuring nine. The site of the eruption is the Haradh-Uthmaniyah gas pipeline, owned by the Saudi state oil company Saudi Aramco. The official statement released by the oil giant states that the cause of the eruption, which took place during a maintenance operation, is unclear and under investigation. NOVEMBER 20: A combined team of scientists from Kyoto University, the University of Wisconsin, and the University of California in San Francisco discover several methods to reprocess regular human skin cells into embryonic stem cells. The end results create induced pluripotent stem cells, or iPS cells, which can change into any cell type in the human body. NOVEMBER 21: The West Bengal army stifles a riot in the state capital of Kolkata (formerly Calcutta), which started as a protest and road blockades set up by the advocacy group the Muslim All-India Minority Forum. Local villagers, most of whom are Muslims, were protesting governmental violence stemming from land seizures, and from the presence of Taslima Nasreen, a controversial Bangladeshi writer and feminist, in Kolkata. NOVEMBER 24: In Australia the Labor Party wins a majority of seats in the Parliamentary elections, defeating the opposition Liberal Party and removing party leader John Howard from the office of prime minister. Labor party leader Kevin Rudd will replace Howard as the head of government and pledges to concentrate on environmental issues and remove some 500 out of the 800 Australian troops stationed in Iraq. NOVEMBER 25: In a display of increased tension between ethnic Tibetans and Han Chinese, approximately 600 Tibetan herdsmen riot in a rural Tibetan village, destroying cars, Chinese-owned shops, and Chinese government offices. The riot began as the result of an arrest of three Tibetan monks who had a disagreement and brief struggle with a Chinese shop owner, who was not himself incarcerated. NOVEMBER 26: An earthquake measuring 6.0 on the Richter scale hits Manila, the capital city of the Philippines. Although no causalities or serious damage are reported from the tremors, typhoons Hagibis and Mitag raged for several days leading up to the earthquake, killing an estimated 25 people. NOVEMBER 27: Kyrgyz president Kurmanbek Bakiyev accepts the early resignation of Prime Minister Almazbek Atambayev, just weeks ahead of an unexpected and rapidly scheduled parliamentary election. NOVEMBER 28: Pakistani president Pervez Musharraf formally resigns from his position as head of the military. He had been a member of the army since he was 18 years old, starting in 1961. At the same time as the resignation Musharraf begins his third term as the president of Pakistan. DECEMBER 3: Venezuelan president Hugo Chavez fails to receive the votes necessary to pass his proposed constitutional reforms. His measures would have removed presidential term limits, set state communism as an official and ultimate goal, given his office the power to control foreign currency reserves, and the power to relinquish the right to private property. Foreign observers view his defeat as a great triumph for the democratic process in Venezuela. DECEMBER 5: The king of Thailand, Bhumibol Adulyadej, celebrates his 80th birthday with elaborate ceremonies, and the day is observed as a national holiday across the country. Many devoted citizens, some of whom see the king as semi-divine or as a religious deity, wear yellow to symbolize their devotion to the king. Although he holds no formal political power, the Thai population reveres the king, and he has much sway over the mood of the populace. Adulyadej is also the oldest reigning monarch in the world. DECEMBER 7: Hong Kong crude oil carrier Hebei Spirit is struck by a crane and spills more than 10,000 metric tons of crude oil into the Yellow Sea off the west coast of South Korea. The oil spreads over 12 miles from the carrier, covering beaches and nature preserves in oil, and poisoning local flora and fauna. DECEMBER 8: Archaeologists near Luoyang in the Henan province of China unearth almost 1,000 ancient tombs, some of which were constructed as far back as 770 BCE. The graves are located in the imperial graveyard of Mangshan, an area north of Luyoang, which was at one point the capital city of several Chinese imperial dynasties. In addition to the graves, more than 20,000 different historical artifacts are uncovered including cups and vessels made of precious metals, as well as ornaments and implements made of jade, stone, and porcelain. DECEMBER 13: In Bali, Indonesia, 190 nations gather as part of an international effort to improve environmental conditions and to create and ratify a global climate treaty. As negotiations to draft a successor to the 1997 Kyoto Protocol falters and falls behind schedule, the European Union (EU) openly accuses the United States of lacking ambition in the field of global environmentalism. In response to these events of the conference, former vice president Al Gore states "My own country the United States is principally responsible for obstructing progress in Bali." Gore then continued to encourage the other countries to initiate negotiations for climate change despite the sluggishness of the United States. DECEMBER 14: Hryhoriy Nestor, a Ukrainian citizen and reputedly the oldest living person in the world, dies at the age of 116 in Lviv, Ukraine. According to family birth records, the former farm laborer was born on March 15, 1891. Nestor, who was never married, also marks a world record as being the only known male ever to live to the age of 116. DECEMBER 17: In a majority parliamentary vote, Hungary becomes the first country in the European Union (EU) to ratify the Lisbon Treaty. Ratified in Lisbon on December 13, 2007, the treaty proposes reforms to the rules of cooperation between EU member states. The Lisbon Treaty echoes many of the goals of the failed European Constitution treaty, but it does not propose to create a European constitution. DECEMBER 19: Two Angolan actors are mistakenly shot and killed by police in Angola's capital city, Luanda, while filming a scene for a movie. The scene required the two actors to run down a city street brandishing unloaded guns. DECEMBER 20: During a U.S. military operation, an al-Qaeda torture complex is discovered near Muqdadiya, in the Iraqi province of Diyala. Believed to be an al-Qaeda stronghold, the three-building complex was used for mutilation and intimidation of local villagers and military prisoners. A mass grave of 26 bodies is also discovered near the complex. DECEMBER 20: Derek Sikua is elected prime minister of the Solomon Islands. He replaces former prime minister Manasseh Sogovare. DECEMBER 26: Torrential rain causes massive floods and landslides in Indonesia. At least 130 people are killed or buried alive in the Karaganyar district, a southeastern province on the island of Java. DECEMBER 27: The six French aid workers of the organization Zoe's Ark, accused of the attempted kidnapping of 103 African children in Chad, are found guilty and sentenced to eight years of hard labor. Under a 1976 prisoner exchange agreement between France and Chad, the six prisoners are sent back to France and will serve out their sentence in their home country. DECEMBER 27: Former prime minister of Pakistan Benazir Bhutto is assassinated in Rawalpindi, Pakistan. The attacker first shoots Bhutto, then sets off a bomb among a crowd of Bhutto supporters attending a rally. Violent protests follow, and president Pervez Musharraf calls for heavy crackdowns on rioters and looters across the country. DECEMBER 28: Australian David Hicks, a former Guantánamo detainee and terrorist supporter, is released from Yatala prison in Adelaide, Australia. He was there serving the remaining nine months of a seven-year sentence imposed by the Guantánamo military court for "providing material support for terrorism." DECEMBER 30: The Nepalese parliament approves a motion to abolish the country's 240-year-old monarchy, headed by King Gyanendra. The decision was made to appease the former Maoist rebels who quit the legislature in September 2007 in protest of the monarchy. In the beginning of his reign Gyanendra ruled Nepal autocratically, but he now holds no political power. The king is seen responsible for the escalating political crisis that coincides with the Maoist insurgency. DECEMBER 31: Elections in Kenya end in violence when voters dispute the reelection of president Mwai Kibaki as being rigged and unfair. Opposition leader Raila Odinga and international observers also reject the election results. Riot police fight back against protestors in Nairobi and Mombasa, while a majority of the fighting takes place between members of the Luo and Kikuyu tribes. The government estimates that there have been more than 500 deaths and 255,000 people displaced as a result of the riots riots. Raila Odinga claims that the death toll is closer to 1,000.

2009

JANUARY 1: The United Nations Security Council (UNSC) seats ten new rotating members. The new members include Costa Rica, Burkina Faso, Libya, Croatia, and Vietnam, whose two-year terms expire at the end of 2009. The terms of Austria, Japan, Mexico, Turkey, and Uganda end in 2010. JANUARY 1: Iraq takes control of the Green Zone from U.S. forces. When the UN mandate on the Iraq War expired at the end of 2008, Iraqi forces became responsible for more of the country's security. The Green Zone is the heavily fortified seat of the Iraqi government. JANUARY 3: Israel launches a ground war against Hamas in the Gaza Strip. The civilian death toll continues to rise as infantry and tanks are deployed in the heavily populated urban area. JANUARY 5: Khalid Shaikh Mohammed, the alleged mastermind of the September 11, 2001, attacks and the bombing of a Tunisian synagogue on April 11, 2002, is put on trial in France. He is being held by the United States at the Guantánamo Bay prison camp in Cuba and is on trial in absentia, along with German national Christian Ganczarski and Tunisian Walid Nouar. JANUARY 9: Somali pirates release a Saudi supertanker, the Sirius Star. The pirates have held the ship, its crew, and the 2 million barrels of oil onboard hostage since November. The ship is released after a small plane drops a $3 million ransom from the ship's owners onto the tanker with a parachute. JANUARY 13: Ethiopian troops pull out of bases in Mogadishu, Somalia. They began their withdrawal on January 2. Ethiopia invaded Somalia in 2006 with U.S. support to assist the transitional government and oust the Islamist movement that was attempting to take power. The invasion was unsuccessful and ignited a guerilla war between Ethiopia and various Islamist factions, many of which seized power after Ethiopia's withdrawal. JANUARY 15: Amidst heavy Israeli shelling, a United Nations Relief and Works Agency (UNRWA) building in the Gaza Strip is destroyed, along with many tons of food and medication held within it. Israel claims that Hamas militants fired rockets from within the compound. UN Secretary-General Ban Ki Moon demands an investigation. JANUARY 15: Sri Lankan government forces capture the remaining land held by the rebel Tamil Tigers in the Jaffa peninsula, located in the country's north. The peninsula is the cultural capital of the Tamils, an ethnic minority. Its capture is an important victory for the government after the 25-year insurgency. JANUARY 17 & 18: Israel and Hamas separately declare a cease-fire in the Gaza Strip. Israeli troops begin to withdraw to the Israeli border. JANUARY 19: A UN-backed tribunal in Cambodia announces that they will begin trying Khmer Rouge officials for crimes against humanity. The Khmer Rouge, led by Pol Pot, was in power in Cambodia from 1974 to 1979. During the reign, 1.7 million people died of disease, starvation, torture, and politically motivated execution. The first on trial will be Kiang Guek Eav, known as Duch. He is accused of murder, rape, and persecution. He faces life imprisonment if convicted. JANUARY 20: Barack Obama takes the oath of office and is inaugurated as the 44th president of the United States. In his inaugural address he mentions the many difficult circumstances that the United States faces and makes an appeal for a new era of responsibility. JANUARY 23: Congolese rebel General Laurent Nkunda is arrested along the Congo-Rwanda border by Rwandan troops. Nkunda's capture is seen as a turning point for the war torn country of Congo. Nkunda has been engaging in military activities and has allegedly been committing war crimes since 2002. He was trained by the Rwandan military to hunt Hutu rebels who fled Rwanda after the 1994 genocide there. Nkunda is a Tutsi, an ethnic group that dominates Rwanda's leadership. That fact, along with Rwanda's extensive interests in Congo, raised suspicion that Rwanda's government had been supporting Nkunda's activities. JANUARY 25: Bolivians vote in a referendum to ratify a new constitution. The constitution seeks to expand rights and representation for Bolivia's large indigenous population, as President Evo Morales has sought to do for many years. The constitution also broadens the definition of property to include communal ownership and emphasizes the state's control of natural gas reserves. The constitution is widely accepted but continues to face fierce regional opposition. FEBRUARY 3: Iran launches its first satellite into orbit. The satellite design reportedly originated in the country and adds Iran to a short list of nations—including Russia, the United States, India, France, Japan, Britain, Israel, and China—that have sent satellites into orbit. Iran's achievement causes concern for many Western nations, which are wary of the satellite's potential military applications. FEBRUARY 4: President Kurmanbek Bakiyev of Kyrgyzstan announces that he will close the U.S. airbase at Manas. The decision comes after a trip to Russia where President Dmitry Medvedev promised billions in aid. The closure causes technical difficulties for the Obama administration, which had planned on using the base for increasing troop presence in Afghanistan. FEBRUARY 6: Iraqi prime minister Nouri Kamal al-Maliki's Dawa Party wins in provincial elections in Iraq. Although Dawa wins the majority of votes, it still needs to form a coalition government. The election is widely regarded as fair and features far less violence than did the previous election. Sunnis also participate in greater numbers than before, creating a more diverse electorate. FEBRUARY 7-17: Wildfires in the state of Victoria, Australia, kill more than 200 people and destroy two towns. High temperatures and unpredictable winds help fan the flames that cause what is being called the worst natural disaster in Australia's history. The fires are found to have been deliberately set. Prime Minister Kevin Rudd calls the incident "mass murder." On February 13, a man is arrested by Victoria state police on charges of arson causing death. FEBRUARY 11: Robert Mugabe, president of Zimbabwe, swears in his rival Morgan Tsvangirai as prime minister. Tsvangirai has been the opposition leader against Mugabe's often repressive government for many years. Almost one year ago, Tsvangirai won the first round of presidential elections in Zimbabwe but was forced to withdraw when state-sanctioned violence against him and his supporters intensified. Many Zimbabweans and outside observers are doubtful that the power-sharing agreement will be effective, as Mugabe has a history of authoritarian behavior and retains all executive power. FEBRUARY 11: Taliban fighters attack important government buildings in Kabul, Afghanistan, including the justice, education, and prisons departments. Afghan security forces retake all of the buildings, but the attacks kill 20 people in addition to all of the gunmen. The incident highlights the ease with which the Taliban may enter Kabul with weapons. FEBRUARY 11: Judges at the International Criminal Court (ICC) at the Hague issue an arrest warrant for President Omar Hassan al-Bashir of Sudan. Critics accuse al-Bashir of being the mastermind behind the conflict in the Darfur region of Sudan where up to 300,000 people have been killed and millions displaced since 2003. Sudanese officials claim that they are cooperating with peacekeeping forces and that the warrant should not be issued. Other groups, such as the African Union (AU) and the Arab League, also oppose the warrant. FEBRUARY 12: Tzipi Livni's centrist Kadima Party wins parliamentary elections in Israel. Livni wins by a very small margin—one seat—over right-wing veteran Benjamin Netanyahu. The elections do not guarantee that Livni's party will govern, as Netanyahu's right-wing Likud Party may form a coalition government with Avigdor Lieberman's further right-wing party Yisrael Beiteinu. FEBRUARY 16: Venezuelan voters abolish term limits, giving President Hugo Chávez the right to run for reelection after his current term ends in 2013. Although Chávez wins a major victory, he faces many challenges. He may be forced to moderate his platform due to falling oil prices, which have curtailed Venezuela's rapid economic growth throughout the decade. Chávez must also reach out to a strong opposition—45 percent of voters voted against the abolition of term limits. FEBRUARY 22: A bomb in Cairo kills one and injures 20. The bomb explodes in Hussein Square next to the Khan el-Khalili bazar and the Hussein Mosque, two popular destinations for tourists from around the world. The attack comes during rising tensions in Cairo due to the recent conflict in Gaza. FEBRUARY 25: Iran begins testing its new nuclear power plant at the port town of Bushehr. The testing begins in spite of widespread international opposition toward Iran's nuclear program. Many countries claim that Iran is developing nuclear weapons, while Iran continues to assert that its program is for peaceful purposes only. MARCH 2: Troops kill the president of Guinea-Bissau, João Bernardo Vieira. The killing is supposedly in retaliation for the death in an earlier bomb attack of the army chief of staff. The army promises to respect the constitution and denies that a coup is underway. MARCH 3: Gunmen attack the Sri Lankan cricket team in Lahore, Pakistan, in a commando-style ambush. Six Pakistani police officers and two bystanders are killed, and six cricketers are injured. Pakistan is accused of a security lapse and receives criticism from the international cricket community. MARCH 4: The International Criminal Court (ICC) issues an arrest warrant for President Omar Hassan al-Bashir of Sudan. It charges al-Bashir with war crimes and crimes against humanity for his part in the atrocities in Darfur. This is the first time the ICC has sought to arrest a sitting head of state. Al-Bashir's government responds by denouncing the court and ordering many foreign aid organizations to cease their work in the war-torn region. MARCH 7-10: Gunmen from a dissident faction of the Irish Republican Army (IRA) kill two British soldiers in Northern Ireland. Three days later in a separate incident a different IRA faction kills a British police officer. Both armed factions are opposed to the peace process in Northern Ireland and seek to unify the region with the Irish Republic to the south. MARCH 10: Violence escalates in Baghdad as two suicide bombers kill 33 people, seven of whom are Iraqi military personnel. The bombing takes place during a period of relative calm in the capital and the occurrence renews fears that militant jihadists and extremist Ba'athists are redoubling their efforts to disrupt Iraqi peace. MARCH 10: A suicide bomber in the southern Sri Lankan town of Akuressa kills 14 people and wounds 46 others including a government minister. Government ministers are supposedly being targeted in retaliation for the war against the rebel group the Tamil Tigers. MARCH 15-18: A terrorist attack in the ancient fortress city of Shibam in Yemen leaves four South Korean citizens dead on March 15. Days later, a suicide bomber attacks a South Korean delegation sent to investigate the killings. MARCH 15: Venezualan president Hugo Chávez orders the navy to seize seaports in the country's petroleum-exporting regions. Many of these areas came under the control of the political opposition in recent regional elections. Chavez is thought to be taking control of these ports in response. MARCH 16: Pakistani chief justice Iftikhar Muhammad Chaudhry is reinstated. He was first dismissed by former president Pervez Musharraf on March 9, 2007. The reinstatement is seen as a victory for the Pakistani people against a corrupt and ineffective upper-class establishment. MARCH 16: Mauricio Funes and the leftist FMLN party win the presidential election in El Salvador. This is the first presidential election won by the left since the right-wing Arena party took four consecutive elections beginning in 1989. Funes promises to govern in the mold of Brazilian president Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva. Funes further states he will not nationalize industries or levy new taxes and will attempt to maintain a constructive relationship with the United States. MARCH 16: Former president and reformist candidate Mohammad Khatami withdraws from the Iranian presidential race. His decision comes after former prime minister Mir-Hussein Moussavi, who governed during the protracted Iran-Iraq war, announces that he will make a bid for the presidency. Khatami claims that he would dilute the reformist vote if he remains a candidate and that he does not want to compete with Moussavi. MARCH 18: Madagascar's president, Marc Ravalomanana, resigns after weeks of discord. Ravalomanana ceded control to the military, which in turn gave control to the former president's rival, Andry Rajoelina. In recent weeks Rajoelina, then governor of the capital Antananarivo, declared himself numerous times to be leader of a government parallel to Ravalomanana's. MARCH 18: North Korea cites no reason for its refusal of food aid from the United States, despite its status as a deeply impoverished nation with chronic food shortages. The refusal comes before the country's test rocket launch, which many view as a response to upcoming military drills by the United States and South Korea. MARCH 19: French workers mobilize across the country to protest President Nicolas Sarkozy's handling of the global recession. Union leaders call on the president to do more to protect jobs. One of France's largest unions estimates turnout to be at 2.6 million. Workers from the utilities, transportation, and education sectors join in the demonstrations. MARCH 23: NATO claims to have killed top Taliban commander Maulawi Hassan and nine of his men. Hassan was responsible for many roadside bombings and other attacks on NATO and coalition forces. MARCH 26: Pakistani and Afghani Taliban unite after reclusive Afghan Taliban leader, Mullah Muhammad Omar, urges the groups to set aside their differences and turn their attention to Afghanistan where increasing numbers of American troops are to be deployed in coming months. Emissaries delivering this message to Pakistani Taliban leaders also call on them to cease their battles with the Pakistani government and to instead redouble their efforts against the Americans. MARCH 27: Heavy rains cause a dam near Jakarta, Indonesia, to burst, killing dozens of people. The country regularly suffers from severe flooding during its rainy season. MARCH 29: Led by Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdogan, the Justice and Development Party claims victories in elections throughout Turkey. Margins much narrower than those in recent years decide the wins over opposition parties, the Republican People's Party and the People's Action Party. MARCH 30: A suicide bomber dressed as a police officer attacks a government building near Kandahar, Afghanistan. Eight people, including five police officers, are killed. The Afghan Taliban typically target Afghan police officers but this time chose to attack a government office where Afghan identification cards are produced. MARCH 30: Armed gunmen attack a group of police recruits in Punjab province near the city of Lahore, Pakistan. Punjab is the nation's most populous province and the home of the country's capital, Islamabad. The attack, the second of its kind in Punjab this year, shows the growing reach of Pakistani militants. At least eight recruits and a trainer are killed, while 100 are wounded in the gunfire and the following suicide bombings. MARCH 31: The Pakistani Supreme Court overturns an order banning politician Shahbaz Sharif from holding office. The ruling allows Sharif to return to his post as chief minister of Punjab province. He is the brother of former prime minister Nawaz Sharif. APRIL 2: The G20 summit is held in London, England, to discuss the ongoing global financial crisis. While there are major disagreements about strategies for addressing the crisis, leaders in attendance pledge a total of $1.1 trillion toward relief. APRIL 5: Macedonia elects political novice Gjorge Ivanov as president, securing his party's complete political control over the country. Ivanov beats more experienced candidate, Ljubomir Frckovski, a former interior and foreign minister, but his victory barely exceeds the 40 percent voter turnout needed for the election to count. APRIL 6: A devastating earthquake strikes the Abruzzo region of central Italy, killing or injuring many and leaving thousands homeless. The earthquake registers 6.3 on the Richter scale and damages many historic buildings. Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi announces a state of emergency. APRIL 7: Alberto K. Fujimori, president of Peru between 1990 and 2000, is convicted by a three-judge panel of human rights abuses and sentenced to 25 years in prison. The court convicts Fujimori for his role in extrajudicial killings and kidnappings by the Colina Group during Peru's war with Maoist rebels. He is the first former Peruvian head of state to be convicted and sentenced for war crimes. APRIL 7: Prosecutors in South Africa drop corruption charges against presidential candidate Jacob Zuma based on procedural grounds. Mokotedi Mpshe, the acting head of the National Prosecuting Authority, announces that the state's case against Zuma has been spoiled by illicit dealings between two of its own employees. Wiretaps revealed those employees to have colluded against the candidate. APRIL 8-13: Thousands gather in Bangkok, Thailand, to protest the government of current prime minister Aghisit Vejjajiva. The red-shirted demonstrators support the former prime minister and fugitive Thaksin Shinawatra, who was ousted in a coup in 2006. As unrest rises, the presence of the Thai armed forces also increases, and battles between rioters, police, and soldiers become more violent. APRIL 12: U.S. Navy Seals acting under orders from President Barack Obama kill three Somali pirates in a standoff to rescue an American sea captain whom the pirates had taken hostage days earlier. Pirates, many of whom operate off the coast of a virtually ungoverned Somalia, have been met with increasingly violent resistance from many of the worlds navies, including those of the United States and France. APRIL 16: : The U.S. Justice Department releases of classified memos written during the Bush administration that provide legal arguments for the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) to use "harsh interrogation methods," which many argue amount to torture. The interrogation methods—including face-grabbing and slapping, "walling," stress positions, confinement to a small box, and "waterboarding"—were used by CIA interrogators against suspected al-Qaeda and Taliban insurgents in Afghanistan and Iraq. APRIL 18: The Iranian judiciary sentences U.S. journalist Roxana Saberi to eight years in prison for espionage. Saberi had been working in Iran for six years, although her press credentials were revoked in 2006. The U.S. State Department claims the charges are baseless. Iranian president Mahmoud Ahmadinejad appeals to the judiciary to review the case and sentencing. APRIL 19: Ayad al-Sammaraie, a Sunni Arab lawmaker and critic of Iraqi prime minister Nuri al-Maliki is chosen to be speaker of the Iraqi parliament. APRIL 20: In Geneva European delegates at a United Nations (UN) conference on racism and xenophobia walk out during a controversial speech by Iranian president Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, who criticizes Israel for its treatment of the Palestinian people. Six nations boycotted the conference, fearing that it would become a forum for defaming Israel instead of a caucus on discrimination issues worldwide. APRIL 22: Taliban fighters in Pakistan take control of the Buner district only 70 miles from the country's capital of Islamabad. The takeover comes 10 days after Pakistan's president agrees to impose shariah law over Swat Valley in Pakistan. APRIL 22-25: South Africans vote in the nation's fourth election. The African National Congress (ANC), the ruling party that brought South Africa out of the country's repressive apartheid regime, has consistently won elections for the past 15 years. It won 70 percent of the vote in the last elections in 2004, and by April 23, it had accumulated 66 percent of the vote. On April 25, Jacob Zuma was elected president of the country. APRIL 23: The International Monetary Fund (IMF), based in Washington, D.C., reports a 1.3 percent decline in global economic activity. This is the worst outlook since 1945. The report projects that the global economic downturn will last longer than initially suspected. APRIL 26-29: An outbreak of swine flu in Mexico develops into a worldwide health emergency. By April 26 the flu strain has killed as many as 103 people in Mexico. On April 27 more than 40 people are infected across the United States, and the World Health Organization (WHO) raises its pandemic threat level to 4 from 3. On April 28, confirmed cases of the disease are identified in five more countries including New Zealand, Israel, Canada, Scotland, and Spain. By April 29, the death toll in Mexico surpasses 150 and one Mexican toddler dies in the United States—the first death outside of Mexico. APRIL 28: After facing strong criticism for its weak treatment of the Taliban, Pakistan sends its military to assert government control of Buner district, which the Taliban had previously invaded from its stronghold in Swat Valley. APRIL 29: Ma Ying-jeou, the president of Taiwan, announces that China will drop its objections to Taiwan's attendance at a meeting of the United Nations World Health Organization (WHO). Taiwan will participate as an observer, seeing China's acceptance of its presence as a step toward greater international recognition. APRIL 29: British prime minister Gordon Brown announces that Britain will send 700 troops to Afghanistan. This addition raises Britain's troop commitment in the area to 9,000. Britain is the second largest troop contributor to the region.. APRIL 30: Britain ends its combat operations in Iraq and hands control of Basra over to U.S. forces. Most of the 4,000 British troops will leave Basra by the end of May, but 400 will stay to train the Iraqi armed forces. The United Kingdom is the largest contributor of troops to the war in Iraq other than the United States. MAY 4: Khaled Meshaal, political leader of the Islamic-militant group Hamas, announces that Hamas will stop firing rockets at Israel. In a rare interview given to a U.S.-based news organization, Meshaal adopts a conciliatory tone toward the Obama administration. He states that Hamas is seeking a Palestinian state based on pre-1967 borders. MAY 5: Eight men are arrested in Turkey. They are charged with storming a wedding in the southeastern village of Bilge and killing 40 people, including women and children. The attack is prompted by a feud between the two families. In Turkey, murders based on such feuds occur frequently. MAY 9: Jacob Zuma is sworn in as the president of South Africa. In his inaugural speech, he discusses the ongoing economic crisis and the unique challenges it holds for South Africa. MAY 14: The military junta in Myanmar charges pro-democracy leader Aung San Suu Kyi with violating the terms of her house arrest. The new charges come after an American man swam across a lake to visit her and pray for her. By attempting to keep Suu Kyi imprisoned, the junta is seen to be tightening its grip on power before multiparty elections are slated to begin in Myanmar. MAY 16: The Indian National Congress Party (INC), headed by party leader Sonia Gandhi and Prime Minister Manmohan Singh, wins 205 of 543 seats in the Indian parliament. The election, which ended May 14, featured the Indian National Congress Party competing with the main opposition, Hindu nationalist Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), and a slew of leftist and smaller regional parties. With its coalition partners, the Congress Party is only 12 seats away from a parliamentary majority. The election is important for the Congress Party, because no party was predicted to achieve a decisive win and in the last three elections, the ruling party has been ousted from power after just one term. MAY 17: Dalia Grybauskaite, the European Union (EU) budget commissioner, is elected the first female president of Lithuania. She received 68 percent of the vote with a 51 percent voter turnout. As president, Grybauskaite will be head of state and appoint the prime minister. MAY 17: Four women win seats in parliamentary elections in Kuwait. Women received suffrage in Kuwait in 2005, and this year's election is the first to see women seated in parliament. Sunni Islamists, who are against women serving in parliament, lost seats. Other liberal and independent candidates increased their representation in the 50-seat parliament. MAY 18: The government of Sri Lanka declares that it has defeated the rebel Tamil Tigers in the country's north. Rebel leader Vellupillai Prabhakaran is allegedly among the 250 fighters recently killed. The rebels' defeat and Prabhakaran's death may force a formal end to the country's 26-year-old civil war. MAY 19: Salam Fayyad is appointed prime minister of the Palestinian Authority, which controls the West Bank. He had served in the same position but resigned in March after reconciliation talks with Hamas, the Islamist group controlling the Gaza Strip, fail. MAY 19: The Speaker of the British House of Commons Michael Martin announces he will step down on June 21 amid scandal over inappropriate expense claims submitted by many members of parliament. The scandal erupted when it the public learned members of parliament, who are allotted expense accounts in order to keep homes in London and the districts they represent, were being reimbursed for items such as furniture and mortgages that had already been paid off. Martin is the first speaker to be forced into resignation in 300 years. MAY 23: Roh Moo-hyun, former president of South Korea, commits suicide amid charges of corruption. Roh campaigned as a clean politician and believed the corruption scandal would undermine his legacy. MAY 26: Hu Jintao, president of China, meets with Ma Ying-jeou, the leader of Taiwan's governing party. The two discuss mostly economic issues. The meeting is believed to be a sign that relations between the two countries are improving. MAY 26: The Pakistani Supreme Court rules that Nawaz Sharif, a popular former prime minister and opposition leader, can run in parliamentary elections. The Court had previously banned Sharif from holding public office. MAY 27: Militants attempt to attack Pakistan's Inter-Services Intelligence Agency (ISI) in a busy district of Lahore, Pakistan. The attack is seen as retaliation against the nation's military operation in Swat Valley against the Taliban. Taliban leaders later take responsibility for the attack. MAY 31: The breakaway region of South Ossetia, which Georgia does not recognize, holds parliamentary elections. The Edinstvo Party, loyal to President Eduard Kokoity, is elected to a majority of seats. Opposition leaders claim that there is interference against them in the elections. MAY 31: Air France flight 447 disappears over the Atlantic Ocean. The plane took off from Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, bound for Paris, France. A warning system sent a message to air traffic controllers that the plane had encountered an electrical problem about four hours into the flight. By June 2, the Brazilian military finds debris and confirms that the plane crashed into the Atlantic Ocean, killing all 228 on board. The cause of the crash is not determined. JUNE 3: The Organization of American States (OAS) agrees to lift a ban on Cuba's membership. Cuba's suspension dates from 1962. President Raúl Castro has previously stated that he does not intend to rejoin the group. JUNE 3: The left-wing Inuit Ataqatigiit Party wins parliamentary elections in Greenland, removing from power the Social Democratic Siumut Party, that had ruled for 30 years. The elections occur earlier than regularly scheduled after voters in November approved plans giving the government more autonomy from Denmark. The plans allow Greenland to make decisions on most matters, but the government will continue to consult with Denmark on defense and foreign affairs. JUNE 4: India elects its first female speaker of parliament. Meira Kumar is a member of the Dalit or "untouchable" caste and has been elected to parliament five times. She was earlier sworn in as minister of water resources but resigned after the Congress Party offered her the speakership. JUNE 8: President of Gabon Omar Bongo dies in a Barcelona hospital. Bongo came to power in 1967 after the death of Gabon's first ruler Léon M'Ba. JUNE 8: The center-right European Peoples Party (EPP) retains power over the European parliament after European Union (EU) elections. Voter turnout is historically low. Far-right and nationalist parties improve their representation in the European parliament while other established parties, such as Germany's Social Democratic Party (SDP) and the United Kingdom's Labour Party, lose seats. JUNE 8: Parliamentary elections are held in Lebanon, and Saad Hariri's pro-Western March 14 Alliance maintains the majority. The challenger coalition led by Hezbollah, which many nations consider a terrorist organization, sought to increase its representation but acknowledged defeat. JUNE 11: Ali Abdessalam Treki of Libya wins the presidency of the United Nations General Assembly (UNGA). Treki has previously served as Libya's minister to the African Union (AU) and as Libya's representative to the United Nations (UN). JUNE 12: A prominent Sunni lawmaker, Harith al-Obaidi, is assassinated in Iraq. Al-Obaidi, the leader of the largest Sunni bloc in Iraq's parliament, is leading prayers at a mosque when a gunman shoots him, his secretary, and a bodyguard. JUNE 12: The United Nations Security Council (UNSC) passes a resolution tightening sanctions on North Korea. The resolution is in response to missile launches and a nuclear test in the country. JUNE 13-16: Iranian officials announce that Mahmoud Ahmedinejad wins reelection as president of Iran by a large margin. The announcement comes after a tense campaign and leads to days of rioting. Supporters of Ahmedinejad's main challenger, Mir Hussein Moussavi, claim that there are many voting irregularities and openly challenge the election results. After Moussavi supporters fail to respond to a ban on public demonstrations, supreme leader Ayatollah Ali Khamenei calls for an investigation into the results of the election. The Guardian Council announces that it will conduct a partial recount. JUNE 28: Honduran president Manuel Zelaya is ousted by a military coup. He is later voted out of office by the legislature and replaced by president of the congress, Roberto Micheletti. Zelaya, allied with Venezuelan president Hugo Chávez, had been organizing a constitutional referendum to allow him to run for a second term. Critics, including the supreme court, describe the referendum as unconstitutional. JUNE 29: President Cristina Fernández de Kirchner's Peronist Party loses control of the congress after midterm elections in Argentina. Her husband and former president Néstor Kirchner resigns as head of the party. JUNE 29: The Guardian Council in Iran formally confirms the much-contested election results and certifies Mahmoud Ahmadinejad for his second term as president of Iran. Ahmadinejad won the vast majority of votes, beating out challenger Mir Hussein Moussavi. Moussavi's defeat sparked large protests in the country, leading to a massive government crackdown against the protestors. JUNE 30: Sweden assumes the presidency of the European Union (EU). Sweden and the EU face many challenges, including the upcoming vote on the Lisbon Treaty, the ongoing economic crisis in Europe, and tensions with Iran and Russia. JUNE 30: U.S. soldiers withdraw from Iraqi cities and hand control to Iraqi security forces. Prime Minister Nuri al-Maliki and many Iraqis mark the day with celebrations. As troops conduct their withdrawal, a bombing in Kirkuk kills 33 people, and four U.S. soldiers are killed in Baghdad. JULY 5: Deadly ethnic riots occur in the western Xinjiang region of China. Chinese media reports that 156 people are killed and many more arrested. The clashes occur between the Uighurs, a Turkic-speaking ethnic minority in China and the dominant Han Chinese. Most of the violence occurs in the regional capital of Urumqi. The central government sends paramilitary troops and imposes many restrictions to gain control of the situation, including an all-night curfew. JULY 6: U.S. president Barack Obama and Russian president Dmitry Medvedev sign an agreement to reduce the number of strategic nuclear warheads in both countries. The agreement sets the stage for a treaty to be completed in December, which will serve as a replacement for the Strategic Arms Reduction Talks (START) treaty set to expire in December 2009. JULY 8: President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono is projected to win reelection in Indonesia. He will become the first democratically elected Indonesian president to win reelection since the country ended 30 years of military rule. Yudhoyono will have a strong majority in parliament and is expected to continue instituting reforms. According to initial counts he received 60 percent of the vote. JULY 14: Former president of Liberia Charles Taylor takes the stand before the International Criminal Court (ICC), where he is charged with committing murder, rape, torture, and terrorism during the civil war in Sierra Leone. Taylor maintains his innocence as the trial continues through its second year. JULY 16: Two bombs attacks kill nine and injure many more in Jakarta, Indonesia. The attacks occur at the Marriot and Ritz-Carlton hotels. Prominent Indonesian terrorist organization Jemaah Islamiyah (JI) is suspected of involvement. The same Marriott hotel was damaged in 2003 by a car bomb that killed 12 people. JULY 26-27: Nigerian security forces retaliate against members of an Islamic sect that attacked police stations. At least 150 people are killed throughout Nigeria in the ensuing violence. The sect, known as Boko Haram, seeks the establishment of shariah—Islamic law—in the country, which is roughly divided between Christian and Muslim adherents. AUGUST 1: Former president of the Philippines Corazon Aquino dies from colon cancer at the age of 76. Corazon was instrumental in ousting the dictator Ferdinand Marcos in 1986. AUGUST 4: American journalists Laura Ling and Euna Lee are released after almost five months of confinement in North Korea. The journalists, who had been investigating an article about human trafficking, were arrested after North Korean officials claimed that they had crossed into the country illegally from China. The journalists are released during a diplomatic mission by former U.S. president Bill Clinton. AUGUST 7: Typhoon Morakot, which formed in the South Pacific Ocean, makes landfall in Taiwan, where it causes hundreds of fatalities and several billion dollars in economic damages. Several hundred people remain missing in the typhoon's aftermath. The typhoon also causes fatalities in the Philippines and China. AUGUST 11: Nobel Peace Prize winner Aung San Suu Kyi, who has been under house arrest since 2003, is sentenced to an additional 18 months confinement. The military junta of Myanmar charged her with violating the conditions of her house arrest after an uninvited visitor trespassed on her property. International condemnation of the junta follows the announcement. AUGUST 15: Representatives from Colombia and the United States complete talks regarding the use of seven military bases in Colombia. The bases will be used by the U.S. military to fight drug trafficking. Several neighboring South American countries express apprehension that the agreement will unduly strengthen U.S. military presence in the region. AUGUST 17: An explosion at the Sayano-Shushenskaya hydroelectric plant in southern Siberia kills at least 17 workers, with many people still missing. The explosion occurs while workers are completing repairs on the plant. AUGUST 18: Kim Dae Jung, the former president of South Korea, dies at age 83. As president from 1998 until 2003, Kim was noted for his diplomatic approach toward North Korea. AUGUST 19: Two car bombs explode near the Green Zone in downtown Baghdad, Iraq, killing more than 100 people and injuring more than 500 people in the deadliest violence in the region in months. AUGUST 20: For the second time since the defeat of the Taliban in 2001, democratic elections are held in Afghanistan. The Afghan government orders a media blackout in the days leading up to the elections for fear that reports about increasing violence in the country will discourage citizens from heading to the polls. AUGUST 20: Abdelbaset Ali al-Megrahi, who was convicted and imprisoned in 2001 in connection with the bombing of Pan Am flight 103, is released from prison in Scotland and flown to his home country of Libya on "compassionate grounds." Al-Megrahi is ailing from pancreatic cancer. In 1988 bombs on Pan Am flight 103, en route from Frankfurt, Germany, to New York City, exploded over Lockerbie, Scotland, killing the 259 people on the plane and 11 people on the ground. AUGUST 21: Firefighters in Greece attempt to extinguish wildfires that destroy numerous homes and force thousands to evacuate an area northeast of Athens. Authorities do not know what caused the fires. AUGUST 23: The supreme court of Honduras rejects a plan for the return of President Manuel Zelaya, who was ousted by a military coup in June. The court states that if Zelaya attempts to return to Honduras he will be arrested. AUGUST 24: The U.S. Department of Justice (DOJ) releases a 2004 Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) report detailing the abuse of detainees in CIA-operated overseas prisons. U.S. attorney general Eric Holder announces that the DOJ will investigate the allegations presented in the report. AUGUST 25: U.S. senator Ted Kennedy (D-MA) dies at age 77 after battling brain cancer. Kennedy was known for his championship of health care reform in the Senate, in which he served for 46 years. AUGUST 30: The Democratic Party of Japan unseats the Liberal Democratic Party in a landslide election. In the country's House of Representatives, the Democratic Party wins 308 out of 480 seats. The Liberal Democratic Party had held the majority in Japan's legislature for most of the country's postwar period. LATE SEPTEMBER-EARLY OCTOBER: The Pacific Rim and Southeast Asia are battered by a series of bad storms. Typhoon Ketsana first strikes the Philippines, then Vietnam and Cambodia, killing more than 300 people and causing extensive flooding and damage. Just weeks later Typhoon Parma strikes the Philippines, creating additional flooding and further damage that kills hundreds more. SEPTEMBER 9: A plane en route from Cancún to Mexico City is hijacked by a mentally disturbed Bolivian citizen named José Mar Flores Pereira, who claims to have brought a bomb onboard. The plane lands safely in Mexico City with no passengers or crew members being harmed, and Flores Pereira is immediately arrested. SEPTEMBER 10: Prime Minister Gordon Brown issues an apology on behalf of the United Kingdom (UK) government for the imprisonment of Alan Turing in 1952 on charges of "gross indecenecy" due to his relationship with another man. An Internet petition raised support for the apology. Turing was instrumental in several breakthroughs in computational technology and in aiding the UK government in its attempts to crack German military codes during World War II. SEPTEMBER 11: Riots break out in Kampala, the capital of Uganda, when supporters of the king of Buganda begin rioting after being incited by various radio programs. Known as the Baganda, supporters of the king form the largest ethnic group in the country At least 14 people are killed in the ensuing violence before order is restored. SEPTEMBER 11: Chen Shui-bian, the president of Taiwan from 2000 to 2008, is sentenced to life in prison after being convicted of corruption. The corruption conviction outlined Chen's criminal activities while he served as president, including embezzlement, document forgery, and bribery. SEPTEMBER 12: Dr. Norman Borlaug, an agronomist who won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1970 for his work on creating high-yield, disease-resistant wheat, dies at the age of 95 from complications of cancer. Borlaug is sometimes referred to as the father of the Green Revolution, because his work increased food yields and averted famine in several countries. SEPTEMBER 14: Three men are each sentenced to life imprisonment in the United Kingdom (UK) for planning to use liquid explosives to blow up several trans-Atlantic airline flights. The three men—Abdulla Ahmed Ali, Tanvir Hussain, and Assad Sarwar—were arrested along with other suspects in August 2006 in London, England, in a joint investigation by the U.S. and UK governments. SEPTEMBER 17: U.S. president Barack Obama announces that his administration will not construct an antimissile system in the Czech Republic and Poland that had been proposed by the administration of President George W. Bush. The antimissile system had been criticized by the Russian government. . SEPTEMBER 21: Ousted president Manuel Zelaya returns to Honduras and finds refuge in the Brazilian embassy in Tegucigalpa. Zelaya was removed as president of Honduras on June 28, 2009, during a military coup d'état. SEPTEMBER 21: The Washington Post obtains a confidential report in which General Stanley McChrystal, commander of U.S. forces in Afghanistan, states that the U.S. mission in the country will "likely result in failure" unless troop sizes are increased within a year. The year 2009 has been the deadliest year for coalition forces in Afghanistan since the defeat of the Taliban in 2001. . SEPTEMBER 24: The United Nations Security Council (UNSC) unanimously approves a resolution that outlines steps for worldwide nuclear weapons disarmament. In a series of speeches before the vote, U.S. president Barack Obama and French president Nicolas Sarkozy strongly condemn the nuclear programs of the Iranian and North Korean governments. SEPTEMBER 27: The Christian Democratic Union (CDU)/Christian Social Union (CDU) party wins more than 33 percent of the vote during Germany's national election. The Social Democratic Party (SPD) wins only 23 percent of the vote, thus breaking the "grand coalition" between them and the CDU. The CDU will instead form a coalition with the Free Democratic Party (FDP), which won approximately 14 percent of the vote. OCTOBER 2: Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, is selected by the International Olympic Committee (IOC) to host the 2016 Summer Olympic Games. The other cities that reached the final round of bidding for the Olympics were Madrid, Spain; Tokyo, Japan; and Chicago, Illinois. OCTOBER 4: The Panhellenic Socialist Movement (PASOK) party defeats the ruling New Democracy (ND) Party in Greece's national election. George Papandreou will become the next prime minister of the country. Both his grandfather, also named George Papandreou, and his father, Andreas Papandreou, previously served as prime minister of Greece. OCTOBER 7: Italy's highest court rules that the country's prime minister Silvio Berlusconi is not immune from prosecution and that a law stating so is unconstitutional. Berlusconi has been plagued by charges of political corruption. OCTOBER 8: A car bomb explodes adjacent to the Indian embassy in Kabul, Afghanistan, killing 17 people and wounding dozens. A Taliban spokesman claims responsibility for the attack. OCTOBER 13: A private Chinese company confirms that it will invest $7 billion in infrastructure development in Guinea. Numerous human rights groups criticize the deal, arguing that Guinea is ruled by a military junta. Guinean army captain Moussa Dadis Camara seized control of the country in December 2008 after the death of its president and has led a violent crackdown of opposition protestors. OCTOBER 19: Hamid Karzai, the president of Afghanistan, consents to a runoff election after a ballot audit reveals that one third of all votes for him are fraudulent. Under election law in Afghanistan, candidates must win more than 50 percent of the vote. Otherwise there must be a runoff election. OCTOBER 20: Universities across Pakistan are closed after two suicide bombings kill eight people and injure at least 18 at the International Islamic University in Islamabad. The Taliban claim responsibility for the attack and demand that Pakistan withdraws its troops from the South Waziristan tribal area, where the army has launched an offensive against the Taliban. NOVEMBER 1: President Hamid Karzai is named the winner of Afghanistan's presidential election after a runoff election is cancelled due to the withdrawal of the other candidate. For a winner to be declared, the country's election laws require a majority of votes, which Karzai had not received during the presidential election in August, automatically prompting a runoff. NOVEMBER 2: Vaclav Klaus, president of the Czech Republic, signs the European Union (EU) Lisbon Treaty after courts in his country rule that the treaty will not contradict the constitution of the Czech Republic. The treaty will streamline most EU procedures, and its acceptance by the Czech Republic opens the way for final ratification in December. NOVEMBER 3: French anthropologist Claude Lévi-Strauss dies at the age of 100. Lévi-Strauss was noted as the founder of structuralism, a school of thought anthropology. NOVEMBER 4: An Italian court sentences 23 U.S. citizens in absentia to prison terms ranging from five to eight years for their role in the Central Intelligence Agency's (CIA) rendition program, which involves the transfer of suspected criminals from one country to another where torture is an accepted method of interrogation. The Americans were convicted of kidnapping Muslim cleric Osama Mustafa Hassan Nasr in Milan, Italy, in 2003. Nasr was then extradited to Egypt, where he was tortured based on accusations of terrorism. NOVEMBER 13: A judge in Buenos Aires, Argentina, grants a same-sex couple the right to marry. The city's mayor Mauricio Macri announces that he will not appeal the judge's decision, thereby making Buenos Aires the only place in South America where same-sex couples have the right to marry. The law will not apply to the rest of Argentina, however. NOVEMBER 15-18: U.S. president Barack Obama embarks on a four-day visit to China. While there, he and Chinese president Hu Jintao meet for talks in Beijing. Some human rights activists criticize President Obama for not meeting with the Dalai Lama, the exiled leader of Tibet. NOVEMBER 16: The prime minister of Australia Kevin Rudd issues an apology to the "Forgotten Australians," thousands of impoverished or institutionalized children were housed in orphanages and often endured forced labor and abuse. Approximately 500,000 Australian children and about 7,000 British children were part of the program, which began in the 1930s and ended in the 1970s. The British children had arrived under the British Child's Migrant Program, designed to populate Australia with "good white stock." NOVEMBER 17: The Israeli government approved the construction of 900 new homes in Gilo, Israel, a settlement near southern Jerusalem. Many worry that the move will further stymie the Middle East peace process, since ending the construction of Jewish settlements is a precondition for peace talks, according to Fatah, a Palestinian ruling party. NOVEMBER 18: Somali pirates attempt once again to seize the shipping container boat Maersk Alabama in the Indian Ocean. The craft was attacked in April by Somali pirates, who kidnapped the ship's captain and held him for ransom until they were killed by members of the U.S. Navy. NOVEMBER 19: The government of Zimbabwe agrees to remove soldiers from diamond fields in the eastern part of the country after increasing violence in the region prompts advisors for the Kimberley Process to recommend the soldiers' removal. Instituted in 2003 the Kimberley Process is an agreement between diamond producers, the United Nations (UN), and several nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) that requires all diamonds traded to be certified as originating outside war-torn areas. NOVEMBER 23: While attempting to file election papers for a local candidate, 40 politicians and journalists are kidnapped in the southern Philippines by supporters of a rival candidate. Twenty-one of these victims are later found murdered in what is the worst election violence the country has suffered in years. The Philippines national election is scheduled for May 2010. NOVEMBER 30: Porfirio Lobo is elected as president of Honduras despite objections from Manuel Zelaya, the deposed president of the country, and Zelaya's supporters. Zelaya was removed from power in June 2009 during a military coup. DECEMBER 7-18: The United Nations (UN) Conference on Climate Change convenes in Copenhagen, Denmark. Representatives from member nations join with nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) to discuss balancing economic development and environmental concerns, as well as the plight of climate-change refugees. DECEMBER 12: The prime minister of Italy Silvio Berlusconi is attacked during a publicity appearance in Milan, Italy. The attacker, who has a history of mental illness, threw a replica of the Milan cathedral at Berlusconi, which hit him in the face. DECEMBER 17: A famous sign from the Auschwitz concentration and death camp in southern Poland is stolen. The sign reads "Arbeit Macht Frei," which, when translated from German, means "Work sets you free." The sign marked the entrance to Auschwitz, where more than 1 million people were executed by Germany's Nazi government during the 1940s. DECEMBER 20: Grand Ayatollah Husein Ali Montazeri, the highest-ranking dissident Iranian cleric, dies at age 87. His death incites numerous protests throughout Iran, where members of the populace had been demonstrating since the controversial reelection of Prime Minister Mahmoud Ahmedinejad in June 2009.

2008

JANUARY 2: For the first time, crude oil reaches $100 per barrel on the New York Mercantile Exchange (NYMEX). The price had been rising from under $80 per barrel since fall 2007, ushering in speculation of an oncoming U.S recession. The market closed at $99.62 per barrel, surpassing the November 2007 high of $98.18. JANUARY 6: Georgian president Mikheil Saakashvili is reelected. In order to legally run for the early elections, Saakashvili resigned from office on November 25, 2007, to begin campaigning for his second term. JANUARY 8: Boy Scout Mohamed Jaisham Ibrahim saves Maldivian president Maumoon Abdul Gayoom from assassination. The scout was in a crowd of people attempting to shake hands with Gayoom when he noticed an assailant's attempt to stab the president and blocked the knife blade with his bare hand. JANUARY 11: World famous mountaineer and philanthropist Sir Edmund Hillary dies of a heart attack at the age of 88. A native of Auckland, New Zealand, in 1953 Hillary became one of the first people to climb to the top of Mount Everest. JANUARY 12: A new Iraqi law allows former officials of Saddam Hussein's Baath Party to resume their roles in civil and military service. In 2003 Paul Bremer, a U.S. administrator, broke up the party, banned thousands of teachers and civil servants from working, and disbanded the army (in order to be a teacher in Iraq during Saddam's regime, it was necessary to be a party member). Entire government ministries and workforces were eliminated with no replacements. JANUARY 13: Law enforcement chief Jackie Selebi resigns his position as president of Interpol, the international police agency, as well as his position as the police commissioner of South Africa. He was accused the previous day of receiving over $170,000 in bribes from Glen Agliotti, a South African businessman and convicted drug dealer. JANUARY 14: German academics announce their official identification of Lisa Gherardini, the wife of wealthy 15th-century Florentine merchant Francesco del Giocondo, as the model for Leonardo da Vinci's Mona Lisa. Manuscript expert Armin Schlechter discovered margin notes in a 15th-century book dated October 1503 by the owner, citing the model as Lisa del Giocondo. JANUARY 23: Hamas militants blow up sections of the barrier that divides the city of Rafah between northern Egypt and the Gaza Strip. Thousands of people cross the border to purchase items that have been in short supply since the strip was blockaded by the Israeli government. Egyptian prime minister Hosni Mubarak stated that as long as people were not carrying weapons and would return to Gaza, he would allow them to cross the border. Officials from both Israel and Egypt declared the breach to be "not all bad." JANUARY 24: Romano Prodi, the prime minister of Italy, resigns after losing the Senate confidence vote in Parliament—156 yeas to 161 nays. This was Prodi's second term as prime minister. He first served in office from 1996-1998, and prior to serving as prime minister, he was the president of the European Commission from 1999-2004. JANUARY 27: Suharto, former dictator of Indonesia, dies at the age of 86 from complications of disease related to his heart, kidney, and lungs. During his 31-year reign as dictator, he was reviled for his brutality and pervasive corruption, while simultaneously revered by some for his stabilization of the Indonesian economy. Suharto came to power by military coup in 1967 and won his last presidential bid in 1998. He was forced from office in May 1998 through protests. FEBRUARY 1: Abu Laith al-Libi, a top al-Qaeda official, is killed in Pakistan. According to U.S. officials, al-Libi was a senior officer in al-Qaeda with close ties to Osama bin Laden. He was featured in several videos released by al-Qaeda and is believed to have assisted in organizing the bombing of the Afghanistan airport during U.S. vice president Dick Cheney's visit in 2007. FEBRUARY 11: Four paintings whose total estimated value is $163 million are stolen from a museum in Zurich, Switzerland. The four paintings were by Claude Monet, Vincent van Gogh, Edgar Degas, and Paul Cézanne. They were part of the collection of E. G. Bührle, a late Swiss industrialist and art collector. On February 19, the paintings by Claude Monet and Vincent van Gogh were found in an unlocked car in the parking lot of a nearby mental hospital. FEBRUARY 13: The Parliament of Australia, led by Prime Minister Kevin Rudd, issues an apology to the Aboriginal people. The statement focused on the Stolen Generations: tens of thousands of Aboriginal children who were displaced to governmental institutions or white families from 1910 to 1970. The relations between the indigenous and white Australians have historically been very tenuous. Prime Minister Rudd proclaimed a commitment to improving the Aboriginal community and officially recognizing them as the original "owners" of Australia. FEBRUARY 13: Georgian opposition leader, Badri Patarkatsishvili, dies in exile at the age of 52. He was accused of attempting to stage a coup against Georgian president Mikheil Saakashvili in 2007. FEBRUARY 17: The European province of Kosovo officially declares its independence from Serbia. The region had been in the custody of the United Nations (UN) since 1999 and embattled in a bitter conflict with Serbia since their formation as post-Yugoslavian territories. Serbian officials deeply oppose the secession and fear that it will prompt other outlying regions to do the same. Vojislav Koštunica, Serbia's prime minister, renounces Kosovo's independence and declares it a "false state." FEBRUARY 18: Tassos Papadopoulos, the current president of Cyprus, loses in the initial round of the presidential election to Ioannis Kasoulides, the former foreign minister. This is seen as a positive movement for Cyprus, as the island has been divided between Turkish and Greek residents since 1974, and both Kasoulides and his opponent, Communist Party leader Dimitris Christofias, have resolved to reconcile the tension between the Greek and Turkish Cypriots. FEBRUARY 19: Fidel Castro steps down after almost 50 years as the president of Cuba. Along with Che Guevara, Castro and his Twenty-sixth of July Movement overthrew Cuba's incumbent dictator, Fulgencio Batista, in January 1959 to install one of the longest-lasting Communist regimes. On February 24, Raúl Castro, who has been the interim leader since July 2006, officially assumes the presidency. FEBRUARY 19: The Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP) and the Pakistan Muslim League (N) defeat the Pakistan Muslim League (Q), led by General Pervez Musharraf, in Pakistan's parliamentary elections. The PPP is the party of Benazir Bhutto, the former prime minister who was assassinated on December 27, 2007. The Pakistan Muslim Leagues (Q) and (N) are factions of the Pakistan Muslim League and are named for their respective founders, "Quaid-i-Azam" Mohammed Ali Jinnah and Mian Muhammed Nawaz Sharif. FEBRUARY 21: A new DNA study supplies more evidence that human origins are based in Africa. Supported by the National Institutes of Health (NIH), the study took DNA samples from 931 people in 51 populations. FEBRUARY 21: In reaction to the United States's support of Kosovo's declaration of independence, Serbian protesters attack and set fire to a portion of the U.S. embassy in Belgrade. Prior to the violence, nearly 150,000 people peacefully protest outside of the Serbian parliament building. Many citizens consider Kosovo to be the religious and cultural center of Serbia. The embassy had been closed since February 16, due to threats of violence. FEBRUARY 26: The New York Philharmonic orchestra performs in Pyongyang, North Korea. This is the first significant cultural U.S. visit to the country in nearly 55 years. Invited by the North Korean government, the orchestra plays two shows for sold-out crowds with ticket prices at $100,000 per couple. MARCH 1: Britain's Prince Harry returns home after serving in Afghanistan for 10 weeks with the British Army. He is the first member of the royal family to serve in combat since 1982, when his uncle, Prince Andrew, participated in the Falkland Islands War as a helicopter pilot. MARCH 2: Dmitry Medvedev wins the presidential election. He will succeed Vladimir Putin as the president of Russia. Medvedev is considered a protégé of Putin and offers his predecessor the position of prime minister. Putin has been credited with stabilizing Russia's economy but also criticized for his attempt to centralize control of the media and government, being perceived as trying to create a single-party state. He served two consecutive terms as president, the maximum according to the Russian constitution. MARCH 7: Mohammed Hamid and Atilla Ahmet are convicted of operating terrorist training camps in Great Britain. Hamid, who refers to himself as "Osama bin London," and Ahmet are considered "extremist" preachers and are accused of training hundreds of young men, including those who planned the failed bombing attempt of London's Underground in July 2005. Hamid is sentenced to seven and a half years, and Ahmet receives a sentence of six years and 11 months. MARCH 9: Socialist Party leader José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero is reelected as Spain' s prime minister. The elections came only days after a Socialist Party advocate was killed in the Basque region by the militant group Euskadi Ta Askatasuna (ETA). MARCH 10: Monks protest in the Tibetan capital of Lhasa in reaction to China's hosting of the 2008 summer Olympics and to mark the 49th anniversary of the 1959 Lhasa uprising. The protests are the largest in decades, with more than 500 monks marching and thousands more attempting to cross the borders into Tibet. The Chinese government is largely condemned for its handling of the events, which erupt with violence and result in numerous deaths (China reports 10-20, while Tibetan sources claim roughly 100). Subsequent protests occur in Greece, the United States, France, India, and Indonesia in response to the Olympic torch procession. China has ruled Tibet for 57 years; its spiritual leader, the Dalai Lama, has been in exile in India since 1959. MARCH 10: Serbian prime minister Vojislav Koštunica resigns his position due to his party's division on the recent declaration of independence of Kosovo. Stating that his conservative Democratic Party of Serbia (DSS) could no longer govern alongside the Democratic Party (DS) of president Boris Tadić because of the disagreement as to whether—and how—to join the European Union (EU). The parliament is being dissolved, and elections are tentatively set for May. MARCH 11: China's minister of the state population, Zhang Weiqing, declares that the current national policy of one child per family will remain intact for at least the next 10 years. There is much debate surrounding this issue within the Chinese government; some officials believe that the policy is showing signs of producing a "gender imbalance" that favors male children and increases the number of forced abortions. Others say that the policy has tremendously tempered the birth rate and that as nearly 200 million citizens will reach childbearing age in the next decade, the legislation must remain intact to mediate population control. China's current population is roughly 1.3 billion, the world's largest. MARCH 20: U.S. vice president Dick Cheney travels to Afghanistan to meet with Afghani president Hamid Karzai. The visit is viewed as an attempt to reaffirm the presence of U.S. forces in the region as a necessity to suppress radical insurgency. MARCH 23: Four U.S. soldiers are killed in a roadside bomb attack in southern Baghdad, bringing the U.S. service personnel death toll to 4,000. MARCH 24: The Kingdom of Bhutan elects its first national assembly. More than 250,000 people vote in the election. The Druk Phuensum Tshogpa (DPT) led by Jigmi Thinley defeats the Peoples Democratic Party (PDP), winning 44 of 47 seats. Bhutan is an extremely conservative Himalayan country with a strong devotion to their monarch. In 2006 King Jigme Singye Wangchuk abdicated his throne to his son Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuk and ordered the end of the monarchy. Although the king is expected to remain the head of state and maintain levels of influence, this election is seen as a watershed moment in Bhutan's democratic progression and modernization. APRIL 3: Ramush Haradinaj, the former prime minister of Kosovo, is acquitted on all charges of war crimes by the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY) in The Hague, Netherlands. Along with ex-Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA) commanders Lahi Brahimaj and Idriz Balaj, Haradinaj was indicted in 2005 for his actions during the Kosovo conflict in 1998. APRIL 3: The European Union (EU) approves the constitution for the newly liberated nation of Kosovo. Kosovo declared its independence from Serbia on February 17. Its constitution is slated to become effective on June 15. APRIL 4: Iranian officials say they will turn down incentives from countries that demand that its nuclear program be shut down. Officials state that Iran is a "nuclear country" with the right to pursue uranium enrichment as reinforced by the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT). Iran has long been under pressure from Europe and the United States to disassemble its nuclear program. It says that it has not "closed the door" on discussions about the program but the subject of halting uranium enrichment is "nonnegotiable." APRIL 14: After roughly two months in captivity in Basra, Iraq, kidnapped British journalist Richard Butler is rescued by Iraqi troops. While working for CBS's 60 Minutes in Baghdad, Butler and his translator were abducted at gunpoint from the Sultan Palace Hotel. His translator had been previously released. APRIL 15: Former Italian prime minister and media mogul Silvio Berlusconi wins the national presidential election by garnering 46.6 percent of the vote against Walter Veltroni and the Democratic Party. This will be his third term as prime minister. He replaces Romano Prodi, who resigned in January 2008. APRIL 18: Former U.S. president Jimmy Carter meets with Hamas officials in Syria. Against the wishes of the U.S. and Israeli governments—which both consider Hamas a terrorist organization—President Carter and Hamas leader Khaled Meshaal discuss terms for a potential cease-fire between Israel and Gaza, stating that Hamas would respect the state of Israel and accept a Palestinian state on the West Bank. However, Meshaal, in a news conference, made contrary remarks mandating the recognition of an independent sovereign Palestinian state and the incorporation of Hamas within the Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO), from which it is now barred. Meshaal also claimed that Palestinians would attempt to live peacefully next to Israel but would not recognize it as a state. APRIL 18: Raila Odinga of the Orange Democratic Movement (ODM) is sworn into office as prime minister of Kenya. This action comes after the much-disputed and protested December 2007 presidential election. In that election Odinga's opponent, Mwai Kibaki of the Party of National Unity (PNU), was elected to the presidency despite evidence of ballot tampering. Odinga's appointment to Kibaki's administration is a result of a power-sharing agreement between their two parties. APRIL 20: Fernando Lugo, a former Roman Catholic bishop, wins the presidency in Paraguay, breaking the incumbent party's 62-year reign. Lugo resigned from the church two years ago in order to run for office. MAY 2: A devastating cyclone ravages the Irawaddy delta and Yangon region of Myanmar (formerly Burma). Cyclone Nargis displaces roughly 1.5 million people, and the death toll ranges from 13,000 to 100,000 (reports vary). The military-run government (junta) bars international aid workers from entering the region and rejects supplies from numerous countries and organizations. The cyclone is the worst natural disaster in the country's history. (See Cyclone Nargis [Map].) MAY 2: Israeli prime minister Ehud Olmert is investigated on allegations of accepting hundreds of thousands of dollars in bribes over the past decade. He has stated that if he is indicted, he will step down from office. MAY 2: The top al-Qaeda operative in East Africa, Aden Hashi Ayro, is killed by a U.S. missile strike in Somalia. Ayro was a commander in Shebab, a militia allegedly linked to al-Qaeda and a major terrorist force in East Africa. MAY 3: Hand, foot, and mouth disease (HFMD) kills 22 children and infects nearly 3,600 in and around the city of Fuyang in eastern China. Most of the infected victims have been children under the age of two, although all of the deaths have been of children under six years old. MAY 8: Dmitry Medvedev is sworn in as the president of Russia. Medvedev won the national election on March 2, 2008, despite having never before held public office. He is the protégé of Vladimir Putin. MAY 8: Brian Cowen is elected as Taoiseach, or prime minister, of Ireland. He previously held the office of finance minister and succeeds outgoing minister Bertie Ahern. MAY 9: Former president of Russia Vladimir Putin is approved as prime minister by the nation's Parliament. The move is controversial within the country and is perceived by many as an effort by Putin to shift too much power to the prime minister's office in order to retain his influence. MAY 12: An earthquake of 7.9 on the Richter scale strikes the Sichuan province in western China. The damage is considerable—thousands of homes collapse, schools crumble, and many are cut off from aid because of geographic obstacles. The early death toll is estimated at approximately 10,000 people. Subsequent reports list as many as 55,000 dead and 247,000 injured. It is China's worst natural disaster since the 1976 Tangshan earthquake. MAY 19: Mobs kill 22 people outside of Johannesburg, South Africa. Immigrants have been targeted as retribution for job losses. MAY 20: Landslides in China kill 158 relief workers in a three-day period. The workers were participating in rescue efforts in the aftermath of the Sichuan province earthquake on May 12. MAY 22: Thousands of refugees flee South Africa as violence escalates from the xenophobic killings in Johannesburg, which claimed 42 lives, and has spread to Cape Town. MAY 22: Georgia's ruling party, the United National Movement (UNM), wins the majority in parliamentary elections. Opposing parties claim that the election was rigged and intend to boycott parliament. The Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) was informed of numerous instances of intimidation and violence during the election. MAY 23: Myanmar's military government allows foreign aid workers access to the country to assist in the aftermath of Cyclone Nargis, which struck on May 2. General Than Shwe, the leader of the ruling junta, had previously limited access to the affected areas to members of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), but after a meeting with the UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-Moon he agreed to allow admission to foreign aid workers. MAY 23: Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, Gordon Brown, meets with the Dalai Lama—the exiled leader of Tibet. Brown pledges to help reconcile the volatile relations between Tibet and China. MAY 24: Morgan Tsvangirai returns to Zimbabwe for a runoff election with Robert Mugabe. The results of the March 29 election ignited nationwide violence, resulting in 50 deaths and nearly 25,000 people displaced. Tsvangirai left the country following the election due to death threats. MAY 27: Chinese authorities evacuate 150,000 people in the southwestern region near Beichuan province. A Tangjiashan river was dammed by landslides triggered by the May 12 earthquake causing a "quake lake", which is in danger of flooding. Workers are attempting to dig sluiceways—artificial channels to drain and divert water—in order to alleviate pressure from the river and prevent future casualties. MAY 29: King Gyanendra Bir Bikram Shah Dev is ordered to step down as the Nepalese monarchy is brought to an end. The dismantling of the kingdom comes after the Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist) wins the Constituent Assembly election in April 2008, which in turn votes to abolish the monarchy and convert the nation to a republic. Prime minister Girija Prasad Koirala becomes the acting head of government. JUNE 2: A car bomb detonates outside of the Danish embassy in Islamabad, Pakistan, killing six and injuring several others. Two days later al-Qaeda claims responsibility for the attacks, stating that they were in retaliation for the much-publicized printing of the likeness of the prophet Muhammad in a Danish newspaper in 2005. JUNE 4: A man in China is sentenced to life in prison for providing a drug company with fake ingredients that led to the death of 14 people. The man sold diglycol—a toxic syrup—in place of propanediol as one of the ingredients for the drug Armillarisni A. JUNE 5: The government of Sudan bars U.S. companies and organizations from working with international peacekeeping efforts in Darfur. The decision comes in response to the continuing sanctions that have been imposed on Sudan for the conflicts that have killed nearly 200,000 and displaced 2.5 million, which Sudanese officials say are largely exaggerated by the Western media. JUNE 14: Ireland rejects the Lisbon Treaty through a national referendum. The treaty is designed to restructure the legislative aspects of the European Union (EU) and to consolidate the governing body. All 27 countries of the EU must ratify the treaty for it to be instated. JUNE 18: Thirty-five people are killed by landslides and flooding in the Yunnan province of China. Torrential rain and widespread flooding have killed more than 200 hundred people and caused nearly $84 million in damage since the beginning of the year. JUNE 18: The Norwegian parliament legalizes same-sex marriage. The newly instituted law affords gays and lesbians the previously unavailable right to church weddings and adoption, and grants lesbian couples access to artificial insemination. The law replaces 1993 legislation that allowed same-sex individuals to enter into civil unions. JUNE 19: Israel and the Islamic-militant group Hamas agree to a cease-fire in the Gaza Strip. The truce is intended to last for six months, as determined by Hamas and Israeli officials. JUNE 21: A passenger ferry capsizes off of the coast of Sibuyan Island in the Philippines after its engines stall in the midst of typhoon Fengshen. Only 38 survivors and 13 bodies are accounted for out of the roughly 800 people who were aboard. The typhoon had already claimed the lives of 155 people. JUNE 21: A mass grave containing nearly 800 bodies is found in Grozny, Chechnya. Residents state that the bodies were buried between January and November 1995, following the first Chechen War. JUNE 22: Zimbabwean opposition leader Morgan Tsvangirai withdraws from the runoff presidential election with Robert Mugabe in the wake of violence imposed on his supporters by pro-Mugabe militias. JUNE 22: The government of the Central African Republic signs a peace agreement with rebel groups to quell the years of violence that has forced tens of thousands of people from their homes. The accord was signed by members of the Popular Army for the Restoration of the Republic and Democracy (APRD) and the Union of Democratic Forces for Unity (UFDR), and it was witnessed by president François Bozizé and Gabon's president Omar Bongo. JUNE 23: Prime minister of the United Kingdom Gordon Brown issues a statement calling for world leaders to denounce Robert Mugabe's rule of Zimbabwe as illegitimate. Rumors of systemic election rigging and acts of voter intimidation have plagued the election process and brought it into the global spotlight. JUNE 23: United Nations (UN) inspectors visit a suspected nuclear reactor in Syria that was bombed by Israeli forces nine months earlier. Syria denies that the site was a secret reactor, calling it an ordinary military building. JUNE 28: As a demonstration of halting its nuclear program, North Korea demolishes a cooling tower at the main nuclear power plant in Yongbyon. The gesture is seen as symbolic because the tower—in addition to the entire plant—has been relatively inactive and would be easy to rebuild. Officials from the United States are skeptical about the legitimacy of the act and are curious as to how many weapons had been previously produced and whether the technology had been sold to other nations, such as Syria. JUNE 30: Robert Mugabe is sworn in for his sixth term as president of Zimbabwe. This comes after the concession of opposition leader Morgan Tsvangirai due to the violence against his supporters. Following Mugabe's inauguration, world leaders at the G8 Summit propose international sanctions to be imposed on his government. JUNE 30: The Israeli government votes to release Samir Kuntar, a member of the Lebanese militia Hezbollah who has been in captivity since 1979, in exchange for the bodies of two Israeli soldiers kidnapped in 2006. Israeli officials were hesitant to agree to the terms, as they worried about the perception of acquiescing to the demands of Hezbollah, a group considered to be a terrorist organization. Hezbollah celebrated the accord as a victory. JULY 10: Iran test-fires nine missiles as part of a war game exercise. Included among the missiles fired is the Shebab-3, which is capable of reaching targets up to 1,250 miles away. JULY 15: Sudanese president Omar Hassan Ahmed al-Bashir is sought with an arrest warrant by the International Criminal Court (ICC) for his complicity in the genocide being waged in Darfur. He is charged with genocide, war crimes, and crimes against humanity. This is the ICC's first instance of leveling genocide charges since its inception in 2002 and the first time any such indictments have been brought against a sitting leader of state. JULY 16: The Bush administration sends the under secretary of state for political affairs, William J. Burns, to meet with the European Union (EU) and Iranian officials in Geneva, Switzerland, to discuss Iran's nuclear program. Diplomatic efforts between Iran and the United States have not occurred since before the Islamic Revolution in 1979. Prior to President George W. Bush's decision, he had criticized Democratic presidential nominee Senator Barack Obama (D-IL) for his willingness to meet with Iran. JULY 21: Bosnian Serb leader Radovan Karadžić is arrested after evading capture for nearly 13 years. Karadžić is a prominent fugitive of the 1992-1995 civil war in the former Yugoslavia, and he is regarded as the organizer of the ethnic cleansing in Bosnia during the conflict. The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY) has indicted him on charges of war crimes for his engineering of the Srebrenica massacre in which roughly 8,000 Muslim men and boys were murdered by Bosnian Serb forces. JULY 24: The French parliament adopts a bill supported by President Nicolas Sarkozy to end the mandated 35-hour workweek. The bill effectively allows companies to negotiate with employees to define the hourly workweek. Many see the decision as a step forward in the economic progress of France, which has been viewed as lagging since the introduction of the mandated workweek in 1998. JULY 24: Ex-Argentine military commander Luciano Benjamín Menéndez is sentenced to life in prison for the murder of four social activists in 1977. Menéndez was a member of the Third Army Corps during the military dictatorship that ruled Argentina from 1976 to 1983. Reports state that the dictatorship resulted in the deaths of between 13,000 and 30,000 people. JULY 25: Forty-seven people are dead and 100 missing after a boat sinks in the Ubangi River near the town of Mobayi Bongo in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. JULY 25: Opposing Cypriot leaders Dimitris Christofias and Mehmet Ali Talat set a date of September 3, 2008, to resume reunification talks after a stalemate that began in 2004. The island nation of Cyprus has been divided between the Turkish north and Greek south since 1974. JULY 25: The United Kingdom's ruling Labour Party suffers a major setback when it loses a seat in the Scottish parliamentary elections to the Scottish National Party (SNP). The SNP is a separatist party that supports Scottish independence. The seat was considered one of the Labour Party's safest in Scotland, and the loss is viewed as a sign of the diminishing influence of the party and Prime Minister Gordon Brown. JULY 27: Seventeen back-to-back explosions erupt in a shopping area in Ahmedabad, India, followed by two more at a local hospital, killing 49 people in total. The Muslim group called "Indian Mujahadeen" claimed responsibility for the bombings, stating that they were in response to the 2002 massacres of Muslims by Hindu mobs in the state of Gujarat in western India. JULY 28: South African judge Navanethem Pillay is elected United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights by the General Assembly. She succeeds Louise Arbour. JULY 29: The Australian government changes their strict immigration policy that jailed asylum seekers and visitors who overstayed their visas. Mandatory detention has been a policy in Australia since the 1990s. JULY 30: Prime Minister Ehud Olmert of Israel announces that he will step down as leader within months due to a corruption scandal involving misappropriated election contributions. AUGUST: Tensions over the breakaway region of South Ossetia erupt into war between Russia and Georgia. AUGUST 1: The planned expansion of Hanoi, the capital of Vietnam, takes effect to include the province Ha Tay and parts of the Vinh Phuc and Hoa Binh provinces. The city is now 3.6 times bigger in size, and its population is doubled to 6.2 million. (See Vietnam [Map].) AUGUST 1: George Tupou V is coronated as the 23rd king of Tonga in the capital city Nuku'alofa. He succeeds his father Taufa'ahau Tupou IV. AUGUST 3: Russian writer Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn dies at the age of 89. He won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1970 and, from the start of the cold war until his death, wrote novels that exposed the effect of the Soviet Union's totalitarian rule on its people. AUGUST 5: Researchers from the Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS) find 125,000 western lowland gorillas deep in the northern forests of the Republic of Congo. The gorillas are critically endangered, and less than half that amount were estimated to exist. AUGUST 6: A coup, led by General Mohamed Ould Abdel Aziz, takes place in Mauritania as members of the military capture President Sidi Ould Cheikh Abdallahi after he fired several top army officers. On August 14 the military junta appoints the former ambassador to Belgium, Moulaye Ould Mohamed Laghdaf, as the new prime minister. AUGUST 7: Salim Ahmed Hamdan, the former driver for Osama bin Laden, is sentenced to five and a half years in prison by a U.S. military tribunal after being convicted of material support for terrorism. The military judge gives Hamdan credit for the 61 months he has already spent in prison since being charged. This will allow for his release by the end of 2008, though the Bush administration has the power to hold detainees until the end of the War on Terror. AUGUST 8: The 29th Olympic Games begin in Beijing, China. AUGUST 14: Poland and the United States reach an agreement that will establish a U.S. missile shield in Poland to help the country strengthen its defenses. Russia strongly opposes the plan. AUGUST 15: Nepal's constitutional assembly elects Prachanda, chairman of the Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist), prime minister of Nepal. Prachanda spent many years underground as a militant communist leader. AUGUST 18: Torrential rain and overflowing rivers flood cities and farmlands in Vietnam, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, and Myanmar. One hundred and sixty deaths are reported with thousands more people missing or homeless. AUGUST 18: Facing impeachment, Pervez Musharraf resigns from the office of president of Pakistan. In accordance with the country's constitution, Senate president Muhammad Mian Soomro will serve as acting president until the elections for a new leader. Elections must be held within 30 days. AUGUST 19: The president of Zambia, Levy Mwanawasa, dies at a hospital in Paris, France, after suffering a stroke almost two months earlier. Mwanawasa was 59 years old. AUGUST 24: The closing ceremonies of the 29th Olympic Games are held in Beijing, China. The United States takes home the most medals (110), followed by China (100) and Russia (72). Host country China captured the most gold medals (51), however. AUGUST 30: Italy agrees to pay Libya $5 billion for transgressions made during their 1911 to 1943 rule over the country. Italian prime minister Silvio Berlusconi and Libyan head of state Muammar al-Qaddafi sign the agreement. Berlusconi apologizes for the offenses brought against the Libyan people during Italy's colonial rule. The money, to be paid over 25 years, is mostly allocated for infrastructure projects. SEPTEMBER 5: Condoleezza Rice, the U.S. secretary of state, travels to Libya to meet with Muammar al-Qaddafi. This is the first visit of a U.S. secretary of state to Libya in 50 years. Libya was removed from the U.S. State Department's terrorism list after the country destroyed chemical weapons supplies and shut down its nuclear program. SEPTEMBER 8: Hurricane Ike hits Cuba just ten days after Hurricane Gustav. The hurricanes cause nearly $5 billion in damages, leave 200,000 people homeless, and destroy more than 840,000 acres of sugarcane. SEPTEMBER 10: Scientists at the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN) laboratory in Switzerland activate the world's most powerful particle collider—the Large Haldron Collider (LHC). The project took 14 years to complete and cost $8 billion. A few days after being activated the collider is shut down due to equipment failure, with no plans to reactivate it until spring 2009. SEPTEMBER 12: The Chinese government begins an investigation of baby formula contaminated with the chemical melamine. The formula is responsible for the death of four children and sickening more than 53,000. SEPTEMBER 15: Following the bankruptcy of financial services firm Lehman Brothers and the sale of Merrill Lynch, the Dow Jones Industrial Average (DJIA) drops 504.48 points. It is the steepest market decline since the days following the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001. SEPTEMBER 20: Thabo Mbeki agrees to resign from office as president of South Africa. Mbeki was asked to step down by party leaders of the African National Congress (ANC) after a protracted electoral conflict with opponent Jacob Zuma. SEPTEMBER 23: Japan's ruling Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) selects former foreign minister Taro Aso to be the country's new prime minister. Aso replaces Yasuo Fukuda who stepped down after just one year in office. OCTOBER 3: U.S. president George W. Bush signs a $700 billion economic bailout bill into law. The legislation enables the U.S. Department of the Treasury to purchase risky securities from financial firms in an attempt to alleviate the economy during the worsening global credit crisis. The U.S. House of Representatives had initially defeated the bill, but after the Senate voted to approve it, the House reversed its decision. OCTOBER 7: One protestor is killed and nearly 400 are injured in clashes with police during demonstrations in front of Thailand's parliament building. The protests are the culmination of a six-week sit-in aimed at shutting down the national government. Protestors object to the rule of Prime Minister Somchai Wongsawat, whom they accuse of being a puppet of former prime minister Thaksin Shinawatra, who was ousted in a September 2006 coup. OCTOBER 8: Russian troops complete a withdrawal from the buffer zones surrounding South Ossetia and Abkhazia—break-away regions of Georgia—two days before the deadline established by a European Union (EU)-brokered peace agreement. In August war erupted between Russia and Georgia over the regions. OCTOBER 11: Austrian far-right political leader Jörg Haider, 58, is killed in an automobile accident. Haider, whose criticism of immigrants and praise for select Nazi policies made him a controversial figure, was the leader of the Alliance for Austria's Future Party. The party won 11 percent of the vote in Austria's September 2008 parliamentary elections. OCTOBER 14: Only 59.1 percent of eligible Canadian voters participate in the country's national elections, which represents the lowest turnout in Canada's history. Prime Minister Stephen Harper retains his position when his Conservative Party wins the election, however the Conservatives are unable to gain enough seats to become the majority party in Parliament. OCTOBER 17: During the regular session of the United Nations (UN) General Assembly, members vote to elect five non-permanent members of the Security Council for the 2009-2010 term. Japan defeats Iran for the Security Council seat that represents Asia, while Austria and Turkey win seats to represent the Western Europe and Others category. Mexico will represent Latin America, and Uganda will represent Africa. The new rotating members of the Security Council will replace South Africa, Belgium, Indonesia, Italy, and Panama, whose terms on the Security Council conclude at the end of 2008. OCTOBER 21: The Bolivian Congress votes to approve a new constitution that includes a bill of rights granting greater autonomy to the country's indigenous residents, who represent a majority of the population. Approval of the constitution had stalled until President Evo Morales agreed to seek only one more term in office instead of the two he had initially sought. A public referendum election to confirm the constitution is scheduled for January 25, 2009. OCTOBER 22: India launches the unmanned spacecraft Chandrayaan-1 into space on a course set to orbit the moon. The two-year mission is intended to improve digital mapping of the lunar surface. India plans to share its findings with other countries' space programs. Coming less than one month after Chinese astronauts complete a successful spacewalk, some interpret India's actions as escalating a "space race" between Asian nations. OCTOBER 23: The government of Honduras declares a state of emergency after intense rainfall causes widespread flooding and landslides throughout the country and elsewhere in Central America. Tens-of-thousands of people are forced to seek shelter throughout the region, and government officials express concern that the situation will cause an increase in already inflated food prices. OCTOBER 27: The government of Iceland announces that it will seek monetary assistance from its Nordic neighbors, declaring that a recent $2.1 billion loan from the International Monetary Fund (IMF) is not enough to prevent a complete financial collapse of its economy. Three of the country's largest banks have failed during the global credit crisis. NOVEMBER 1-2: During the national convention of South Africa's ruling political party, the African National Congress (ANC), Mosiuoa Lekota and Mbhazima Shilowa announce the formation of a breakaway party faction. Many ANC delegates had been angered by the recent replacement of party president Thabo Mbeki with Jacob Zuma. NOVEMBER 4: Approximately 130 million Americans turn out to vote in the U.S. presidential election. Democrat Barack Obama wins the election with 52 percent of the popular vote against Republican John McCain's 46 percent. In addition, the Democratic Party increases its majority in both the U.S. Senate and the U.S. House of Representatives. NOVEMBER 7: Collège La Promesse Évangélique, a Haitian school for students from kindergarten through high school, collapses due to shoddy construction. More than 90 people—most of them children—die as a result of the collapse. The school was located in Pétionville, a suburb of Port-au-Prince. NOVEMBER 9: Twenty people are killed aboard a Russian nuclear-powered submarine during a test mission conducted in the Sea of Japan. The submarine's fire safety system had malfunctioned, exposing the crew to a lethal amount of Freon. NOVEMBER 11: Mohamed Nasheed is sworn in as president of the Maldives, succeeding president Maumoon Abdul Gayoom, who had ruled for 30 years. During his swearing-in ceremony Nasheed mentioned he would seek to help the country's residents, whose homes are threatened by rising sea levels due to global warming. NOVEMBER 15: Somali pirates off the coast of Kenya hijack the Saudi-owned oil tanker Sirius Star. The vessel has 25 crew members aboard and was en route to deliver its shipment to the United States. Incidents of Somali piracy have tripled since 2007. NOVEMBER 16: Iraq's cabinet votes to approve a security agreement with the U.S. government. The agreement limits U.S. military operations in Iraq and sets 2011 as the date for the complete withdrawal of U.S. troops from the country. Iraq's parliament must approve the pact in order for it to go into effect. NOVEMBER 18: Five United Nations (UN)-affiliated experts on human rights condemn the government of Myanmar (Burma) for sentencing political activists to lengthy prison sentences after participating in the August 2007 protests. The experts recommend retrials and open hearings for the activists, some of whom received 65-year prison sentences. NOVEMBER 19: John Key of the National Party is sworn in as the prime minister of New Zealand. Key replaces Helen Clark, whose Labour Party had lost the national elections earlier in the month. NOVEMBER 20: The United Nations Security Council unanimously votes to approve the deployment of 3,000 additional peacekeeping forces to the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). Warfare between the DRC's government and several oppositional factions, including Tutsi rebels under the command of Laurent Nkunda, has caused a humanitarian crisis in the eastern region of the country. NOVEMBER 26-29: Ten terrorists armed with grenades and automatic weapons attack Mumbai, India's financial capital. The terrorists storm two popular hotels—the Oberoi Trident and Taj Mahal—and a Jewish center. One hundred and seventy-three people are killed, and Indian security forces kill nine of the 10 gunmen. One terrorist is arrested and interrogated. The terrorists are reportedly based in Pakistan and are members of the Lashkar-e-Taiba militant organization. DECEMBER: Riots grip major Greek cities including Athens and Thessaloniki after the shooting death of a 15-year-old boy by police on December 6. While the rioters are mainly youth and university students, many Greeks sympathize with the protesters. DECEMBER 4: Canadian prime minister Stephen Harper's request to suspend Parliament is granted by Governor General Michelle Jean. Harper requests the suspension—or prorogue—to block the vote of non-confidence that opposition parties had scheduled for December 8. Had the vote occurred—and all indications pointed to a loss for Harper—his minority Conservative Party would have had to step down from power. Other parties disapprove of the way Harper's conservative minority government is handling Canada's economic crisis. The suspension is the first in Canada's history. DECEMBER 11: Robert Mugabe, president of Zimbabwe, denies an ongoing cholera epidemic in the country. He says the epidemic has been contained and accuses Western powers of using cholera as an excuse to overthrow his government. DECEMBER 14: An Iraqi journalist throws his shoes at U.S. president George W. Bush and calls him a dog during a press conference with Iraqi prime minister Nouri al-Maliki. Security guards detain the journalist. For Iraqis, shoe throwing is a severe form of insult. DECEMBER 16: Police in Paris find dynamite in one of the city's famous department stores, Printemps. They act on a tip from the Afghan Revolutionary Front, who claim responsibility for the act. The group says that unless France withdraws its troops from Afghanistan by the end of February 2009, they will strike again without warning. DECEMBER 17: British prime minister Gordon Brown announces that British combat operations will end in Iraq beginning May 31, 2009. All remaining personnel will be removed by July of that year. Brown makes his announcement after talks with Iraqi prime minister Nouri al-Maliki. DECEMBER 18: A United Nations (UN) Tribunal in Tanzania finds three military officers guilty for instigating the Rwandan genocide. Colonel Theoneste Bagosora, Colonel Anatole Nsegiyumva, and Major Aloys Ntabakuze are sentenced to life imprisonment for their roles in the genocide, which claimed the lives of hundreds of thousands of Tutsis and moderate Hutus in 1994. DECEMBER 27: Israeli defense forces begin air strikes on Hamas targets in the heavily populated Gaza Strip. The air strikes are in retaliation to Hamas's resumed rocket attacks on Israel after the cease-fire between the two parties expired on December 19. Defense Minister Ehud Olmert announces that the strikes are intended to permanently stop Hamas rocket fire into southern Israel.

1962

U.S. astronaut John Glenn orbits the Earth. U.S. telecommunications satellite Telstar is launched. Algeria becomes independent; the French nationalist OAS organizes a revolt. Uganda becomes independent. Disarmament conference starts in Geneva. Soviet Union attempts to install nuclear missiles in Cuba; the United States imposes a naval blockade. Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago become independent. U.S. economist Milton Friedman (1912-2006) publishes Capitalism and Freedom. British artist Graham Sutherland (1903-80) creates his Christ in Glory tapestry for the rebuilt Coventry cathedral. Chinese troops invade north India, then withdraw to the disputed border. Soviet novelist Alexander Solzhenitsyn (1918-2008) publishes One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich. Western Samoa becomes independent. Military coup takes power in Thailand.

1945

U.S. scientists and engineers working at Los Alamos, New Mexico, under Robert Oppenheimer (1904-67) design and test an atomic bomb. U.S. engineer Percy Spencer patents the microwave oven. Founding United Nations conference is held in San Francisco; Spain and Portugal are among the countries excluded from membership. Harry S. Truman (1884-1972) becomes U.S. president on Roosevelt's death. British writer George Orwell (1903-50) publishes his novel Animal Farm. Italian author Carlo Levi (1902-75) publishes his novel Christ Stopped at Eboli. British novelist Evelyn Waugh (1903-66) publishes Brideshead Revisited. British philosopher Karl Popper (1902-94) publishes The Open Society and Its Enemies. British author J.B. Priestley (1894-1984) writes his play An Inspector Calls. At a conference at Yalta in the Crimea, the United States and Britain tacitly agree to Soviet occupation of postwar Europe. U.S. forces capture the islands of Iwo Jima and Okinawa. Cambodia declares its independence. Truce between nationalists and communists in China breaks down with fighting for control of Manchuria. Arab league is founded. British artist Francis Bacon (1909-92) paints Three Studies for Figures at the Base of a Crucifixion. Burma is liberated from the Japanese. US drops atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki; Japan surrenders; U.S. occupation forces land and establish a military government. Ho Chi Minh (1880-1969) declares the independent republic of Vietnam. Josip Tito (1892-1980) declares the People's Republic of Yugoslavia. Independent republics of Syria and Lebanon are established. Benito Mussolini (b.1883) is shot dead by Italian resistance fighters; the German army in Italy surrenders. Soviet armies take Vienna; U.S. and Soviet forces meet at the Elbe River; Russians under General Georgi Zhukov (1896-1974) take Berlin; Adolf Hitler (b.1889) commits suicide; Admiral Doenitz (1891-1980) surrenders; Germany and Austria are occupied in zones; the Potsdam conference agrees stringent controls on postwar Germany. Clement Attlee (1883-1967) is elected British prime minister. Republic of Austria is established under Karl Renner (1870-1950). War crimes tribunal is set up at Nuremberg. Warsaw and Kraków are liberated by Polish and Soviet troops.

2014

JANUARY 10: Central African Republic president Michel Djotodia and prime minister Nicolas Tiangaye resign. The leaders, who seized power during a March 2013 coup, step down after months of political anarchy and violence between the Muslim and Christian communities. Parliament elects Catherine Samba-Panza interim president on January 20. JANUARY 15: Ninety-eight percent of Egyptians voting in a constitutional referendum vote in favor of the country's newly amended constitution; 38.6 percent of eligible voters participate in the referendum. Although criticized for favoring the army over citizens, the 2014 constitution expands democratic rights for marginalized citizens and provides wider access to social justice. JANUARY 23: In the two-year-old nation of South Sudan the government of President Salva Kiir and rebels loyal to the country's ousted former vice president agree to a cease-fire after more than a month of fighting that has left thousands dead and hundreds of thousands displaced. FEBRUARY 7: Russia hosts the XXII Olympic Winter Games in Sochi. The opening ceremony for the games displays the country's history and new post-Soviet image under the leadership of Vladimir Putin. FEBRUARY 14: The eruption of Mount Kelud, the highest mountain on eastern Java in Indonesia, leads to mass evacuations from highly populated parts of the island. More than 100,000 residents in Indonesia are evacuated, with heavy ash accumulating in major cities and towns throughout the region. FEBRUARY 18: Thailand's anticorruption body announces its intention to file charges against Prime Minister Yingluck Shinawatra over a government-run rice subsidy scheme. The charges could further inflame months-long antigovernment protests that are part of a deep-rooted political battle between the ruling party, whose supporters are mostly from rural areas, and the opposition, which draws support primarily from the urban middle-class. FEBRUARY 22: Following weeks of antigovernment protests in Kiev, Ukraine, during which dozens of protesters died, parliament votes to remove President Viktor Yanukovych from office. The president flees the capital and elections are scheduled for May 25. MARCH 1: Russian president Vladimir Putin gains parliamentary approval for an invasion of Ukraine. Two days later the Ukrainian ambassador to the United Nations alleges that 16,000 Russian troops have been deployed on Ukraine territory in Crimea. MARCH 14: Prime Minister Najib Razak declares that the disappearance on March 8 of Malaysian Airlines Flight 370, with 239 passengers and crew on board, is the result of a hijacking or deliberate act instead of a catastrophic accident. MARCH 18: President Vladimir Putin signs a treaty with Crimean prime minister Sergey Aksenov and Sevastopol mayor Aleksey Chaly, annexing Crimea and Sevastopol as part of the Russian Federation. The treaty is signed despite recent sanctions targeting Russian assets and top Russian and Ukrainian government officials by the United States and European Union. APRIL: Boko Haram, an Islamic extremist group in northeastern Nigeria whose followers believe that Western education is sinful and who seek to establish strict Islamic law across the country, abducts more than 200 female students from a secondary school in Chibok and bombs a bus station in Abuja that kills at least 75 people. Boko Haram has battled Nigerian security forces since 2009 and has fought a campaign of terror against the civilian population, attacking schools, markets, churches, and mosques, as well as state institutions. Thousands of people have died in the insurgency. APRIL 16: South Korean ferry Sewol carrying 462 passengers capsizes and sinks, resulting in more than 300 casualties. Senior crew members are arrested and detained after investigators assert the vessel overturned while changing course at high speeds. MAY: Growing tensions between Vietnam and China over territorial disputes and business investments escalate into massive riots in southern Vietnam after an oil rig is moved into Vietnamese waters. Protestors in Binh Duong Province burn down numerous Chinese-owned factories and attack Chinese nationals, resulting in evacuations. MAY 13: An explosion and fire at a coal mine in the town of Soma in western Turkey results in the deaths of more than 300 mine workers, with many others trapped or injured. Leading executives for Soma Holding are detained on suspicion of negligence as part of an investigation into one of the country's worst industrial disasters. MAY 15-18: Historic flooding in the Balkans after severe rainfall through May 15-18 leads to at least three dozen people killed and mass evacuations. More than 500,000 residents are affected, with lack of drinking water, property damage, and homelessness widespread. MAY 16: In an historic election victory in India, the Hindu nationalist Bharatiya Janata Party wins an outright majority in parliament. Party leader Narendra Modi, who ran on a platform of economic development and good governance, avoiding the strong anti-Muslim rhetoric he had employed in the past, is set to become prime minister. MAY 22: Following months of sometimes violent conflict between mostly rural supporters of Prime Minister Yingluck Shinawatra and primarily urban middle-class opponents, General Prayuth declares a coup d'état in Thailand. The army bans political gatherings, suspends television programming, and detains key political figures. MAY 25: Billionaire Petro Poroshenko wins special presidential elections in the Ukraine. Fighting between Ukrainian government troops and pro-Russian separatists in the eastern part of the country continues. JUNE: Sunni fighters from the Islamic State in Iraq and Syria (ISIS) invade Iraq from Syria and seize numerous cities across the northwest of the country after defeating government forces. The goal of ISIS is reportedly to create an Islamic caliphate across the region, with no regard for existing borders. Shia militias and volunteers mobilize to fight the insurgents, Iran sends 2,000 advance troops to Iraq, and the United States deploys 300 military advisers. The insurgency is fed in part by discontent among the minority Sunni in Iraq who have long accused Nouri al-Maliki's Shia-led government of discrimination. JUNE 16: Debt crisis fears grow in Argentina after a U.S. Supreme Court ruling dictates that the country must pay its hedge fund creditors in full or risk fresh debt default. The ruling is the culmination of a decade-long legal battle in which Argentina has sought to avoid paying creditors who refused to accept the terms of a debt restructuring that followed the country's serious financial crisis of 2001-02. JULY 8: Israel launches a large military offensive, Operation Protective Edge, against the Hamas-ruled Gaza Strip in retaliation for rocket strikes. The operation includes air and sea strikes, as well as plans for a large-scale ground invasion. JULY 15: The Mexican government appoints Senator Humberto Mayans of the Institutional Revolutionary Party to oversee the growing Central American immigration crisis in Mexico and the United States. Mayan's goals include decreasing the rate of illegal immigration as well as repatriation and safety efforts for undocumented immigrants. JULY 17: Malaysia Airlines Flight 17 carrying 298 crew and passengers is shot down by a missile fired from Russian-backed separatists fighting in eastern Ukraine. AUGUST: The number of deaths resulting from the spread of the Ebola virus in the severely affected nations of Guinea, Liberia, and Sierra Leone surpasses 1,200. With more than 2,400 cases of infected individuals, it is the largest recorded outbreak of Ebola since the disease was discovered in 1976. In an effort to contain the spread of the virus, the three nations' governments enforce quarantines and travel restrictions. AUGUST 26: Israel and Hamas agree to an open-ended cease-fire following seven weeks of fighting in Gaza that killed more than 2,100 Palestinians and 70 Israelis. SEPTEMBER 18: Scotland votes against independence in a national referendum and remains part of the United Kingdom. SEPTEMBER 22: The United States and a group of allied Arab nations launch airstrikes against ISIS (Islamic State in Iraq and Syria) military targets in Raqqa, Syria. Partner nations in the campaign consist of Bahrain, Jordan, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates. The airstrikes are in addition to U.S. military strikes against ISIS targets in northern Iraq that began on August 9. SEPTEMBER 26 THROUGH OCTOBER: Protestors led by democracy activists Occupy Central stage massive demonstrations in Hong Kong against the Communist government of China and its ruling on elections in Hong Kong. The protests are a nonviolent effort by citizens to bring democratic values and civil rights to the nation. OCTOBER 16: U.S. president Barack Obama authorizes the Pentagon to call up the National Guard and reserves to help contain the Ebola virus epidemic in West Africa. The role of the military in this deployment is to aid in humanitarian efforts and guard against further spread of the virus. NOVEMBER: Massive protests spread across Mexico in response to the slow pace of the police investigation into the September 26 kidnapping and disappearance of 43 student protesters from Guerrero. The kidnappings are allegedly connected to drug cartels and political corruption, with former Iguala mayor José Luis Abarca arrested as a suspect. NOVEMBER 8: U.S. president Barack Obama authorizes 1,500 new troops to be deployed to Iraq in support of the Iraqi and Kurdish fight against ISIS (Islamic State in Iraq and Syria) militants. The new military personnel will serve in training and advisory roles. NOVEMBER 12: China and the United States reach a historic agreement in Beijing to systematically reduce their greenhouse gas emissions and carbon pollution by 2030. The agreement is negotiated by President Xi Jinping and President Barack Obama. NOVEMBER 12: For the first time in history, scientists succeed in landing a spacecraft on a comet. The robotic lander, named Philae, is part of the Rosetta mission, which was launched by the European Space Agency in 2004. DECEMBER 14: Countries around the world attending the United Nations (UN) climate conference in Lima, Peru, reach an unprecedented deal between members from wealthier and poorer nations. The agreement ends a division between developed and developing countries on how to approach respective goals on dealing with climate change. DECEMBER 16: U.S. president Barack Obama announces that he will begin working with Cuba on resuming commercial and diplomatic relations between the two countries for the first time since 1961. DECEMBER 16: Taliban gunmen attack the Army Public School and Degree College in Peshawar, Pakistan, resulting in 145 people dead, including 132 schoolchildren. The attack is carried out in retaliation for Pakistan's military offensives against Taliban militants, and it is one of the worst terrorist attacks in the country's history. NOVEMBER 26 THROUGH DECEMBER 14: Haiti prime minister Laurent Lamothe resigns on December 14 after weeks of historic antigovernment protests in Port-au-Prince. Protesters demand legislative elections, delayed since 2011, and the resignations of President Michel Martelly and Prime Minister Laurent Lamothe.

2010

JANUARY 12: Google announces it will shut down its Chinese website, Google.cn, unless China agrees to stop censorship of selected results. The decision is made after Google and roughly 20 other companies were victims of a mid-December 2009 hacking that is thought to have targeted Chinese human rights activists. On January 22 U.S. secretary of state Hillary Clinton pushed China for an inquiry into the cyber attack. JANUARY 12: A 7.0 magnitude earthquake hits Haiti's capital city, Port-au-Prince, destroying the National Cathedral, National Penitentiary, National Palace, and UN headquarters, as well as hospitals and other buildings. The death toll is an estimated 150,000, and disease, injuries, and a lack of basic necessities such as food, water, and medical supplies, create continuing hazards for survivors. More than 40,000 people are left homeless. A wave of international support follows in the days and weeks after the earthquake as images and information from the country are broadcast. International aid groups, the United Nations (UN), and other countries assisting in aid efforts estimate that it will take years to rebuild Haiti's infrastructure. JANUARY 16: Muhammad Badeea becomes the new "supreme guide" of the Muslim Brotherhood, one of the world's most influential Islamic groups. He replaces 81-year-old Mehdi Akef. JANUARY 17: Conservative candidate Sebastián Piñera wins Chile's presidential election, narrowly defeating Eduardo Frei of the Concertación. It is the first time in 20 years that a non-Concertación candidate has won, but analysts note that the change may not reflect a radical shift to the right, but a weariness of the leftist party or complacency with the progress made by the Concertación. JANUARY 17-19: Riots break out between Muslims and Christians in the Nigerian city of Jos, leaving 200 dead. JANUARY 25: Ali Hassan al-Majid, sometimes called "Chemical Ali," and a top aide of Saddam Hussein, is executed in Iraq. JANUARY 26: A 32-member panel of the French parliament presents a report recommending a ban on the burqa and niqab—veils worn by some Muslim women—in selected public places. JANUARY 26: The president of Sri Lanka, Mahinda Rajapaksa, is reelected, defeating opponent and former army general Sarath Fonseka. Fonseka centered his campaign on his successful leadership of Sri Lanka's army against the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE). The Tamil Tigers fought against government forces from 1983 to 2009 in an attempt to create an autonomous region for the country's Tamil minority, many of whom voted against Rajapaksa. FEBRUARY 7: Laura Chinchilla, a member of the National Liberation Party, is elected president of Costa Rica, thus becoming the country's first female president. She previously served in the government as vice president from 2006 to 2008 and was the country's minister of justice for many years. Chincilla's campaign largely centered on her promise to address the country's increasing crime rate. FEBRUARY 7: Viktor Yanukovych is elected president of Ukraine by a slim margin over his opponent Prime Minister Yulia Tymoshenko during the country's presidential runoff election. Yanukovych wins an especially large percentage of the vote in the eastern portion of Ukraine. FEBRUARY 9: Japanese automobile manufacturer Toyota announces a recall in the United States of its 2010 Prius model due to issues with the car's braking system. The previous month the company had been criticized for delaying a recall of several other car models with defects that caused their accelerator to lock. In the midst of the recalls, the value of Toyota's stock plummets. FEBRUARY 10: Both the government of Pakistan and Taliban leadership confirm the death of Hakimullah Mehsud, the formal leader of the Taliban in Pakistan. The United States government cites Mehsud's death as a victory in the U.S. military's war against the Taliban, who have been fighting Pakistani and U.S. forces in several tribal areas of Pakistan since 2001. FEBRUARY 12: The Winter Olympic Games commence in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. The celebratory mood of the day's events dampen when Republic of Georgia luge competitor Nodar Kumaritashvili is killed during a training run accident. FEBRUARY 19: A military coup in Niger ousts president Mamadou Tandja, dissolves all state institutions, and suspends the country's constitution. In August Tandja revised the constitution to extend his control of the government past the established term limit. Tandja had been president since 1999. FEBRUARY 21: A North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)-led airstrike against supposed Afghan militants instead kills 27 civilians. U.S. general Stanley McChrystal apologizes to Afghan president Hamid Karazai after the government condemns the attacks. NATO forces have been fighting against anti-government forces in Afghanistan since 2001. FEBRUARY 27: A 8.8-magnitude earthquake occurs near Santiago, Chile, and sets off tsunami warnings in the Pacific Ocean. The earthquake causes hundreds of fatalities and billions of dollars of damage. MARCH 6-7: As many as 500 people are killed during fighting in central Nigeria. Most of those killed are Christians or members of one of the country's ethnic minorities. Nigerian authorities explain the attacks as reprisals by the Muslim Hausa-Fulani tribe, more than 150 of whom were victims of Christian-led attacks in January. MARCH 17: Goodluck Jonathan, the acting president of Nigeria, dissolves the government's cabinet. Jonathan has been serving as de facto president of the country since February, when he took over for President Umaru Yar'Adua, gravely ill since October 2009. MARCH 17: A fire in Kasubi, Uganda, destroys four tombs belonging to the Buganda royal family. Uganda has four ancient kingdoms—including Buganda—that have no political power but remain as cultural symbols. The tombs were listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2001. Investigators have not determined the cause of the fire, although some protesters in Uganda insist that the tombs were destroyed by arson. MARCH 21: Benjamin Netanyahu, the prime minister of Israel, insists that Israel will continue plans to build 1,600 homes in East Jerusalem on land that Israelis have occupied since 1967. The Israeli government's announcement of these construction plans has halted peace talks with the Palestinian Authority and strained international diplomatic relations. MARCH 21: Girija Prasad Koirala, the former prime minister of Nepal, dies at age 86 in his daughter's home in Katmandu. Koirala served as prime minister of the country for several nonconsecutive terms. His tenure was marked by increasing strife between the Nepalese government and Maoist insurgents. MARCH 22: U.S. company Google disables its censored Internet search engine in mainland China and instead directs users to its Hong Kong search engine, which does not use the same censoring software. Google had operated its search engine in China since 2006 but became increasingly opposed to the Chinese government's insistence on censoring search results. MARCH 23: U.S. president Barack Obama signs into law the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, which Congress passed in March. The law requires most uninsured Americans to purchase health care from private companies by 2014 or otherwise pay a penalty. It also allows more Americans to qualify for Medicare and Medicaid. Some practices in the health care industry, such as dropping patients from health care plans due to "pre-existing conditions," will also be eliminated. MARCH 24: An island in the Bay of Bengal disappears beneath the water due to rising sea levels. The uninhabited island—called New Moore Island by Indians and South Talpatti Island by Bangladeshis—was the object of a land dispute between India and Bangladesh. Experts cite climate change as causing ocean levels to rise, thereby threatening numerous other islands in the Bay of Bengal and worldwide. MARCH 29: Suicide bombers destroy two subway cars in Moscow, Russia, during the morning rush hour. The explosions kill 40 people and wound more than 60. The leader of a Chechen separatist movement claims responsibility for the attacks. APRIL 3: The Monument of African Renaissance, a 160 ft (49 m) tall statue depicting a partially clothed woman and man holding a baby aloft is unveiled in Dakar, Senegal, during a celebration of the country's 50th anniversary of independence from France. The $27 million dollar statue has been criticized as wasteful and idolatrous by numerous prominent Senegalese religious leaders. APRIL 6: An underground explosion at the Upper Big Branch coal mine in West Virginia, United States, kills 29 people. It is the deadliest mining disaster in the United States since 1970. APRIL 7: Days of heavy rainfall in eastern Brazil cause numerous landslides, that kill as many as 170 people in the state of Rio de Janeiro. APRIL 7: Thousands of demonstrators storm government offices in Bishkek, the capital of Kyrgyzstan, to protest rising utility prices and government corruption. More than 80 people are killed by gunshots in the ensuing violence. President Kurmanbek Bakiyev flees the capital and resigns as leader of the government. APRIL 8: U.S. president Barack Obama and Russian prime minister Dmitry Medvedev meet in Prague, Czech Republic, to sign a pact curtailing nuclear proliferation. The treaty, which still needs to be ratified, will limit the deployment of nuclear warheads and launchers by both countries over the next seven years. APRIL 10: After a month of peaceful protests, demonstrators against the Thai government clash with the country's soldiers in central Bangkok. At least 25 people are killed during the confrontation. The protesters—referred to as "red shirts"—support ousted prime minister Thaksin Shinawatra and have demanded the resignation of Prime Minister Abhisit Vejjajiva. APRIL 10: The president of Poland, Lech Kaczynski, and several prominent members of the Polish government and military are killed in a plane crash in western Russia. The passengers had been en route to a memorial service commemorating thousands of Polish soldiers and civilians massacred in the Katyn forest by Soviet Union secret police forces during World War II. APRIL 14: A magnitude 7.1 earthquake in Qinghai province in western China kills more than 2,000 people, injures more than 12,000, and causes extensive damage. APRIL 14-20: Eyjafjallajokull volcano in Iceland erupts, emitting large plumes of ash and causing local evacuations and flooding. The clouds of ash spread across northern Europe, raising fears that particles in the ash could damage airplane engines. Flights across much of the continent are grounded, affecting millions of passengers there and from North America to Asia. The travel industry loses hundreds of millions of dollars as a result, and the nearly week-long disruption is called the worst peacetime travel disaster in history. APRIL 18: During a visit to Malta, Pope Benedict XVI holds a private meeting with eight men who were sexually abused by Roman Catholic priests when they were children. It is the first time the pope has met with sexual abuse victims since the Roman Catholic church came under increasing criticism for attempting to suppress accounts of sexual abuse by priests. APRIL 20: An explosion on an oil drilling platform in the Gulf of Mexico kills 11 workers. The explosion also causes oil to begin leaking into the Gulf of Mexico. Experts estimate that it will take until August to stop the flow, which raises fear that the oil will cause extensive environmental damage and economic distress in the Gulf region. LATE MAY: More than 70 people are killed during gunfights in Kingston, Jamaica, where government soldiers attempt to apprehend drug trafficker Christopher Coke. The Jamaican government has agreed to extradite Coke to the United States, where there are numerous warrants for Coke's arrest in connection to drug trafficking and gunrunning. MAY 5: In Greece, protestors demonstrate against the government's austerity plan, which restructures the country's economy in order to combat spiraling debt caused by runaway government spending. The protests erupt into riots that kill three people when demonstrators firebomb a bank. MAY 6: The United Kingdom holds a general election, but no party gains a majority of the votes. David Cameron of the Conservative Party and Nicholas Clegg of the Liberal Democrat Party soon announce that they have formed a coalition, however. Gordon Brown promptly resigns as prime minister and also as the head of the Labour Party. Cameron becomes the new prime minister, and Clegg becomes deputy prime minister. MAY 12: An Afriqiyah Airways flight crashes while attempting to land in Tripoli, Libya. The crash kills 103 people, and the only survivor is a young Dutch boy. The flight had departed from Johannesburg, South Africa, and most of the passengers were Dutch tourists. The cause of the crash is not immediately known. MAY 19: While visiting the United States, President Felipe Calderón of Mexico criticizes Arizona's state government for enacting a law that allows police officers to ask for the identification of anyone they believe may be in the United States without documentation. MAY 19: The government of Pakistan blocks citizens' access to Internet websites YouTube and Facebook, which they blame for providing blasphemous content. A Facebook page encouraged users to draw pictures of the prophet Muhammad—a forbidden act, according to some Muslims—which caused the outcry that led to the sites' blockage. MAY 20: A same-sex couple in Malawi is sentenced to 14 years in prison after they are convicted of "gross indecency." Homosexual acts are illegal in Malawi. The court's decision is immediately criticized by several foreign governments and international human rights organizations. MAY 20: After more than two months of demonstrating against the government, protesters in Thailand surrender to federal authorities. The demonstrations result in 50 deaths that occurred in Bangkok during skirmishes between demonstrators and state police. Protestors vow to return and continue to demand new elections and the resignation of current prime minister Abhisit Vejjajiva, who replaced former prime minister Thaksin Shinawatra in a military-backed coup. MAY 20: An investigation by the South Korean government reveals that the government of North Korea was responsible for the sinking of the South Korean warship Cheonan in March. Forty-six South Korean sailors were killed during the attack. South Korea immediately closes its waterways to North Korean vessels, and several foreign governments condemn the actions of the North Korean government. MAY 22: An Air Indian Express flight that originated in Dubai overshoots the runway and crashes while attempting to land in Mangalore, India, killing 158 passengers. Eight passengers survive the crash. MAY 31: Nine people are killed when Israeli Defense Forces (IDF) raid a ship participating in the Free Gaza Movement flotilla en route from Cyprus to the Gaza Strip. The passengers aboard the attacked ship were activists bringing aid to Gaza, which the government of Israel has blockaded since the Palestinian political party Hamas came to power in 2007. MAY 31: Horst Köhler, president of Germany since 2004, abruptly resigns from office after remarks he made about Germany's military role in the Afghanistan War are criticized. Köhler was quoted as saying that Germany was involved in the conflict due to economic concerns, rather than as part of a global war against terrorism. The position of president is largely ceremonial, and Köhler's resignation is the first time in German history that a president has resigned from the post. JUNE 1: The prime minister of Japan, Yukio Hatoyama, announces that he will resign. During his campaign the previous year, Hatoyama had promised that he would remove a U.S. military base on the Japanese island of Okinawa. He came under increasing criticism for not following through on this pledge. JUNE 8: A court in India convicts eight people for their roles in the 1984 disaster in Bhopal, India, where the Union Carbide plant leaked deadly gas into the atmosphere. More than 2,000 people died immediately, and thousands of residents of the city have died or suffered debilitating health problems since then. The convicted individuals will receive one- to two-year sentences. Numerous human rights organizations criticize the convictions as too lenient. JUNE 10-16: Violent clashes between ethnic Kyrgyz and minority Uzbeks in southern Kyrgyzstan result in the deaths of hundreds. Hundreds of thousands of Uzbeks also flee the country. Although the exact causes of the riots are unknown, tension between Uzbeks and Kyrgyz has increased since the resignation of the country's prime minister Kurmanbek Bakiyev in April. JUNE 11: The World Cup commences in South Africa, and 32 nations qualify to compete. It is the first time that the soccer tournament is held in an African country. JUNE 18: Portuguese author José Saramago dies at the age of 87 at his home in Lanzarote, Spain. Saramago received the Nobel Prize for literature in 1998. JUNE 23: Prime Minister of Australia Kevin Rudd resigns as head of the Labor Party and is replaced by Julia Gillard, who becomes the country's first female prime minister. JUNE 23: U.S. Army general Stanley McChrystal resigns his position as commanding officer of U.S. and NATO forces in Afghanistan. McChrystal raised controversy after Rolling Stone magazine published an article in which he and his aides criticized numerous members of the Obama administration. JULY 8: Iran citizen Sakineh Mohammadi Ashtiani, who was sentenced to death by stoning after being convicted of adultery in 2006, is given a temporary reprieve from execution. The country's judicial review board granted the reprieve after facing pressure from international human rights organizations. The fate of Ashtiani remains undecided. JULY 9: Ten people convicted of conducting espionage for the Russian government are exchanged for four people convicted of espionage for the United States government. The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) apprehended the spies after several years of surveillance. The transfer occurs on a tarmac at an airport in Vienna, Austria. JULY 11: The Democratic Party of Japan is defeated in the Upper House parliamentary elections. Polls reflected the popularity of party leader Naoto Kan when he became prime minister in June, but his popularity plunged after he proposed doubling the country's sales tax in order to address the country's deficit. JULY 12: Two explosions in Kampala, Uganda, kill 74 people. One bomb is detonated at a rugby club, and the other is detonated in an Ethiopian restaurant. In both locales people had gathered to watch the World Cup final. The Somali terrorist organization al-Shabab claims responsibility for the attacks. JULY 12: The International Criminal Court (ICC) releases an arrest warrant for Omar al-Bashir, the president of Sudan. Al-Bashir is charged with the crime of genocide against the Fur, Masalit, and Zaghawa ethnic groups in the Darfur region of Sudan. The ICC previously released a warrant for al-Bashir's arrest in 2009, but at the time it did not have enough evidence to include genocide amongst the charges. JULY 15: Argentina becomes the first country in Latin America to legalize same-sex marriage. The bill, which was approved by the senate by six votes, also allows same-sex couples to adopt children. JULY 16: Fidel Castro addresses the Cuban Foreign Ministry and warns that the United States will instigate nuclear war if it imposes sanctions on Iran. Fidel Castro makes several public appearances during the month of July after a four-year period of seclusion, causing speculation that he is seeking a return to power. JULY 24: Nineteen people are killed and hundreds more are injured when chaos erupts at the Love Parade, an annual electronic music festival held in Duisburg, Germany. A stampede occurs after people become trapped in a tunnel while attempting to exit the grounds where the festival is held. JULY 26: A prison chief during the Khmer Rouge era of Cambodia is sentenced to 35 years—although he will likely only serve 19 years—in prison by a United Nations (UN) war crimes tribunal. Duch, whose real name is Kaing Guek Eav, was found guilty of overseeing the execution and torture of more than 16,000 people in Tuol Sleng prison during the period of 1975 from 1979, when the Khmer Rouge controlled Cambodia. JULY 26-AUGUST: Intense monsoon rains cause extensive flooding in northwestern Pakistan. The floods soon spread to the country's southern region, killing thousands and displacing millions of people. Experts believe that the flooding could ruin the upcoming planting season and subsequent harvest, resulting in widespread famine. JULY 29-AUGUST: A combination of record-breaking high temperatures, drought, and widespread forest fires causes heavy smog to cover much of Moscow, Russia. During the period of intense smog, the death rate of the city doubles. AUGUST 5: Kenyan voters overwhelmingly show their support for a new constitution during the country's election. The new constitution will create limits on presidential power and was widely supported by the international community. The election is the first in the country since the 2007 presidential election that resulted in widespread violence. AUGUST 5: Thirty-three miners are trapped 2,300 feet below the earth in a gold and copper mine near the Chilean city of Copiapo. Officials state that due to the instability of the mine it may be months before they are able to free the trapped miners. In the meantime, rescuers plan to extend small plastic tubes down the bore-hole. The tubes will carry food, water, and communication tools to the miners. AUGUST 6: Bronislaw Komorowski is sworn in as the president of Poland. Komorowski succeeds previous president Lech Kaczynski, who died in a plane crash in April 2010. AUGUST 8: Torrential rains in northwestern China cause mudslides in the province of Gansu. More than 1,400 people die in the disaster, which causes billions of dollars in damages. AUGUST 9: Paul Kagame is reelected as the president of Rwanda, winning more than 96 percent of the vote. International human rights organizations are critical of the election, however, asserting that arrests and violence against opposition leaders in the sixth months prior to the election cast doubt on its outcome. AUGUST 16: China's economy eclipses Japan's for the fiscal quarter, making its economy the second strongest in the world behind that of the United States. Yearly economic growth in China has averaged 9 percent the past few years. AUGUST 19: The president of France, Nicholas Sarkozy, orders 300 Rroma camps in France dismantled and any inhabitants living illegally in France to be deported to Bulgaria and Romania. Approximately 10,000 Rroma were deported from France during 2009, despite their being citizens of the European Union (EU). There are an estimated 300,000 to 500,000 Rroma currently living in France. AUGUST 21: An election in Australia results in the country's first hung parliament since 1940, when no party won the 76 seats needed to secure a majority. Two months before the election, Julia Gillard ousted Kevin Rudd to become leader of the Labour Party and prime minister. Initially popular in the polls, the Labour Party's support declined in the months leading up to the election. SEPTEMBER 3: In Washington, D.C., Palestinian Authority (PA) president Mahmoud Abbas and Israeli prime minister Benjamin Netanyahu meet for direct peace talks for the first time in two years. Both sides state that compromises will have to be made for a peace agreement to be reached. SEPTEMBER 4: A 7.0-magnitude earthquake centered in Christchurch, New Zealand, causes damage to the area, leaving approximately 300 people homeless. SEPTEMBER 5: In a video clip sent to a British television station, members of the Basque-separatist group Euskadi Ta Askatasuna (ETA) declare a ceasefire in their armed struggle for independence from Spain, which began in 1959. The Spanish government expresses skepticism about the announcement, citing ETA's failure to hand over its weapons. SEPTEMBER 7: More then 1 million workers in France gather in various cities to protest plans by the government to overhaul pensions and raise the retirement age from 60 to 62. The austerity measures are designed to make up for a massive budget deficit. SEPTEMBER 8: The parliament of Sri Lanka passes an amendment to the constitution that abolishes presidential term limits. The measure had been supported by President Mahinda Rajapaksa, who would have been limited to two terms according to the previous constitution. SEPTEMBER 14: American Sarah Shourd is released on $500,000 bail. Along with two friends, the hiker had been imprisoned in Iran for a year on suspicion of espionage. Iranian authorities had apprehended the trio in July 2009, when they were found hiking along the Iran-Iraq border. SEPTEMBER 14: The Cuban government, which employs more than 85 percent of the country's laborers, announces plans to lay off more than 500,000 workers by March 2011. Restrictions on private enterprise will be lifted in order to provide more employment opportunities for the laid-off workers. The announcements come as the Cuban economy continues to struggle against the global economic recession and the trade embargo instituted by the United States. SEPTEMBER 15: Nine people are injured during a protest in Kabul, Afghanistan. The protest was in response to a Florida pastor's announcement that his congregation planned to burn copies of the Koran, the Muslim holy book, on September 11. The pastor abandons his intentions, but protests still occur worldwide. SEPTEMBER 30: The Ecuadoran military and police force stage a coup attempt against President Rafael Correa. A state of emergency is declared in the country before Correa is able to regain power. The unrest was caused by recent austerity measures that had angered many public servants in Ecuador. LATE-OCTOBER: Riots and demonstrations occur in many parts of France as citizens react to austerity measures proposed by the French government. The protestors block airports, gas stations, and docks throughout the country, causing flights to be canceled and gas prices to rise. The measure include raising the retirement age to 60 from 62 and raising the age at which government employees become eligible for full pension payments. MID-OCTOBER: Afghanistan's government, along with the United States and North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) forces, conducts a series of talks with various Taliban commanders in an effort to negotiate a peace agreement to end the almost decade-long war in Afghanistan. OCTOBER 1: During a celebration marking the 50th anniversary of Nigeria's independence from the United Kingdom, two car bombs detonate in Abuja, killing eight people. The militant group Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta (MEND) claims responsibility for the attacks. The Nigerian government and MEND have been in conflict over oil in the country's Delta region. OCTOBER 3: Brazil holds a general election, but no presidential candidate secures the 50 percent majority necessary to prevent a runoff election. Dilma Rousseff, the former chief of staff to current President Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva, secures more votes than the next leading candidate, José Serra, the former governor of São Paulo. OCTOBER 4: A retaining wall breaks at an aluminum smelting factory in western Hungary, spilling toxic sludge into a nearby stream and the surrounding countryside. Nine people die from chemical burns, and approximately 150 more are hospitalized in the disaster's aftermath. OCTOBER 10: The Netherland Antilles is dissolved when Curaçao and St. Maarten declare their independence. They will remain within the Kingdom of the Netherlands as autonomous countries. The Netherland Antilles had been a collection of former Dutch colonies. The other islands of the Netherlands Antilles—Bonaire, St. Eustatius, and Saba—will be reclassified as autonomous special municipalities. Aruba left the Netherlands Antilles in 1986. OCTOBER 13: Sixty-nine days after becoming trapped in the mine they were working in, 33 miners are rescued in Chile. They are greeted by friends and families, as well as a media frenzy and the country's president Sebastian Pinera. OCTOBER 14: During a meeting of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), it is announced that Iran will assumes presidency of the organization beginning on January 1, 2011. Iran last held the presidency 36 years ago. Currently Ecuador serves as the presidential body of OPEC. OCTOBER 22: Thousands of students in Tibet and China protest against proposed reforms by the Chinese government. The reforms would curb the use of the Tibetan language in schools, mandating that most classes be taught instead in Mandarin Chinese, China's official language. OCTOBER 24: A cholera outbreak in northwest Haiti concerns authorities. They fear it will turn into an epidemic that could reach the congested capital of Port-au-Prince, located near the epicenter of a massive earthquake in January. The earthquake leveled much of the city, and makeshift tent cities in the metropolitan area still house more than 1 million survivors. Cholera is an acute bacterial infection that can be acquired by ingesting infected food or water. OCTOBER 29: Two explosive packages onboard cargo planes from Yemen are intercepted by security officials in Britain and Dubai. The bombs are disguised as ink cartridges hidden in a printer and bound for Jewish synagogues in Chicago. Authorities believe an al-Qaeda affiliate in Yemen is responsible for the attempted bombing. OCTOBER 31: Citizens of the Ivory Coast gather to cast their vote for president in the nation's first presidential election in a decade. The incumbent president, Laurent Gbagbo, faces opponents in an election that has been postponed six times. The African nation has been vulnerable to political instability since a 2002 civil war when rebel forces seized control of the country. NOVEMBER 1: Russian president Dmitry Medvedev goes to one of the four Kuril Islands, despite warnings from Japan in September that the visit would strain connections between the two countries. The trip resurrects a sovereignty dispute over the territory that goes back to World War II, when the Kuril Islands were taken over by Soviet troops. NOVEMBER 2: The Republican Party celebrates a historic victory in the 2010 U.S. midterm elections, taking the House of Representatives majority away from Democrats by 60 seats. This victory marks the highest number of congressional seats lost by Democrats since 1948. NOVEMBER 7: A landslide victory by Myanmar's largest military-backed party prompts charges of fraud from the international community. Pro-democracy parties within the country believe the election was rigged to preserve authoritarian rule. NOVEMBER 10: A peaceful protest over the British government's plans to increase university tuition rates and cut state funding for university teaching turns violent when a fringe group of demonstrators storm the headquarters of the country's Conservative Party. The protest attracts more than 50,000 students from all over England. NOVEMBER 12: President Barack Obama embarks on his longest foreign trip abroad as president, taking a 10-day tour through India, Indonesia, South Korea, and Japan. His visit precedes the G-20 summit and involves finalizing a free trade agreement with South Korea and finding new opportunities for job creation in the United States. NOVEMBER 13: After more than seven years of confinement, Myanmar pro-democracy leader, Aung San Suu Kyi is freed from the house arrest imposed by military authorities. Her release comes days after an election that restructured the country's government. Suu Kyi's political party, the National League for Democracy, was ordered to disband but continues to exist as a social movement that considers her its disenfranchised leader. NOVEMBER 15: A fire in a 28-story apartment building in Shanghai, China, kills at least 58 people. Investigators say the fire started when sparks from welding equipment ignited the netting and scaffolding surrounding the building, which was being renovated to take advantage of the subsidies offered by a government trying to meet energy-efficiency targets. The incident has raised questions about China's efforts, which critics say encourage corruption in the country's fevered construction industry. NOVEMBER 17: The Guinea military declares a state of emergency two days after the first democratic presidential election results in an outbreak of violence. Supporters of the losing candidate—former prime minister Cellou Diallo—clashed with police. NOVEMBER 19: NATO leaders agree to U.S. president Barack Obama's plan to create a missile defense system that will cover all member states. Russian president Dmitry Medvedev meets with President Obama and NATO leaders to discuss his country's participation in the system, which the Kremlin has opposed in the past. NOVEMBER 22: A stampede breaks out during a celebration of the Water Festival in Phnom Penh, Cambodia. More than 340 people are killed when a small bridge becomes overcrowded, causing people to panic. NOVEMBER 23: The North and South Korean militaries exchange artillery fire across the maritime border that separates the two countries' territories. The exchange kills two South Korean soldiers on Yeonpyeong Island, a South Korean island in the Yellow Sea. The incident marks the starkest escalation of tensions between the two countries since the end of the Korean War. NOVEMBER 28: The Haitian election is marred by controversy, as 12 of the 18 presidential candidates demand an open election after accusing the ruling party of interfering with election results and promoting second-place contender Jude Celestin. NOVEMBER 28: Wikileaks—an online organization devoted to publicizing secret documents—in conjunction with five international newspapers, releases classified cables obtained from American embassies. The cables range in content form personal conversations between foreign dignitaries to evidence of the United States's escalating military influence in Pakistan. Most national governments condemn the release. Private First Class Bradley Manning of the U.S. Army is suspected of providing the cables to Wikileaks, and the organization's founder, Julian Assange, is arrested soon after in the United Kingdom on charges unrelated to the leaked cables. DECEMBER 2: Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA) announces that Russia will host the 2018 and Qatar will host the 2022 World Cup tournaments. More than 1 billion people are estimated to watch the international soccer competition, which is held every four years. The announcements are marred by charges of corruption and bribery during the voting process. DECEMBER 2: A forest fire in northern Israel kills more than 40 people and forces more than 17,000 to evacuate the surrounding areas. The fire began when a 14-year-old boy failed to extinguish a pipe he had been smoking in Carmel Forest. DECEMBER 2: Ivory Coast incumbent president Laurent Gbagbo refuses to cede his position, despite receiving 8.2 percent fewer votes than his challenger Alassane Ouattara in the presidential election. Citizens of the country protest, and the United Nations (UN) declares its support for Ouattar. DECEMBER 8: During a riot, a fire breaks out in San Miguel prison in Santiago, Chile, killing 81 inmates. Prison officials disagree with inmates over the cause of the fire. The prison system in Chile is more than 70 percent over capacity. DECEMBER 9: After the United Kingdom's parliament votes to increase fees for university students, protests occur across the country. The majority of them are peaceful, but as tensions escalate, there are numerous violent incidents throughout the United Kingdom, especially in London. Students had also staged protests in the weeks preceding the vote. DECEMBER 11: Two explosions in downtown Stockholm, Sweden, injure two people. The person who detonated the explosives, Iraqi-born Swede Taimour al-Abdaly, is also killed. In recordings he sent to news organizations, the bomber singles out a Swedish cartoonist controversial for having drawn the Muslim prophet Muhammad. Sweden's involvement in Afghanistan is also cited as motivation. DECEMBER 14: The prime minister of Italy, Silvio Berlusconi, survives a no-confidence vote by both houses of the country's parliament. Berlusconi's tenure as prime minister has been marked by numerous scandals and questions over his financial links to Russian prime minister Vladimir Putin.

1960

U.S. chemist Robert Woodward (1917-79) synthesizes chlorophyll. French explode an atom bomb. U.S. physicist Theodore Maiman invents the laser. Belgian Congo gains independence with Patrice Lumumba (1925-61) as prime minister; the Congo army mutinies; Belgian troops are sent; the province of Katanga declares independence; UN troops replace Belgian forces; Joseph Mobutu (1930-97) seizes power. John F. Kennedy (1917-63) is elected U.S. president. French settlers in Algeria rebel against plans for independence. Kwame Nkrumah (1909-72) becomes president of the independent republic of Ghana. South African troops kill demonstrators at Sharpeville. Nigeria, Upper Volta, Chad, Ivory Coast, Cameroon, Togo, Gabon, Congo, Mauritania, Somalia, and the Malagassy republic become fully independent. US embargoes exports to Cuba and cuts Cuban sugar quotas by 95%. Israeli agents kidnap Nazi war criminal Adolf Eichmann (1906-62) in Argentina. Non-Common Market countries form the European Free Trade Association. Soviets shoot down a U.S. U2 spyplane and capture pilot Gary Powers. New city of Brasília becomes the capital of Brazil. U.S. civil rights activist Martin Luther King, Jr. (1929-68) organizes a sit-in demonstration in Greesboro, North Carolina. Cyprus becomes independent under President Makarios (1913-77). Military coup takes power in Turkey. US and Canada join west European nations to form the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). French dramatist Eugène Ionesco (1912-94) writes his play The Rhinoceros. British author Elias Canetti (1905-94) publishes Crowds and Power. Guggenheim Museum, designed by U.S. architect Frank Lloyd Wright (1869-1959), opens in New York. Ideological differences split the Soviet-Chinese alliance. Achmad Sukarno (1901-70) assumes dictatorial powers in Indonesia. U.S. author John Updike publishes his novel Rabbit Run. Mrs. Sirimavo Bandaranaike (1916-2000) is elected prime minister of Ceylon (present-day Sri Lanka).

2001

JANUARY 16: Democratic Republic of the Congo president Laurent Kabila (1939-2001) is assassinated; his son, Joseph Kabila, assumes the presidency amid civil war. JANUARY 20: Filipino president Joseph Estrada resigns amid accusations of corruption and economic plunder; he is succeeded by vice president Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo. FEBRUARY 6: Ariel Sharon is elected Israeli prime minister. MARCH 24: Scientists report findings of defects in cloned animals caused by random genetic errors; it is deduced that similar errors would occur in the cloning of humans. APRIL: Financial adviser and former NASA engineer Dennis Tito becomes the world's first "space tourist" when he pays $20 million for a trip to the International Space Station. APRIL 2: A U.S. reconnaissance plane collides with a Chinese fighter jet in the South China Sea; 24 U.S. crew members are detained for 11 days before the U.S. submits an official statement of regret. APRIL 24: Junichiro Koizumi is elected prime minister of Japan. MAY 4: A new addition to the Milwaukee Museum of Art, designed by Spanish engineer-architect Santiago Calatrava (1951-), opens in Wisconsin. MAY 6: British composer Sir Peter Maxwell Davies premieres his Antarctic Symphony (Symphony No. 8) in London. MAY 14: Silvio Berlusconi is elected prime minister of Italy. MAY 29: Four men with ties to al-Qaeda leader Osama bin Laden are convicted for their roles in the 1998 bombing of American embassies in Kenya and Tanzania. JUNE 1: In a shooting rampage, Nepalese crown prince Dipendra (1972-2001) kills his father—King Birendra (1945-2001), mother, sister, and younger brother before taking his own life; his brother, Gyanendra, is crowned king. JUNE 3: Alejandro Toledo is elected president of Peru. JUNE 9: Iranian president Mohammad Khatami is reelected by an overwhelming majority. JUNE 11: Oklahoma City bomber Timothy McVeigh (1968-2001) is executed in the United States for the 1995 bombing of the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building. JUNE 29: Former Yugoslavian president Slobodan Milošević (1941-2006) is brought to the UN war crimes tribunal in The Hague to await trial. JULY 3: Surgeons in Louisville, Kentucky successfully implant the first self-contained artificial heart. JULY 9: Chilean appeals court declares former dictator Augusto Pinochet (1915-2006) mentally unfit to stand trial due to medical dementia; charges of genocide, kidnapping, and torture during his rule are dismissed. JULY 23: 178 nations ratify the Bonn Agreement on international climate change—an outgrowth of the Kyoto Protocol. The U.S. refuses to participate in the accord to limit greenhouse gas emissions from industrialized nations. JULY 23: Vice president Megawati Sukarnoputri becomes president of the Republic of Indonesia when Abdurrahman Wahid is forced to resign amid corruption charges. AUGUST 16: Armed conflict erupts between ethnic Albanians and Macedonians, a peace agreement is signed after six months of fighting, and NATO forces disarm the rebels. AUGUST 29: Former Bosnian Serb general Radislav Krstic is convicted of genocide by the UN war crimes tribunal for the 1995 mass-murder of 7,000 unarmed Muslim men and boys. SEPTEMBER: Al-Qaeda head Osama bin Laden becomes the world's most-wanted criminal when U.S. and British governments announce that he is responsible for the September 11 terrorist attacks in the United States. SEPTEMBER 11: Four U.S. planes are hijacked by terrorists on the morning of September 11; nearly 3,000 people are killed when two planes are flown into the World Trade Center in New York City, a plane is crashed into the Pentagon, and the fourth is downed in a field in Pennsylvania; the World Trade Center towers—two of the world's tallest buildings—are collapsed. OCTOBER: The Taliban government of Afghanistan, headed by Mohammad Omar, refuses to cooperate when the United States accuses the regime of harboring Osama bin Laden and other al-Qaeda leaders. OCTOBER: UK author Sir V. S. Naipaul wins the Nobel Prize in literature for his fiction and non-fiction works about postcolonial countries. OCTOBER: Letters containing anthrax are sent to U.S. media personnel and government officials inciting a nationwide anthrax-scare. OCTOBER 7: U.S. and British forces commence bombing raids in Afghanistan against the Taliban government and al-Qaeda terrorist camps; the Taliban regime collapses after two months. OCTOBER 23: After months of peace talks, the Irish Republican Army (IRA) announces that it has begun to disarm; the Northern Ireland Assembly regains its autonomy and David Trimble returns to his post as first minister. NOVEMBER 29: Former Beatle George Harrison (1943-2001) dies of cancer. DECEMBER: Israel severs all ties with Palestinian Authority leader Yasir Arafat (1929-2004) and declares the organization a "terror-supporting entity;" Israeli army begins bombing Palestinian sectors. DECEMBER 5: At a UN-sponsored summit of Afghani factions in Bonn, Germany, Hamid Karzai is named leader of a transitional, post-Taliban government in Afghanistan. DECEMBER 20: Argentine president Fernando de la Rúa resigns amid national financial crisis.

2012

JANUARY 1: Iranian scientists produce the country's first-ever nuclear fuel rod. Having a nuclear fuel rod (tube containing pellets of enriched uranium that provide fuel for nuclear reactors) marks a key step in nuclear-fuel production. JANUARY 13: Credit-rating agency Standard & Poor's downgrades the sovereign debt of France from AAA to AA+ for the first time ever. The downgrade of the eurozone's second-largest economy could threaten Europe's plan to fix its debt crisis. JANUARY 21: Yemen's parliament approves a deal that grants immunity from prosecution to the outgoing president Ali Abdullah Saleh as well as partial immunity to his aides. FEBRUARY 7: Maldivian president Mohamed Nasheed resigns after weeks of protests erupt into a police mutiny. FEBRUARY 13: Greek lawmakers pass another package of harsh austerity measures that will cut $4.35 billion in wages, pensions, and jobs to meet EU preconditions for a financial rescue package of $170 billion. MARCH 5: Vladimir Putin, former prime minister of Russia, wins a second term as president with 64 percent of the vote. MARCH 14: The International Criminal Court (ICC) finds Congolese warlord Thomas Lubanga guilty of recruiting child soldiers under the age of 15 to the armed wing of the Union of Congolese Patriots (UPC). MARCH 22: The military seizes power in Mali, a democracy since 1991, charging insufficient support for the army against Tuareg rebels, who declare independence for the northern half of Mali on April 6. APRIL 1: Prodemocracy leader Aung San Suu Kyi wins her first bid for the Myanmar parliament after spending the past 20 years under house arrest and in detention. APRIL 12: Bowing to heavy international pressure the military in Mali agrees to hand over power to interim president Diouncounda Traore. MAY 7: Japan stops producing nuclear power. All of the nation's nuclear facilities have been shut down in response to the 2011 partial meltdown at the Fukushima nuclear power plant and a growing antinuclear movement. In 2010, nuclear power plants provided 30 percent of Japan's electricity. In order to be reactivated a plant must pass strict stress-tests, and local authorities must give their consent. MAY 15: François Hollande, France's first socialist leader in nearly 20 years, is sworn into office. Hollande beat incumbent Nicolas Sarkozy in elections held on May 7. JUNE 2: Former president Hosni Mubarak of Egypt is sentenced to life in prison after a court convicts him on charges of complicity in the killing of protesters during the 2011 uprising that forced him from power. JUNE 12: Euro zone finance ministers agree to lend Spain up to 100 billion euros ($125 billion) to recapitalize Spanish banks. With this loan the European Union (EU) and International Monetary Fund (IMF) are now committed to approximately 500 billion euros in financing for European bailouts, and Spain becomes the fourth country, after Greece, Ireland, and Portugal, to receive assistance. JUNE 12: The Yemeni army retakes control of the cities of Zinjibar and Jaar from al-Qaeda-linked fighters—a major breakthrough for the U.S.-backed offensive in their efforts to secure stability in the wider oil-rich Gulf region. JUNE 24: In Egypt, Mohamed Morsi of the Muslim Brotherhood is declared the winner of the first free presidential election in the country's history. JULY 7: In Libya, the first free parliamentary elections since 1952 take place, in which 62 percent of registered voters choose among more than 100 parties. The National Forces Alliance, led by ex-interim Prime Minister Mahmoud Jibril, wins 39 of 80 parliamentary seats reserved for political parties, followed by the Muslim Brotherhood, which gains 17 seats. JULY 11: Secretary of State Hillary Clinton becomes the first high-ranking U.S. official to visit Laos since the Vietnam War; she meets with officials to discuss the residual impact of the war on the region. JULY 11: Thirty thousand Bosnians gather outside the capital of Srebrenica to mark the 17th anniversary of Bosnia and Herzegovina's civil war and to rebury in a formal ceremony 520 victims of the concurrent genocide. Since the end of the war in 1995, 6,800 bodies have been exhumed from mass graves and given formal burials. JULY 15: The International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), the guardian of the Geneva Convention, declares that the conflict in Syria has reached the level of civil war. With this declaration international humanitarian law now applies throughout the country and to all parties. EARLY AUGUST: Tropical storms and typhoons ravage the Philippines, causing landslides and leaving much of the country underwater. AUGUST 11: Two earthquakes registering 6.3 and 6.4 on the Richter scale strike northwest Iran, resulting in significant damage and more than 300 deaths. SEPTEMBER 11: A factory fire in Karachi, Pakistan, kills more than 300 workers. The deadly incident spotlights the lack of enforcement of safety regulations in the country's workplaces. SEPTEMBER 12: Christopher Stevens, U.S. ambassador to Libya, dies in an attack by a group of armed Islamist militants on the U.S. consulate in Benghazi, Libya. The attack is in response to an American-made YouTube video that ridicules Prophet Muhammad, which sparked violent protests across the Middle East. Stevens's death is the first time since 1979 that an American ambassador is killed. SEPTEMBER 18: One of Colombia's most-wanted drug traffickers, Daniel "El Loco" Barrera, is captured in Venezuela. In light of the capture, the rebel group Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia, linked to the crime boss, agrees to begin peace talks with the Colombian government. SEPTEMBER 19: India faces nationwide strikes over congressional reforms allowing foreign supermarkets into the country's retail sector. A key coalition partner of the ruling Congress party pulls out of the coalition, forcing Congress to create new alliances to keep the government running. OCTOBER 3-14: Turkey exchanges fire with Syria for seven straight days after shelling from the civil war in Syria crosses the Turkish border, killing civilians. The Turkish parliament authorizes military action, preparing for a possible war. The government also closes its airspace to Syrian military and civilian flights. OCTOBER 7: President Hugo Chavez wins election for another six-year term. He pledges to continue socialist reforms to help the country's poor. OCTOBER 8: Egypt's new president Mohamed Morsi pardons protesters who were arrested during the Egyptian revolution of 2011-2012 that ousted dictator Hosni Mubarak. OCTOBER 12: The European Union (EU) is awarded the 2012 Nobel Peace Prize. The prize is awarded to the EU for six decades of peace-keeping in Europe and the promotion of democracy and human rights worldwide. OCTOBER 12: The UN Security Council backs military action by West African forces in northern Mali, which had been taken over by Islamist militants with ties to al-Qaeda. The Islamists had wrested control from Tuareg separatists who had declared an independent state in northern Mali on April 6. OCTOBER 16: The United States sends top defense officials to engage with the Burmese military on humanitarian and diplomatic issues. This move marks the strongest cooperation between the two countries' militaries in 25 years and prompts concern from human rights activists. OCTOBER 22-29: Hurricane Sandy, the largest hurricane on record in the Atlantic Basin, devastates portions of the Caribbean and United States. The second-costliest hurricane in U.S. history, the storm killed more than 200 people, primarily in Haiti and the United States. NOVEMBER 4: Bishop Tawadros is selected pope of the Coptic Church. His lifelong appointment comes at a tense time for the religious minority in Egypt. NOVEMBER 6: U.S. president Barack Obama wins reelection with 50 percent of the popular vote against Republican candidate Mitt Romney, who receives 48 percent. NOVEMBER 15: Xi Jinping is officially announced as the new leader of the People's Republic of China. He replaces Hu Jintao, who also hands over to Xi the position of chairman of the Military Commission. NOVEMBER 29: The United Nations votes 138-9 to recognize Palestine as a non-member observer state. Canada, Israel, and the United States vote against the measure; 41 nations abstain. The largely symbolic gesture is seen as a signal of international support for a Palestinian country. DECEMBER 4: Typhoon Bopha hits the Philippines, killing at least 1000 people in flash flooding. Another 800 people, mostly fisherman, are declared missing. The storm brings devastating destruction to most of the southern islands. DECEMBER 8: Venezuelan president Hugo Chavez announces that his cancer has returned and that he will undergo a fourth surgery. Chavez names Vice President Nicolas Maduro as his successor if he cannot return to office. DECEMBER 11: The United States recognizes the National Coalition for Syrian Revolutionary and Opposition Forces, a Syrian opposition coalition seeking the ouster of Syrian president Bashar al-Assad, as the legitimate representative of the Syrian people. DECEMBER 16: The Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) ousts the ruling Democratic Party of Japan (DPJ) with a landslide victory in elections for the lower house of Japan's parliament. LDP leader Shinzo Abe returns to power as prime minister on December 26.

2013

JANUARY 2: The United Nations (UN) reports that the civil war in Syria has resulted in more than 60,000 deaths since March 2011. This figure is far higher than the estimates reported by the Assad regime and the rebel factions. JANUARY 10: Suicide bombers attack a building in Quetta, Pakistan, killing nearly 100 members of the Shii Hazara community. An anti-Shia extremist group called Lashkar-e-Jhangvi claims responsibility for the deadly incident, one of the worst sectarian attacks in the country's history. JANUARY 13: France enters into the civil war in Mali, a former French colony, expelling extremist Islamic militants from the major cities of Gao, Konna, and Diabaly. The French government is intervening to support the interim democratic government of Mali, in place since March 2012. FEBRUARY 11: China's customs administration releases its 2012 international trade figures and for the first time surpasses the United States to become the world's biggest trading nation. The shift, predicted for the past few years, shows the growing international power of China as well as its reliance on supply and demand from other countries. FEBRUARY 28: Pope Benedict XVI resigns from the papacy, becoming the first pope to do so since 1415. He cites ill health and old age as his reasons for stepping down, stating that the position is evolving with the new millennium and requires vigor and strength. MARCH 3: Bangladeshi armed forces are deployed to control Islamic party activists involved in rioting that has left 60 people dead. The riots began on March 1 in response to a death sentence handed to the leader of the Jamaat-e-Islami party for atrocities committed during Bangladesh's war of independence from Pakistan in 1971. MARCH 5: Venezuelan president Hugo Chavez dies of cancer. The controversial and charismatic leader, re-elected in October 2012, is remembered for leading the populist revolution in Venezuela and working to better the lives of the poor in his country. MARCH 10: After days of delays in vote-counting, Uhuru Kenyatta is announced as the new president of Kenya. Though contested by some opposition parties, the transition is expected to be peaceful. The presidential election of 2007 resulted in a humanitarian crisis, with thousands killed and hundreds of thousands displaced. MARCH 11: North Korea declares the 1953 Korean War truce nullified. The announcement comes at a time of increasing hostility between North and South Korea, with North Korea viewing the United States's involvement in South Korea's defense build-up as an aggressive military stance. MARCH 13: Argentine cardinal Jorge Bergoglio is chosen by the papal conclave to be the next pope. Taking the name Pope Francis I, he is the first non-European to hold the seat in more than 1,000 years. MARCH 14: Xi Jinping assumes the presidency of China, succeeding Hu Jintao. MARCH 25: Cyprus, in the midst of economic crisis, agrees to a restrictive bailout from the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and European Union (EU). The 10 billion euro (US $13 billion) bailout converts up to 40 percent of private savings accounts with more than 100,000 euros (US$ 128,000) into bank shares. Banks impose withdrawal limits and shutter doors to prevent a run on the unstable currency. APRIL 8: Margaret Thatcher, first female prime minister of Great Britain, dies. The controversial leader served from 1979 to 1990 and is best known for transforming the economy with pro market reforms and working with the United States to end the cold war. APRIL 14: In Venezuela Nicolas Maduro is narrowly elected to serve out the remainder of Hugo Chavez's presidential term. Maduro was handpicked by Chavez to succeed him but is less popular than the deceased reformer. APRIL 19: Serbia and Kosovo reach an agreement that gives limited autonomy to four municipalities in northern Kosovo that are populated almost exclusively by Serbs in exchange for recognition of the legal authority of the central government over the entire territory. The deal falls short of a formal recognition by Serbia of Kosovo as a state; however, it opens up the path for both countries to eventual membership in the EU, with both agreeing not to hinder the other side's application process. APRIL 24: An eight-story commercial building collapses in Dhaka, Bangladesh, killing 1,127 garment factory workers. The incident, due to poor building construction, is the worst industrial accident since a massive gas leak killed thousands in Bhopal, India, in 1984. MAY 8: The Kurdistan Worker's Party (PKK) withdraws troops from Turkey following a successful ceasefire agreement. This step is part of peace negotiations that could end the decades-long ethnic conflict. JUNE 6: The British government settles claims by victims of the British colonial powers in Kenya who had been tortured and abused during the 1952-60 Mau Mau uprising, a revolt against British rule in which thousands of Kenyans were killed and that paved the way for Kenyan independence in 1963. JUNE 13: After confirming British and French intelligence reports of chemical weapon use by President Bashar al-Assad's regime in the Syrian civil war, the United States decides to send military support to help opposition groups. JUNE 14: Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdogan of Turkey suspends commercial development of Gezi Park in Istanbul after weeks of protests. The demonstrations, which spread across the country, left five dead and thousands injured and brought international attention to the harsh measures used on protesters.  JUNE 16: Hassan Rowhani is elected president of Iran in a landslide first-round victory against five other candidates. Rowhani, a member of the country's conservative establishment who also has the backing of the country's reformist movement, campaigned on promises to improve the economy as well as relations with the West. JUNE 25: In a rare event in the Arab world, the 61-year-old emir of Qatar, Sheik Hamad bin Khalifa al-Thani, voluntarily steps down and hands power to his son Sheik Tamin bin Hamad al-Thani. The 33-year-old crown prince becomes the youngest ruler in the region. JUNE 26: Australian prime minister Julia Gillard loses a leadership vote for the Australian Labor Party to her rival, former prime minister Kevin Rudd. She resigns later that day as prime minister. JULY 3: After weeks of massive protests in Egypt, the army removes President Mohamed Morsi from power. Morsi, who became Egypt's first-ever freely elected leader following the overthrow of the dictator Hosni Mubarak in 2011, grew unpopular when he granted himself unlimited powers to impose legislation without judicial oversight and sided with the Muslim Brotherhood party on many key issues. The Egyptian Army denies this is a military coup, stating that it is working as the arm of the people. JULY 15: The Indian government begins relief payments to families as they declare 5,748 dead after a month-long search for flood victims. Flash flooding hit the Uttarakhand region in mid-June, causing great damage and displacing more than 100,000 people. JULY 21: King Albert II of Belgium abdicates the throne in favor of his son, Crown Prince Philippe. The monarch cites age and health issues as factors in his decision to step down. AUGUST 3: Robert Mugabe wins a seventh term as president of Zimbabwe. The 89 year old, who has ruled the country since its independence in 1980, is accused of election rigging by international sources but remains safely in power. AUGUST 4: Spain increases border control measures at the island of Gibraltar, creating waiting times of up to five hours for British citizens to cross between Spain and the small British protectorate. The move is seen as a retaliatory act against Gibraltar's creation of an artificial reef in Spain's waters. AUGUST 14: Israeli and Palestinian negotiators, aided by U.S. diplomatic efforts, resume peace talks for the first time in five years. Though the process is tense, the talks begin with Israel releasing 26 prisoners and promising the release of dozens more in the upcoming months. AUGUST 14: In Egypt, a state of emergency is declared after more than 600 people are killed when security forces crack down on protesters who demand the return to power of President Mohamed Morsi who had been removed from office by the military. SEPTEMBER 11: Two enormous and accessible underground aquifers are found in Kenya. The aquifers are in the drought-ridden Turkana region and will greatly benefit the 700,000 people living there once infrastructure to deliver the water is built. SEPTEMBER 13: Less than a month after the Syrian regime allegedly used chemical weapons against anti-government rebels, Syria formally applies to join the Chemical Weapons Convention. Those party to the Convention must pledge to never use chemical weapons, inform the United Nations of any stockpiles of such weapons, and destroy them within 10 years. The Convention will enter into force for Syria on October 14, 2013. SEPTEMBER 27: For the first time in 34 years the leaders of Iran and the United States speak directly during a historic phone call, following diplomatic outreach efforts by Iranian president Hassan Rowhani, who seeks an end to international sanctions against his country in exchange for an agreement on Iran's nuclear program. OCTOBER 17: In Mozambique the opposition group Resistência Nacional Moçambicana (RENAMO) declares an end to the peace agreement reached in 1992 with the governing Front de Libertaçao de Moçambicana (FRELIMO) following a 16-year long civil war. The move raises fears that the old conflict, which had lasted from 1976 until 1992, could be renewed. OCTOBER 17: The U.S. federal government reopens after President Barack Obama signs a bill approved by both houses of Congress. The 16-day government shutdown comes to an end after Congress passes measures supporting a budget deal, averting a U.S. debt default and providing a temporary solution to the fiscal crisis. During the Congressional impasse the image of U.S. Treasury debt as a risk-free investment became a source of international concern. NOVEMBER 8: Typhoon Haiyan makes landfall in the Philippines, causing a humanitarian crisis and a death toll of more than 5,000. The days following the storm result in widespread food and medicine shortages, as well as property destruction across heavily populated areas. It is the strongest recorded tropical cyclone to reach land, classified as a Category 5 super typhoon. DECEMBER 5: Nelson Mandela, South Africa's first black president, dies at the age of 95. Leaders from around the world attend his funeral. DECEMBER 15: Two hundred thousand protesters demonstrate in Kiev, Ukraine, in response to President Viktor Yanukovych's refusal to sign a European Union (EU) agreement that would seal a free trade and political integration pact with the country. The agreement is an attempt to restore trade relations with the larger Russian Federation. DECEMBER 16: The United Nations (UN) makes a record $6.5 billion appeal in humanitarian aid for Syrian civil war victims and refugees, anticipating 4 million new people in need of food, shelter, and medical services in 2014.

2015

JANUARY 7-9: Islamic extremists attack the offices of a satirical magazine in Paris, France, and later take hostages at a local supermarket, killing 17 people. JANUARY 19-22: President Abdu Rabu Mansour Hadi of Yemen agrees to implement demands for constitutional change and power sharing made by Shiite militants led by Abdulmalik Al-Houthi after they take control of the military and the presidential palace. The Shiite rebels, known as Houthis, pressure Hadi for further concessions, and the president resigns on January 22. JANUARY 23: Salman bin Abdul Aziz becomes king of Saudi Arabia upon the death of King Abdullah, who had ruled the country since 2005. FEBRUARY 15: The Israeli Cabinet approves of a $46 million plan to encourage mass immigration of Europe's Jewish population to Israel. The immigration plan is passed in response to recent terrorist attacks in Europe and political instability in the Ukraine. FEBRUARY 16-17: Egypt launches airstrikes on ISIS (Islamic State in Iraq and Syria) targets in Libya after beheadings of 21 Egyptian Coptic Christians by a local branch of the militant group. President Abdel Fattah el-Sisi seeks a United Nations (UN) resolution mandating international forces to intervene in Libya and calls for the United States to broaden its scope of action against the spread of extremist activities in North Africa. FEBRUARY 27: Russian opposition leader Boris Nemtsov, an outspoken critic of President Vladimir Putin, is assassinated in Moscow. MARCH 12: Nigerian-based Islamist terrorist group Boko Haram pledges allegiance to the Islamic State in Iraq and Syria (ISIS), and the pledge is accepted by ISIS leader Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi. Boko Haram's action is an attempt to spread the caliphate's influence to western Africa. MARCH 15: Mass demonstrations in cities across Brazil protest against President Dilma Rousseff and her past involvement in an election bribery scandal with executives at Petrobras oil company. MARCH 26: A Saudi Arabia-led coalition of Arab states begins a military campaign in Yemen to oust Shiite rebels, known as Houthis, from the capital and to restore the government of President Abdu Rabu Mansour Hadi. APRIL: Anti-immigrant riots and violence spread in cities throughout South Africa. The xenophobic attacks are targeted toward immigrants from other African countries because they are perceived as an economic threat to unemployed South Africans. APRIL 12: President Raul Castro and President Barack Obama formally meet at the Summit of the Americas in Panama City, Panama. It is a historic meeting and discussion between the leaders of Cuba and the United States, the first one in more than 50 years. APRIL 19: Eight hundred migrants trying to reach southern Europe from North Africa die after their ship capsizes off the coast of Libya. The number of migrants crossing the Mediterranean after fleeing the civil war in Syria or human rights abuses and poverty elsewhere in the Middle East, Africa, and Asia reached 219,000 in 2014, up from 60,000 in 2013. More than 3,500 of the estimated 40,000 migrants who have attempted the journey thus far in 2015 have died or are missing. APRIL 25: A 7.8-magnitude earthquake strikes central Nepal near the capital, Kathmandu, killing more than 8,000 people, with some officials predicting that the final count would exceed 12,000. Hundreds of thousands of homes and other structures are destroyed. Numerous aftershocks complicate the rescue efforts. MAY 7: In general elections in the United Kingdom the center-right Conservative (Tory) Party wins an outright majority of seats in parliament, securing another five-year term for Prime Minister David Cameron. MAY 22: Ireland becomes the first country to legalize same-sex marriage in a national referendum. MAY 25: Andrzej Duda of Poland's conservative Law and Justice Party wins the presidential election, defeating Bronislaw Komorowski who was allied with the governing pro-business Civic Platform Party. JUNE 7: In parliamentary elections in Turkey, President Recep Tayyip Erdogan's Justice and Development Party loses its majority in Parliament for the first time in 13 years. The People's Democratic Party becomes the first pro-Kurdish party to enter parliament, gaining 13 percent of the vote. JULY 1: The United States and Cuba agree to reestablish formal diplomatic relations 54 years after the United States broke off relations and closed its embassy in Havana at the height of the cold war. The embassies in Havana and Washington, D.C., are scheduled to reopen on July 20, 2015. JULY 5: The U.S. Women's National Soccer Team beats Japan in the 2015 World Cup, winning its third World Cup title. The finals were a rematch of the 2011 World Cup, which Japan had won. JULY 13: Greece, a eurozone member since 2001, negotiates a third bailout from the eurozone leaders agreeing to tough new austerity measures in exchange for 86 billion euros over three years. Previous bailout packages were approved in 2010 and 2012. JULY 14: After talks that lasted 20 months, Iran and six other countries led by the United States reach a landmark agreement that lifts international sanctions on Iran in exchange for restrictions on and UN oversight of its nuclear program. AUGUST 11: Japan restarts its first nuclear power plant since the country had shut down its nuclear facilities following the 2011 partial meltdown at the Fukushima plant. An additional 25 out of a total of 49 facilities have applied for permission to restart operation. Although the facilities have to pass stringent new safety and inspection rules, opinion polls have consistently shown public opposition to a nuclear restart. SEPTEMBER 8: The UN refugee agency UNHCR predicts that more than 850,000 refugees will cross the Mediterranean in 2015 and 2016 to seek asylum in Europe, spurred by civil war in Syria and violence in Afghanistan, Eritrea, and other countries in the region. However, many consider this estimate too low; the German government predicts that 800,000 people will seek asylum in 2015 in Germany alone. SEPTEMBER 10: Scientists announce the discovery of a new human species, called Homo naledi. An unprecedented number of hominid fossil fragments—which make up at least 15 individual skeletons—were found in the Rising Star cave near Johannesburg, South Africa. As yet undated, the skeletons resemble Homo erectus in that they have small teeth and human-like feet, but they differ in that they have more primitive fingers and a much smaller braincase. SEPTEMBER 15: Malcolm Turnbull becomes prime minister of Australia after challenging Tony Abbott for the leadership of the Liberal Party. SEPTEMBER 30: Russia, an ally of Syrian president Bashar al-Assad, launches air strikes in Syria, targeting anti-Assad rebels and ISIS (Islamic State in Iraq and Syria) forces. The intervention threatens to further escalate a civil war that has caused the death of more than 250,000 and displaced 12 million since March 2011. OCTOBER 9: The Nobel Peace Prize is awarded to the National Dialogue Quartet in Tunisia, a coalition of four organizations that was instrumental in transitioning the country to democracy following the 2010 revolution that toppled the longtime authoritarian government of former president Zine el Abidine Ben Ali. Tunisia is the only country among those whose authoritarian governments were upended by the 2010-2011 wave of Arab Spring revolutions that still continues on its process towards democratization. OCTOBER 19: In parliamentary elections in Canada the centrist Liberal Party wins an absolute majority, ending the nearly 10-year rule of the Conservative Party and its leader, Stephen Harper. Prime Minister elect Justin Trudeau, the son of late Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau, will be sworn into office in November.

2005

JANUARY 9: Mahmoud Abbas, chairman of the Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO), is elected president of the Palestinian Authority. The election was necessitated by the death, in November 2004, of longtime leader Yasser Arafat. JANUARY 10: Citizens across Russia stage the first round of a series of unprecedented protests against changes to the pension system; the pension reforms, which went into effect January 1, offer cash payments instead of free services for benefits such as public transportation, utilities, and medicine. JANUARY 20: George W. Bush is inaugurated to a second term as president of the United States. JANUARY 30: Democratic elections are held in Iraq to determine members of the 275-seat Transitional National Assembly, which will appoint a new government and write a new constitution. Shia parties earn the largest share of the vote, about 47 percent, followed by Kurdish parties taking 25 percent. Interim Prime Minister Iyad Allawi's supporters achieve a distant third place, and the Sunni Arab minority scores a very small percentage of votes. FEBRUARY 14: Rafik Hariri, prime minister of Lebanon from 1992-1998 and 2000-2004, is killed in a massive car bombing in Beirut. FEBRUARY 24: Transitional leaders of Somalia, President Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed and Prime Minister Ali Muhammad Gedi, enter the country for the first time since establishing their administration in 2004. They have been governing from Kenya because their security could not be assured in Somalia. FEBRUARY 28: Lebanese prime minister Omar Karami resigns, dissolving the country's pro-Syrian government. The move comes amidst widespread anti-Syrian sentiment stoked by the assassination of former prime minister Rafik Hariri two weeks earlier. World leaders urge Syria to withdraw from Lebanon. MARCH 29: An earthquake with a magnitude of 8.7 hits the Indonesian island of Nias, killing at least 300 people. MARCH 31: Terri Schiavo, a brain-damaged woman, dies after her feeding tube is removed. Her death follows a long legal struggle between her husband, who requested that the tube be removed, and her parents, who fought to have her kept alive. During the course of the dispute, Florida governor Jeb Bush and the U.S. House and Senate intervened on behalf of Terri's parents, but ultimately, the tube was removed following the refusal of the Supreme Court to hear the case. APRIL 2: Pope John Paul II dies at the age of 84 after a long battle with Parkinson's disease. The first non-Italian pope since the 16th century, John Paul II served as pope of the Roman Catholic Church from 1978 to 2005. APRIL 9: Prince Charles marries Camilla Parker Bowles in a civil ceremony. After marrying Charles, Parker Bowles takes the title "Duchess of Cornwall." MAY 1: The so-called Downing Street Memo is leaked to The London Sunday Times, quoting British Foreign Secretary Jack Straw as saying that George W. Bush had already decided to take military action against Iraq even though the case for war was thin. Additionally, the memo acknowledges that Iraq possesses fewer weapons of mass destruction (WMDs) than Libya, North Korea, or Iran. MAY 4: A U.S. military judge rejects Pfc. Lynndie England's guilty plea for her role in connection with the Abu Ghraib prisoner abuse scandal. The judge rules that England did not know her actions were wrong, as she felt she was carrying out orders given to her by a superior officer. JUNE 1: Dutch voters reject a proposed European Union constitution days after a French referendum also goes against the treaty. JUNE 25: Conservative Tehran mayor Mahmoud Ahmadinejad defeats former president Akhbar Hashemi Rafsanjani, a moderate, for the presidency of Iran, following a controversial runoff vote. JULY 7: Four bombs explode almost simultaneously in London's train and bus systems killing 52 and injuring as many as 700 people in the largest terrorist attack to strike England since World War II. JULY 16: A suicide bomber wrapped with explosives detonates himself under an oil tanker at a gas station in a crowded area in Musayyib, south of Baghdad. Ninety people are killed and 150 are injured in the most deadly suicide attack since the beginning of the U.S. occupation of Iraq. AUGUST 7: Israeli cabinet members approve a plan to withdraw all troops and settlements from Gaza. AUGUST 29 AND 30: Hurricane Katrina, a category 5 storm, pounds the Mexican Gulf Coast area of the southern United States. New Orleans, Louisiana, is flooded after the levee system that protected the city from Lake Pontchartrain and the Mississippi river is breeched. A total of 1,302 people from the Gulf Coast are killed as a result of this hurricane, making it the fourth deadliest natural disaster in the history of the United States. SEPTEMBER 1: In the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina, New Orleans, Louisiana, descends into anarchy as reports of looting, carjacking, and rapes pile up. Buses and helicopters begin to transport flood victims to the Houston Astrodome, but anger over the delay in rescuing victims continues to mount. SEPTEMBER 18: Afghanistan holds democratic parliamentary elections for the first time in 25 years. OCTOBER 1: Several bombs explode at tourist sites on the Indonesian island of Bali, killing at least 26 people and injuring 102. Regional extremist group Jemaah Islamiah is believed to be responsible. OCTOBER 8: An earthquake measuring 7.6 in magnitude strikes Pakistan, killing 55,000 in Pakistan and nearly 1,400 in India. The quake leaves 3 million without a home. OCTOBER 27: Two teenagers fleeing the police are electrocuted in a subway station in Clichy-sous-Bois, a largely African and Arab suburb of Paris. The teens' deaths trigger riots that spread throughout France, and by November 7, one man is dead, nearly 400 people are arrested, and nearly 1,500 vehicles are destroyed as a result of the violence and unrest. NOVEMBER 10: Three bombs explode in three hotels in Amman, Jordan, killing 57 and wounding hundreds of people. A group calling itself "Al-Qaeda in Mesopotamia" claims responsibility, saying that Jordan's ongoing friendliness with the United States was the cause of the attacks. On November 13, an Iraqi woman named Sajida Mubarak Atrous al-Rishawi, a would-be suicide bomber whose bomb failed to detonate, is arrested. She claims her husband, Ali Hussein Ali al-Shamari, who died as a suicide bomber at the Radission hotel on November 10, planned the attack. NOVEMBER 21: Israeli prime minister Ariel Sharon leaves the Likud party to form a new political party, Kadima. Sharon says that it is necessary to establish a "centrist" party in Israel in order to obtain a peace with the Palestinians. NOVEMBER 24: Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf is declared president of Liberia in a runoff election. Johnson-Sirleaf, the first female to be elected president of an African nation, receives almost 60 percent of the vote, defeating popular former soccer star George Weah. NOVEMBER 27: In a 15-hour operation, surgeons in France perform the world's first partial face transplant, attaching tissue taken from a brain-dead donor to a woman who had been disfigured in a dog attack. DECEMBER 12: Lebanese legislator and newspaper publisher Gebran Tueni is assassinated less than a day after returning to Lebanon. Tueni, who vocally opposed Syria, had been living in Paris due to fear of assassination. DECEMBER 15: Iraqi citizens vote to elect their first parliament since the overthrow of Saddam Hussein. Approximately 11 million citizens participate in order to fill the 275 seats. On December 19, election officials announce that preliminary results show the United Iraqi Alliance, a religious Shiite bloc, is taking an early lead.

2006

JANUARY: Violent protests in Muslim countries over cartoons depicting the prophet Mohammed (originally published in a Danish newspaper in September) increase. Syria, Saudi Arabia, Qatar, and other Arab countries begin boycotts of Danish products. JANUARY 4: Israeli prime minister Ariel Sharon is hospitalized after suffering a major stroke. He undergoes emergency brain surgery and afterward remains in a medically induced coma. JANUARY 12: Over 360 people die in a stampede near Mecca in Saudi Arabia, during the yearly Muslim pilgrimage to the holy city. The stampede takes place during the "stoning the devil" ritual. JANUARY 15: Chilean voters elect the country's first female president, socialist Michelle Bachelet. JANUARY 17: U.S. aircraft targeting an al-Qaeda deputy carry out a missile attack on the Pakistani village of Damadola. Eighteen people—most thought to be civilian villagers—are killed, sparking outrage in Pakistan. The intended target, Ayman al-Zawahiri, is not among the dead, but Pakistan president Pervez Musharraf later reports that at least two of those killed had links to terrorist operations. JANUARY 19: Arab news station Al-Jazeera airs an audiotape made by Osama bin Laden, in which the al-Qaeda leader offers the United States a "truce" and threatens new attacks. JANUARY 23: The Conservative Party of Canada wins a plurality of seats in the Canadian House of Commons, making Conservative leader Steven Harper the prime minister of Canada. The election's outcome ends 12 years of Liberal power in Canada. JANUARY 25: After the collapse of a coalition government, the Mongolian parliament votes to make Miyeegombyn Enkhbold the new prime minister of Mongolia. JANUARY 25: In the first elections to the Palestinian Legislative Council in 10 years, Palestinians vote the radical Islamic movement Hamas into power, ending the rule of the Fateh Party. The victory is considered a setback for peace negotiations between Israel and Palestine. JANUARY 29: Tarja Halonen is elected to a second term as president of Finland. JANUARY 31: American civil rights activist Coretta Scott King dies. FEBRUARY 3: The al-Salam Boccaccio 98, an Egyptian ferry, sinks in the Red Sea on its trip from Saudi Arabia to Egypt. Over 900 passengers and crew are feared dead. FEBRUARY 4: The Danish embassy building in Damascus, Syria, is attacked and burned by a mob protesting the cartoons depicting the prophet Mohammad printed in a Danish paper. FEBRUARY 16: A mudslide destroys the village of Guinsaugon in the central Philippines. Over 1,500 people are missing and feared dead. FEBRUARY 16: René Préval is declared the winner of the Haitian presidential election, the process of which had been marred with delays, unrest, and accusations of voter fraud. FEBRUARY 17: An estimated 1500 people are missing after a huge mudslide buries a village on the southern Philippine island of Leyte. Heavy rains cause a mountain to cave in burying hundreds of homes and an elementary school. More than 300 people are killed. MARCH 2: A historic nuclear agreement is made between the United States and India in which India would be able to purchase nuclear technology from the United States. In exchange, India will allow international inspectors into its 14 nuclear reactors, and separate nuclear power development from its military program. MARCH 11: Former Yugoslav president Slobodan Miloševic is found dead in his prison cell in The Hague, Netherlands. The deposed leader was on trial for 66 war crimes, including an ethnic cleansing campaign, in which Bosnian Serbs systematically massacred Bosnian Muslims. MARCH 18: In one of France's largest nationwide protests, more than 1 million turn out to march against the government's new labor law that makes it easier to fire younger workers. The demonstration sparks violence with police and results in hundreds of arrests and injuries. MARCH 28: Israeli voters surprise government officials by electing acting prime minister Ehud Olmert's four-month-old centrist Kadima Party to power over the Likud Party, Israel's dominant political party since the 1970s. APRIL 10: Hundreds of thousands of protestors in the United States demonstrate against a proposed reform to immigration laws. The bill being discussed in Congress would increase penalties for illegal immigrants and tighten border security. APRIL 11: Iranian president Mahmoud Ahmadinejad announces that his country has created the enriched uranium needed to develop nuclear technology. Though claiming to use the uranium for peaceful atomic energy, western countries fear Iran will attempt to develop a nuclear bomb. APRIL 15: A state of emergency is declared for several regions in southeastern Europe including Serbia, Romania, and Bulgaria after the Danube River's waters reach dangerously high levels. Tens of thousands of people living in the area are temporarily dislocated. MAY 5: The Sudanese government and the pro-government Janjaweed militia sign the Darfur accord, a peace deal aimed at ending three years of violence. In an attempt to disband the rebel forces and disarm its militia, the plan creates a temporary government for Darfur with new, established roles for the rebels. Nearly 200,000 people are dead and roughly 2 million more homeless as a result of conflict in the Darfur region. MAY 15: The United States renews full diplomatic relations with Libya for the first time in 25 years. Libya's renunciation of weapons of mass destruction and terrorism are cited as reasons for the renewal. MAY 24: More than 100 people are feared dead and thousands are stranded in northern Thailand as flash floods, caused by days of heavy rain, create a sea of mud that envelopes several provinces. MAY 28: An earthquake with a magnitude of 6.3 hits the city of Yogyakarta in Java, Indonesia. Tens of thousands of people are left homeless while almost 6,000 are killed. More fatalities are feared as the earthquake and its aftershocks increase activity at nearby Mount Merapi. The volcano shoots hot gas clouds into the air and sends volcanic rock down its sides. MAY 28: Álvaro Uribe, wins reelection as Colombia's president in a landslide victory, making him the first candidate in a century to secure a consecutive term in Bogotá. JUNE 4: Sixteen years after his last term ended with charges of corruption, economic decline, and guerilla violence, Alan García is elected president of Peru once again, capturing 77 percent of the vote. JUNE 7: Abu Musab al-Zarqawi, the leader of al Qaeda in Iraq, dies in a U.S.-led air strike on a safe house in Baquba. The next day, more than 37 Iraqis die in bombings around Baghdad. JUNE 15: Muslim insurgents detonate more than 40 bombs along the border of southern Thailand in a coordinated attack, killing at least two people. Southern Thailand is home to the country's 4 percent Muslim minority, a population that has been at odds with Bangkok for decades over discrimination and a lack of opportunities. JUNE 30: For the first time in Kuwait's history, women receive the right to vote after waging a long battle for suffrage. More than 195,000 women turn out to vote for a new 50-member parliament. JULY 4: Despite strong opposition from abroad, North Korea test-fires seven missiles. One of these, the long-range Taepodong-2, is thought to be capable of reaching as far as Alaska. In an emergency session at the United Nations, all countries in the international community, including China, the country's closest ally, condemn North Korea's actions. JULY 6: Conservative candidate Felipe Calderón defeats former Mexico City mayor Andrés Manuel López Obrador by a narrow margin of less than 1 percent in Mexico's controversial presidential race. Blaming fraud for his loss, Obrador files an appeal. In September, Calderón is declared the winner by an electoral court. JULY 10: Russia's most wanted man, Chechen rebel leader Shamil Basayev, is killed in an explosion in the Republic of Ingushetia. Shamil had claimed responsibility for some of the worst terrorist attacks in Russia's history. These include the seizure of a Moscow theater in 2002 that left 129 dead and the 2004 Beslan school siege in which 331 people, more than half of them children, were killed. JULY 12: Hezbollah guerillas capture two Israeli soldiers and kill three more in a cross-border raid. In response, Israel authorizes "severe and harsh" retaliation against Hezbollah strongholds in southern Lebanon. Tensions develop into a 34-day war that ends only after the UN negotiates a cease-fire agreement between the two warring factions. JULY 17: A tsunami hits the Indonesian beach town of Pangandaran on the island of Java. An undersea earthquake in the Indian Ocean measuring 7.7 in magnitude generated a series of giant waves measuring up to 10 feet. Various sources report more than 650 people killed, 1,000 injured, and approximately 45,000 people displaced as a result of this disaster. JULY 29: The Congo, Africa's third-largest country, holds its first multiparty election in 46 years. The election is a significant event given that the country has been ruled for decades by corrupt leaders and suffered several violent revolutions. JULY 31: Cuban president Fidel Castro relinquishes power for the first time in more than 40 years due to ailing health. Fidel's brother Raul Castro, Cuba's minister of defense, will act as temporary president while Fidel recuperates from intestinal surgery. AUGUST 9: Overflowing rivers flood at least five states in the south and west of India during one of the country's worst monsoon seasons. News sources report more than 350 people killed and approximately 4.5 million evacuated from their homes. AUGUST 10: A terrorist plot to simultaneously blow up 10 aircraft heading from London to the United States is stopped by British authorities. Police capture 24 people who are accused of conspiring to ignite liquid explosives smuggled on board the planes in carry-on luggage. AUGUST 11: The entire government of Equatorial Guinea resigns after months of criticism by President Teodoro Obiang Nguema, who accused his cabinet of corruption and poor leadership. AUGUST 16: Alfredo Stroessner, the 93-year-old former dictator of Paraguay, dies at a hospital in Brazil following a hernia operation. Stroessner ruled Paraguay for 35 years until he was forced from power in a 1989 military coup. Stroessner's regime was marked by authoritarian rule, corruption, and grave human rights abuses. AUGUST 31: Police in Oslo, Norway, recover two masterpiece paintings by Edvard Munch. Stolen from the Oslo Museum by armed men in 2004, The Scream and Madonna appeared to have incurred very little damage during the two years they were missing. SEPTEMBER 6: Japan's Princess Kiko gives birth to a boy, the first male heir born into the family in 40 years, securing the traditional male lineage to the country's imperial throne. SEPTEMBER 7: Bowing to mounting pressure from his own Labour Party, British prime minister Tony Blair announces that he will resign from office within the next year. His finance minister, Gordon Brown, will ascend to the prime minister spot after Blair steps down. SEPTEMBER 18: A protest calling for the resignation of Hungarian prime minister Ferenc Gyurcsany turns violent in Budapest. Several days earlier, it was revealed that Gyurcsany had been lying to the public about the state of the economy for the past two years. The prime minister was caught on tape admitting to gross mismanagement of the country's affairs. SEPTEMBER 19: While Thailand's prime minister Thaksin Shinawatra is out of the country, army chief General Sonthi Boonyaratglin leads a bloodless military coup against Thaksin and his government. Claiming that the prime minister had weakened democracy, abused the country's system of checks and balances, and used his power to benefit his family business, the Thai military suspends the constitution and puts the nation under martial law. SEPTEMBER 21: Paleontologists announce that they have found the remains of a 3.3 million-year-old girl in Ethiopia. The earliest complete child remains yet to be found, scientists hope the skeleton will shed light on human evolution. SEPTEMBER 25: Japan's parliament elects 52-year-old Shinzo Abe as the new prime minister of Japan. A conservative politician and the youngest to be elected prime minister since World War II, Abe is the head of the Liberal Democrats, Japan's dominant political party. OCTOBER 7: Russian journalist Anna Politkovskaya is found shot to death in the elevator of her apartment building. Her stories chronicling the Russian military's history of killings and torture against civilians in Chechnya have garnered her many international awards. Prosecutors, who have opened an investigation, suspect her murder could be liked to her work. OCTOBER 9: Defying international warnings, North Korea tests its first nuclear weapon in an undisclosed underground location. Condemnation and outrage from the international community, including China, North Korea's chief trading partner, leads the UN to impose strict weapons sanctions against North Korea. OCTOBER 12 AND 13: The Nobel prizewinners for peace and literature are announced.Controversial Turkish writer Orhan Pamuk wins the Nobel Prize for literature while Bangladeshi economist Muhammad Yunus and the microloan bank he founded, Grameen Bank, jointly win the Nobel Peace Prize. OCTOBER 19: Nigerian president Olusegun Obasanjo declares a state of emergency in the Ekiti state following the ousting of local governor Ayo Fayose for corruption by the state's House of Assembly. OCTOBER 26: President Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva of Brazil is reelected with more than 60 percent of the vote in a runoff election. Known popularly as "Lula," the victory is a surprising turnaround for President da Silva, who spent much of the previous year mired in political scandals and corruption charges. OCTOBER 28: Riot police seize control of Oaxaca, a city in southern Mexico, after striking teachers and leftist activists occupy the town square for five months. Three people, including a journalist from the United States, are killed during the standoff. OCTOBER 31: Former South African president P. W. Botha dies at the age of 90. A supporter of apartheid, he became president in 1984 and instituted only limited reform of apartheid policies. NOVEMBER 5: Deposed Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein is convicted of crimes against humanity by an Iraqi special tribunal. He is sentenced to death by hanging for ordering the execution of 148 men and boys in 1982 after a failed attempt on his life. NOVEMBER 7: Daniel Ortega, one-time Nicaraguan president and adversary to the United States during the cold war, wins Nicaragua's presidential election, returning to power 16 years after his Sandinista Party lost control of the government. NOVEMBER 7: Following elections for the U.S. Senate and House of Representatives, Democrats regain control of Congress for the first time in 12 years. Many in the international community see the Republican defeat as a rejection of the policies of American president George W. Bush, especially the course his administration has taken during the Iraq War. NOVEMBER 14: South Africa's parliament legalizes same-sex marriage with the passage of the controversial Civil Union bill, making it the first African country to approve gay marriage. The bill is partially the result of a successful campaign by gay-rights activists to change the existing marriage laws. South Africa's constitution outlaws discrimination on the grounds of sexual preference. NOVEMBER 15: Following an October 29 runoff election and sporadic violence between the opposing factions, incumbent president Joseph Kabila defeats vice president Jean-Pierre Bemba in the Democratic Republic of Congo's first free presidential election in more than 40 years. Bemba announces he will contest the vote, which must be certified by the country's Supreme Court before the new president is installed in December. NOVEMBER 17: Police in Uruguay arrest former dictator Juan Maria Bordaberry and former foreign minister Juan Blanco in connection with the abduction and murder of four people in 1976. During his military dictatorship from 1973-1985, thousands of political dissidents disappeared, were tortured, or were exiled. NOVEMBER 21: Pierre Gemayel, a Christian politician and Lebanon's minister of industry, is shot dead. Gemayel was a prominent member of the anti-Syrian majority in the Lebanese parliament, and his assassination increases tension between the majority and a pro-Syrian group led by Hezbollah. NOVEMBER 23: Former Russian spy Alexander Litvinenko dies after a meeting with a Russian contact in a sushi restaurant in London three weeks earlier. Doctors later prove that he was poisoned with a lethal dose of the rare radioactive substance polonium 210, prompting an international investigation. DECEMBER 1: Felipe Calderón takes power as Mexico's new president amid protests and brawls between lawmakers. Calderón's election was contested by his leftist opponent, Andrés Manuel López Obrador, who declared himself Mexico's "legitimate president." DECEMBER 3: Venezuelan president Hugo Chávez wins reelection, capturing 61 percent of the vote. DECEMBER 5: Fiji's military commander seizes control over the country and dismisses Prime Minister Laisenia Qarase, accusing him of corruption. It is the country's fourth coup in two decades. DECEMBER 10: Augusto Pinochet, Chile's former military leader, dies at the age of 91. Pinochet had recently been brought up on charges of human rights abuses and fraud conducted during his 17-year rule, but his deteriorating health prevented him from going to trial. DECEMBER 14: South Korea's Ban Ki-moon is sworn in as the new secretary general of the United Nations, replacing Kofi Annan. He is the first Asian elected to the position in more than 30 years. DECEMBER 17: After a parliamentary election in Gabon, the Gabonese Democratic Party (PDG) of President Omar Bongo retains control. DECEMBER 19: Nine southeastern European countries and the Serbian province of Kosovo sign the Central European Free Trade Agreement (CEFTA). The agreement helps to regulate free trade among its members and is considered a proactive step towards acceptance into the European Union (EU) for the countries trying to gain membership status . Participating countries include Albania, Bulgaria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Moldova, Montenegro, Romania, Serbia, Macedonia, and Kosovo. DECEMBER 21: Turkmen president Saparmurad Niyazov dies of a heart attack. The 66 year-old president of the Central Asian republic left no clear successor to his office, which is being temporarily filled by deputy prime minister Gurbanguly Berdymukhamedov. Niyazov, who became president-for-life of Turkmenistan in 1999, organized a vast personality cult and allowed no political or media opposition to his rule. The Turkmen constitution dictates that new elections will take place within the next two months. DECEMBER 23: The United Nations Security Council votes 15 to zero in favor of implementing sanctions against Iran in response to that nation's development of a nuclear weapons program. The sanctions include a ban on purchasing materials and technology that could be used to build an atomic bomb. DECEMBER 29: Britain pays the final installments on World War II-era debts owed to both the United States and Canada. The loans were taken out to finance reconstruction after the war. DECEMBER 29: Scientists uncover the largest ice break in 25 years when it is discovered that a giant ice shelf broke away from Ellesmere Island in the Canadian Arctic in 2005. Experts point to the break as evidence of global warming. DECEMBER 30: Former Iraqi dictator Saddam Hussein is executed for war crimes, including his role in the 1982 Dujail massacre, in which 148 Iraqis were killed. DECEMBER 31: A series of explosions in Bangkok kill three people and injure more than 30. No one claims responsibility, but government officials believe politicians expelled in September's military coup are responsible.

2003

Liberian president Charles Taylor is forced to resign by Nigerian-led West African peacekeeping force (ECOWAS); Gyude Bryant is named leader of a transitional Liberian government on August 21. (See also: Liberia) JANUARY: Scientists discover a winged dinosaur fossil in China believed to explain the evolutionary link between dinosaurs and birds. JANUARY 29: Israeli prime minister Ariel Sharon and his Likud Party prevail in parliamentary elections. FEBRUARY 1: The Columbia space shuttle explodes during its return to earth, killing all seven crew members. FEBRUARY 4: The Yugoslavian parliament votes to rename their country Serbia and Montenegro, signifying the desire for independence. FEBRUARY 20: U.S. troops are deployed to the Philippines to assist in destroying the Muslim terrorist group Abu Sayyaf. FEBRUARY 22: The United States, United Kingdom, and Spain submit proposition to UN Security Council for preemptive strike against Iraq citing its failure to disarm; France, Germany, and Russia submit counter-resolution requesting more time for weapons inspections and pledge to veto an invasion of Iraq. FEBRUARY 27: American architect Daniel Liebeskind is chosen as lead architect for reconstruction on the World Trade Center site in New York City. MARCH: Asia is struck by unknown illness; World Health Organization names it Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS); SARS genome is mapped showing the cause to be a new coronavirus. MARCH 9: Recep Tayyip Erdogan becomes prime minister of Turkey. MARCH 10: Under pressure from the United States, Palestinian president Yasir Arafat (1929-2004) appoints Mahmud Abbas as prime minister. MARCH 11: The International Criminal Court (ICC) opens at The Hague despite U.S. refusal to ratify. MARCH 12: Serb prime minister Zoran Djindjic (1952-2003) is assassinated; Zoran Zivkovic assumes the office. (See also: Serbia and Montenegro) MARCH 19: The United States and United Kingdom launch a war, Operation Iraqi Freedom without UN Security Council approval; U.S. and UK forces target Baghdad and Iraqi leaders. (See also: Iraq) APRIL 5-MAY 1: U.S. and British forces occupy major Iraqi cities and capture former regime leaders; U.S. president George W. Bush asks UN to lift sanctions against Iraq and declares an end to the war; former president Saddam Hussein (1937-2006) remains at large. APRIL 15: The South African government agrees to make reparations to the families of apartheid victims. (See also: South Africa) APRIL 16: Ten more nations join the European Union (EU): Cyprus, Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovakia, and Slovenia. APRIL 22: The Nigerian president Olusegun Obasanjo is reelected. MAY 6: L. Paul Bremer is named civilian administrator in Iraq; Iraqi interim governing council of 25 is created on July 13. MAY 14: Néstor Kirchner is elected president of Argentina after former president Carlos Saúl Menem drops out of the election. MAY 21: A massive earthquake in Algeria kills 2,250 and injures 10,000. (See also: earthquakes) JUNE: U.S. Senator and former First Lady Hillary Rodham Clinton publishes her memoir Living History. JUNE 6: French peacekeeping troops arrive in the Congo to curb hostilities between Lendus and Hema tribes. JUNE 10: The U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) launches Spirit rover on mission to Mars. JUNE 10: The Canadian court of appeals upholds ruling to allow same-sex marriages in Ontario. (See also: homosexuality and political thought) JULY: Military leader Fernando Pereira deposes the government of São Tomé and Príncipe in a military coup; President Fradique de Menezes is reinstated a week later in an amnesty agreement. JULY 16: European medical researchers report the discovery of an AIDS virus strain in new patients that is resistant to drugs. AUGUST 11: Military operations in Afghanistan are concluded; NATO forces assume command of international peacekeeping force. (See also: Operation Enduring Freedom) AUGUST 12: German composer Hans Werner Henze (1926-) premieres his opera L'Upupa and the Triumph of Filial Love in Salzburg Austria. AUGUST 14-16: Fifty million people in the United States and Canada are without electricity in a 29-hour blackout caused by human and technical error. AUGUST 25: Tutsi rebel leader Paul Kagame is reelected president of Rwanda. AUGUST 27-29: United States, North Korea, China, Russia, South Korea, and Japan meet to discuss and discourage North Korea's plans to become a nuclear power. (See also: North Korea and nuclear weapons) SEPTEMBER 2: Japanese prime minister Junichiro Koizumi is reelected. SEPTEMBER 6: Palestinian prime minister Mahmud Abbas resigns after only five months; Ahmed Qurei assumes the office. OCTOBER: China becomes the third nation to send a man into space when astronaut Yang Liwei orbits Earth for 21 hours before returning home. OCTOBER 1: Israel extends controversial security barrier between Israeli and Palestinian areas in the West Bank. OCTOBER 2: South African writer J. M. Coetzee wins the Nobel Prize in literature. OCTOBER 7: Austrian-born actor Arnold Schwarzenegger wins highly publicized recall election to become governor of California. OCTOBER 17: Bolivian president Gonzalo Sanchez de Lozada resigns amid mass anti-government protests; Vice President Carlos Mesa assumes the presidency. OCTOBER 21: Iran agrees to comply with UN resolution requiring it to report on nuclear capabilities and allow inspectors access to nuclear sites. (See also: Iran and nuclear weapons) NOVEMBER 4: Sri Lankan president Chandrika Kumaratunga dismisses Parliament and declares a state of emergency. Kumaratunga has long wrestled with the government over concessions made to the Liberation Tamil Tigers of Eelam (LTTE) rebels. NOVEMBER 23: Georgian president Eduard Shevardnadze resigns amid accusations of rigged parliamentary elections. DECEMBER: Pakistani president Pervez Musharraf survives two assassination attempts. DECEMBER 3: An international court in Arusha, Tanzania convicts three Rwandan media figures of genocide for encouraging Hutus in the 1994 massacre of Tutsis. DECEMBER 7: Zimbabwe leaves the Commonwealth of Nations following a two-year suspension due to accusations of election fraud and human rights violations committed by president Robert Gabriel Mugabe. DECEMBER 9: The Pentagon excludes all nations that opposed war in Iraq from bidding on contracts to rebuild the nation. DECEMBER 12: Former Canadian finance minister Paul Martin becomes prime minister upon the retirement of Jean Chrétien. DECEMBER 13: Fugitive and former Iraqi president Saddam Hussein (1937-2006) is found by American troops on a farm outside Tikrit, Iraq. DECEMBER 14: The grand council of Afghanistan (loya jirga) convenes to vote on the national constitution. DECEMBER 19: Libyan leader Muammar al-Qaddafi agrees to dismantle Libya's arsenal of biological, chemical, and nuclear weapons. (See also: Libya and nuclear weapons) DECEMBER 26: An earthquake kills an estimated 41,000 people in the ancient city of Bam in south-eastern Iran. (See also: earthquakes)

1959

Soviet spaceprobe Lunik 3 photographs the far side of the Moon. Pro-independence riots occur in Nyasaland. Hutu people organize an uprising against the Tutsi in Rwanda. Cuban revolutionaries capture Havana; Batista flees; Castro becomes prime minister. Rioting breaks out in Stanleyville in the Belgian Congo. Alaska and Hawaii become states of the United States. St. Lawrence Seaway opens. Ceasefire is agreed in the Algerian revolt. Eamon De Valera (1882-1975) is elected president of Ireland. Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg become a single economic unit—Benelux. Chinese troops suppress an uprising in Tibet; the Dalai Lama flees. Antarctica is safeguarded by international treaty. Iraq leaves the Baghdad Pact, which becomes the Central Treaty Organization (CENTO). U.S. novelist William S. Burroughs (1914-97) publishes The Naked Lunch. German poet and author Günter Grass publishes his novel The Tin Drum. Irish author Brendan Behan (1923-64) writes his play The Hostage. Singapore becomes an independent state.

1991

Warplanes commence the "Desert Storm" bombing campaign against Iraqi military targets; Iraq launches Scud missiles against Israel and Saudi Arabia; a massive land invasion liberates Kuwait. British composer Harrison Birtwistle writes his opera Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. U.S. composer Stephen Sondheim writes Assassins. British novelist Martin Amis publishes Time's Arrow. Risings against Saddam Hussein (1937-2006) in north and south Iraq fail; UN safe havens are created for the Kurds in the north. Rajiv Gandhi (b. 1944) is assassinated during an election campaign. Peace agreements ends an 11-year civil war in El Salvador. Strategic Arms Reduction Talks (START) limit the size of U.S. and Russian nuclear arsenals. 5000-year-old body is discovered preserved in ice on the Austrian-Italian border. Energy is experimentally produced by controlled nuclear fusion at the Joint European Torus in Britain. Warsaw Pact is dissolved as a military alliance. Croatia and Slovenia declare independence from Yugoslavia; the Serb-dominated Yugoslav army invades Croatia and captures Vukovar. Army officers attempts a coup in Moscow; the Soviet communist party is suspended; Mikhail Gorbachev resigns; the Soviet Union ceases to exist; Russia, Belarus, and Ukraine form the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) under President Yeltsin.

1954

Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget (1896-1980) publishes The Origin of Intelligence in Children. Chinese scientist Min-Chueh Chang and U.S. biologists Gregory Pincus and Frank Colton invent the contraceptive pill. British novelist J.R.R. Tolkien (1892-1973) publishes the first volume of Lord of the Rings. Nigeria becomes a self-governing federation. Gamal Nasser (1918-70) becomes prime minister of Egypt. British author and poet Dylan Thomas (1914-53) writes his verse play Under Milk Wood. British novelist William Golding (1911-93) publishes Lord of the Flies. National Liberation Front (FLN) organizes an anti-French revolt in Algeria. Greek nationalist EOKA movement carries out attacks on British troops in Cyprus. Anti-communist crusade of Senator Joseph McCarthy (1908-57) reaches a climax with televised hearings of his investigation committee. French forces in Vietnam surrender after defeat at the Battle of Dien Bien Phu; Geneva peace treaty splits Vietnam at the 17th parallel. Manila treaty establishes the South East Asian Treaty Organization (SEATO). Italy and Yugoslavia reach agreement over the ownership of Trieste.

1953

German chemist Karl Ziegler (1898-1973) invents a process for making high-density polyethene. British biophysicist Francis Crick and U.S. bio physicist James Watson discover the helical structure of DNA. U.S. engineer An Wang (1920-90) invents magnetic core computer memory. U.S. physicist Charles Townes invents the maser. U.S. artist Willem de Kooning (1904-97) paints Women. British scholar Michael Ventris (1922-56) deciphers Linear B as the Greek script of the Mycenaeans. Kenyan politician Jomo Kenyatta (1893-1978) is jailed by the British for involvement with the Mau Mau. Britain establishes the federation of Rhodesia (Northern and Southern) and Nyasaland. Berber uprising overthrows the pro-French sultan. Tito is formally appointed president of the Federal People's republic of Yugoslavia. Nikita Khrushchev (1894-1971) becomes first secretary of the Communist Party in the Soviet Union after the death of Stalin (b. 1879). Laos gains full independence from France. Shah of Iran dismisses Mossadegh. Hussein I (1935-99) becomes king of Jordan. Armistice signed at Panmunjom ends the Korean War. Konrad Adenauer (1876-1967) is reelected chancellor of West Germany.

1990

North and South Yemen unite to form a single state. Iraq invades and annexes Kuwait; the United States, EC countries, and Arab nations form an opposing coalition. Benazir Bhutto is dismissed as prime minister of Pakistan. U.S. artist Jeff Koons creates his sculpture Jeff and Ilona (Made in Heaven). British novelist Ian McEwan publishes The Innocent. U.S. Hubble space telescope is carried into orbit by the space shuttle. U.S. spaceprobe Magellan radar maps Venus. Robert Mugabe is elected president of Zimbabwe. Margaret Thatcher resigns; John Major becomes British prime minister. Namibia becomes an independent republic. Nelson Mandela is released from prison in South Africa. Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia declare independence from the Soviet Union; Uzbekistan and Ukraine declare independence; Soviet troops occupy Lithuania and Latvia. Noriega is captured and taken to the United States to face charges of drug-dealing. East and West Germany are reunited. Boris Yeltsin (1931-2007) is elected president of the Russian federation.

1971

Bahrain and Qatar become independent as does the newly formed United Arab Emirates. China is admitted to the UN; nationalist Taiwan is expelled. East Pakistan declares independence; West Pakistan declares war; India intervenes; the republic of Bangladesh is established. Soviet Union launches the Salyut space station into orbit. U.S. engineer Ted Hoff invents the computer microprocessor ("chip"). Electronic pocket calculator is invented. U.S. paleontologist Stephen Gould proposes his theory of punctuated equilibrium in evolution. Former Belgian Congo is renamed Zaire. Army sergeant Idi Amin (1925-2003) seizes power and becomes president of Uganda. Egypt, Libya, and Syria form the federation of Arab republics. Death of the U.S. jazz musician Louis Armstrong (b.1900). Tupamaros guerrillas kidnap foreign businessmen in Uruguay. Angry Brigade terrorists send letter bombs to British politicians. U.S. officer William Calley is found guilty of the My Lai massacre. Austrian diplomat Kurt Waldheim (1918-2007) becomes UN secretary general.

1984

Britain agrees to return Hong Kong to China. Brunei becomes an independent sultanate. Indian troops storm Sikh protestors at the Golden Temple in Amritsar; Indira Gandhi (b.1917) is assassinated; Rajiv Gandhi (1944-91) becomes prime minister. Chinese government introduces liberal economic reforms. British novelist J.G. Ballard publishes Empire of the Sun. Scottish novelist Iain Banks publishes The Wasp Factory. Apple company launches the Macintosh computer featuring windows, icons, a mouse, and pull-down menus. Cellphone network is launched in Chicago, United States. British geneticist Alec Jeffreys devises a technique for genetic fingerprinting. South African president P.W. Botha (1916-2006) grants limited political rights to Asians and "coloreds". Daniel Ortega is elected president of Nicaragua. Konstantin Chernenko (1911-85) becomes Soviet president. Canadian prime minister Pierre Trudeau (1919-2000) resigns. U.S. troops are withdrawn from Lebanon.

1972

Ceylon becomes the independent republic of Sri Lanka. Japanese Red Army terrorists kill passengers at Tel-Aviv airport. U.S. spaceprobe Pioneer 10 is launched. Amin expels Asians from Uganda. Finnish architect Alvar Aalto (1898-1976) designs the North Jutland Museum in Denmark. British novelist (1917-93) Anthony Burgess writes A Clockwork Orange. U.S. artist Christo Javaceff erects his sculpture Valley Curtain in Colorado. Burglars are arrested in the Democratic Party election headquarters at the Watergate Hotel in Washington, D.C. Britain, Denmark, and Ireland join the EC. Members of the terrorist Baader-Meinhof gang are arrested in West Germany. British impose direct rule in Ulster. Palestinian terrorists kidnap and kill Israeli athletes at the Munich Olympics.

1995

Earthquake devastates the Japanese city of Kobe. Turkish troops invade Iraq to attack Kurdish guerrillas. Israeli prime minister Yitzhak Rabin (b.1922) is assassinated by a Jewish extremist; in elections the following year Binyamin Netanyahu becomes prime minister. British novelist Pat Barker publishes The Ghost Road completing her Regeneration trilogy. U.S. scientists discover the top quark. Cameroon and Mozambique join the British Commonwealth. U.S. government offices in Oklahoma City are blown up by a terrorist bomb. Louis Farrakhan organizes a "million man march" on Washington, D.C. Russian troops capture the Chechen capital, Grozny. (See also: Chechen Revolt of 1994-96) Renewed fighting in Bosnia leads to NATO airstrikes against the Serbs; a peace agreement is signed in Paris. Austria, Finland, and Sweden join the European Union (EU). Jacques Chirac is elected president of France. World Trade Association succeeds GATT.

1999

Ehud Barak is elected Israeli prime minister. Hussein I (b. 1935) of Jordan dies; he is succeeded by his son Abdullah. In a referendum, Australians vote against becoming a republic. Pakistani prime minister Nawaz Sharif is ousted in a military coup led by General Pervez Musharraf. In a flight lasting 19 days, 21 hours, and 55 minutes, the first circumnavigation of the Earth by a manned hot-air balloon is achieved by Breitling Orbiter 3, piloted by Swiss Bertrand Piccard and Briton Brian Jones. Scientists at the human genome project announce that human chromosome 22 has been fully decoded; it is the first human chromosome to be decoded. Heaney publishes his translation of Beowulf. Russian president Boris Yeltsin resigns; former prime minister Vladimir Putin is elected president in 2000. Moroccan king Hassan II dies; he is succeeded by his son, Muhammad VI. Mbeki is elected president of South Africa. European currency (the "Euro") comes into limited use. Commissioners of the EU, including the president Jacques Santer, resign en masse after a corruption scandal; Romano Prodi becomes president of the Commission. NATO aircraft bomb Serbia in support of the Kosovar Albanians; a peace agreement is negotiated; a United Nations' (UN) peacekeeping force (K-FOR) is deployed. (See also: Kosovo Uprising of 1998) U.S. Senate declines to convict President Clinton during his impeachment trial. Part of the Canadian Northwest Territories becomes the self-governing Inuit territory of Nunavut.

2000

Israeli troops withdraw from south Lebanon. Scientists at the human genome project announce that human chromosome 21 has been fully decoded; it is the smallest human chromosome, with only 225 genes. Cosmologists studying the Cosmic Microwave Background conclude that the universe is flat and will continue to expand forever. In Uganda, approximately 1000 members of the cult Movement for the Restoration of the 10 Commandments of God are found dead, probably murdered. Fighting intensifies between rebel and government forces in Sierra Leone. Devastating floods in Mozambique leave approximately one million people homeless. Abdoulaye Wade is elected president of Senegal; he replaces Abdou Diouf, who has been president since 1981. Pinochet, deemed unift to stand trial, is allowed to return to Chile. More than 500,000 women converge on Washington, D.C., in the "million mom march" to campaign for tougher gun laws. Tate Modern art gallery, designed by Swiss architects Herzog and de Meuron, opens in London, UK, in the former Bankside power station. European Union imposes diplomatic sanctions against Austria after the far-right Freedom Party joins Austria's coalition government. DECEMBER : Republican George W. Bush, son of former U.S. president George H. W. Bush, is elected U.S. president in a close race against Democrat Al Gore; the presidential election is decided by the Supreme Court decision Bush v. Gore. The Court finds in favor of Bush who had successfully sought to prevent a recount of contested Florida ballots called for by Gore.

1964

Japanese railroads run high-speed "bullet" trains. U.S. engineer Robert Moog invents an electronic music synthesizer. U.S. physicist Murray Gell-Mann proposes the existence of quarks. U.S. government passes the Gulf of Tonkin resolution authorizing military action in Southeast Asia. ANC leader Nelson Mandela is sentenced to life imprisonment in South Africa. Tanganyika and Zanzibar unite to form Tanzania with Julius Nyerere (1922-99) as president. Zambia becomes independent under President Kenneth Kaunda. Kenya becomes independent under President Jomo Kenyatta (1893-1978). Constantine II becomes king of Greece. Free Speech movement starts in U.S. universities. Johnson is elected U.S. president. Malta gains its independence from Britain. U.S. novelist Saul Bellow (1915-2005) publishes Herzog. UN troops are sent in response to fighting between Greeks and Turks in Cyprus. Harold Wilson (1916-95) is elected British prime minister. Khrushchev is deposed in the Soviet Union; Leonid Brezhnev (1906-82) becomes first secretary and Aleksei Kosygin (1904-80) becomes prime minister. Indonesian troops invade Malaysia. U.S. poet Robert Lowell (1917-77) publishes For the Union Dead. Canadian academic Marshall McLuhan (1911-80) publishes Understanding Media. China explodes an atom bomb. Faisal (1905-75) becomes king of Saudi Arabia.

1975

Papua New Guinea gains independence from Australia. Communists take control in Laos. Cambodian Khmer Rouge guerrillas under Pol Pot (1928-98) capture Phnom Penh; "year zero" starts the systematic extermination of educated city-dwellers. Clashes in Beirut between Palestinians and Christian Falangists start the Lebanese civil war. Saigon is occupied by North Vietnamese forces; end of the Vietnam War; Vietnam becomes one country with Hanoi as its capital. Personal computer (PC) in kit form goes on sale in the United States. Apollo and Soyuz spacecraft link up while in orbit. South Africa establishes Transkei as an "independent" black homeland. Mozambique and Angola gain independence from Portugal. Dutch Guiana becomes the independent state of Surinam. U.S. novelist E.L. Doctorow publishes Ragtime. Franco dies; Juan Carlos becomes king of Spain. Terrorists led by "Carlos" take hostage members of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) in Vienna. Britain becomes an oil-producing nation. Turkish Federated State of North Cyprus is established; UN forces maintain the border with the Greek sector of the island. Mexican novelist Carlos Fuentes publishes Terra Nostra. Argentine writer Jorge Louis Borges (1899-1986) publishes The Book of Sand. Helsinki accords on peace and human rights mark a major step in the process of détente between NATO and the Warsaw Pact.

1992

Sri Lankan-born Canadian novelist Michael Ondaatje publishes The English Patient. British artist Damien Hirst creates his sculpture The Physical Impossibility of Death in the Mind of Someone Living. Afghan Islamic rebels capture Kabul and overthrow the communist government. Hindu extremists demolish the Ayodhya mosque igniting widespread violence across India. Bill Clinton is elected U.S. president. Canada, the United States, and Mexico form the North American Free Trade Association (NAFTA). Chinese novelist Jung Chang publishes Wild Swans. Fernando Collor de Mello resigns as president of Brazil. Abimael Guzman, leader of the Shining Path guerrillas, is arrested in Peru. UN organizes an environmental Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro. U.S. COBE satellite discovers ripples in the microwave background that confirm the Big Bang origin of the universe. Propellerless ship powered by magnetohydrodynamics is launched in Japan. Algerian president Muhammad Boudiaf (b.1919) is assassinated by an Islamic extremist. Egyptian statesman Boutros Boutros Ghali becomes UN secretary general. U.S. troops arrive in Mogadishu, Somalia, to supervise food distribution. Bosnia-Herzegovina declares independence from Yugoslavia; the Serbs attack Sarajevo.

1987

Syrian troops enter Beirut to keep the peace. Indian troops impose a ceasefire in the conflict between the Tamil Tiger guerrillas and Sri Lankan government forces. U.S. author Tom Wolfe publishes his novel Bonfire of the Vanities. International agreement is reached to limit the amounts of chloroflurocarbons (CFCs) released into the atmosphere. Work starts on a tunnel between Britain and France. Supernova SN1987A is visible to the unaided eye. Tunisian president Habib Bourguiba (1903-2000) is deposed in a coup led by Ben Ali. Chadian forces, assisted by the French foreign legion, expel the Libyans from north Chad. Gorbachev announces policies of glasnost and perestroika. U.S. colonel Oliver North is secretly authorized to sell weapons to Iran, the profits to be used to arm the anti-Sandinista Contras in Nicaragua; when revealed, the affair causes a major scandal in the United States. New York Stock Market crashes triggering a worldwide financial crisis; computerized dealing is blamed for the severity of the collapse.

1968

U.S. astronauts orbit the Moon in the Apollo 8 spacecraft. Equatorial Guinea gains independence from Spain. Swaziland becomes an independent kingdom. Famine conditions develop in Biafra. Students and workers build barricades in Paris; student leader Rudi Dutschke is shot in West Germany. Albania withdraws from the Warsaw Pact. U.S. psychologist Timothy Leary (1920-96) publishes The Politics of Ecstasy. Richard Nixon (1913-94) is elected U.S. president. Student demonstrations disrupt the start of the Olympic Games in Mexico City. Senator Robert Kennedy (b.1925) is assassinated in Los Angeles. Pierre Trudeau (1919-2000) becomes Canadian prime minister. Spain closes its frontier with Gibraltar. Czech politician Alexander Dubcek (1921-92) introduces reforms; a Soviet invasion ends the "Prague Spring". Martin Luther King, Jr. (b.1929) is assassinated in Memphis. UN approves a nuclear non-proliferation treaty. Anti-war protesters and Yippies demonstrate outside the Democratic party convention in Chicago. North Vietnam launches the Tet offensive; the U.S. bombing campaign is halted; U.S. troops massacre villagers at My Lai. Ba'athist officers seize power in Iraq.

1947

U.S. aviator Chuck Yeage breaks the sound barrier in the Bell X1 rocket-powered aircraft. Atomic power station opens at Harwell, England. U.S. engineers John Bardeen (1908-91), Walter Brattain (1902-87), and William Shockley (1910-89) invent the transistor. U.S. engineer Buckminster Fuller (1895-1983) designs his geodesic dome. All Algerians are granted French citizenship. U.S. secretary of state George Marshall (1880-1959) calls for a plan for European economic recovery. Britain grants the status of independent dominions to India and Pakistan (east and west); millions die in factional fighting and there are massive population exchanges. New constitution is proclaimed in Japan. Britain grants Nigeria limited self-government. Italian artist Marino Marini (1901-80) creates his sculpture Horseman. British poet W.H. Auden (1907-73) publishes The Age of Anxiety. U.S. president Truman pledges a doctrine of support for regimes threatened by communism. Italian writer Primo Levi (1919-87) publishes If This is a Man. Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg form a customs union. Italy, Romania, and Hungary lose small areas of territory under the Paris peace treaties. Communist coups seize power in Czechoslovakia, Hungary, and Romania.

1946

U.S. chemist Willard Libby (1908-80) devises a method of radiocarbon dating. U.S. pediatrician Benjamin Spock (1903-98) writes The Common Sense Book of Baby and Child Care. British engineer Maurice Wilkes devises assembler computer-programing language. US tests atomic weapons at Bikini atoll. Juan Perón (1895-1974) is elected president of Argentina. French philosopher and author Jean-Paul Sartre (1905-80) publishes Existentialism and Humanism. British government nationalizes coal mines and lays the foundations of a welfare state. War crimes tribunal is set up in Tokyo. French bombard the port of Haiphong while suppressing Vietnamese rebels. Jewish Irgun terrorists blow up the King David Hotel in Jerusalem. Jordan becomes an independent kingdom. Republic of the Philippines becomes an independent state. Albania becomes an independent republic under Prime Minister Enver Hoxha (1908-85). Charles De Gaulle (1890-1970) resigns as French president. Italy becomes a republic.

1980

Attempt by U.S. special forces to rescue hostages held in Tehran ends in disastrous failure. Iraq invades Iran in order to gain control of the Shatt al-Arab waterway. U.S. composer Philip Glass writes his opera Satyagraha. Following the death of President Tito (b.1892), Yugoslavia comes under collective leadership. Rhodesia becomes independent as Zimbabwe; Robert Mugabe is elected prime minister. Libya invades and occupies north Chad. Former-Beatle John Lennon (b.1940) is murdered in New York. Ex-Nicaraguan president Somoza is assassinated in Paraguay. Polish shipyard workers led by Lech Walesa form the Solidarity trades union. Greece joins the European Community (EC). Mount St. Helens erupts in Washington state. Ronald Reagan (1911-2004) is elected U.S. president.

1996

Restored Globe Theatre opens in London. Irish poet Seamus Heaney publishes The Spirit Level. Iraqi aircraft enter a no-fly zone to attack Kurds; the United States launches cruise missiles against Iraq. Afghan Taliban Islamic militia captures Kabul and forms a fundamentalist government. Yasir Arafat (1929-2004) is elected president of the Palestinians. Particles of antimatter are created at CERN (the European Nuclear Research Center) in Switzerland. 452m-high Petronas Towers in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, are constructed. Rebel forces, led by Laurent Kabila, force Zairean president Mobutu Sese Seko (1930-97) into exile. Renewed violence breaks out between Hutus and Tutsis in Rwanda. Yugoslavian war crimes tribunal opens in the Hague, Netherlands.

1973

Arab states cut oil production and cause an energy crisis. President Zulfikar Ali Bhutto (1929-79) issues a new constitution in Pakistan. Arab countries attack Israel; Egyptian forces invade across the Suez canal but are defeated; Israel wins the war. Afghanistan becomes a republic after a coup. Last U.S. combat troops leave Vietnam. U.S. engineer Nolan Bushnell invents the video game Pong. U.S. biochemists Stanley Cohen and Herbert Boyer invent recombinant DNA genetic engineering when they use restriction enzymes to "cut and splice" DNA. U.S. launches the Skylab space station. Juan Perón (1895-1974) returns to Argentina and becomes president. U.S. national security adviser Henry Kissinger is appointed secretary of state. Greece officially becomes a republic. British prime minister Edward Heath (1916-2005) declares a state of emergency and a three-day working week because of strikes. Paris peace agreement ends U.S. involvement in Vietnam. British Honduras is renamed Belize. General Augusto Pinochet (1915-2006) leads a military coup that seizes power in Chile. U.S. novelist Thomas Pynchon publishes Gravity's Rainbow. German economist Ernst Shumacher (1911-77) publishes Small is Beautiful: A Study of Economics as if People Mattered. "Cod war" breaks out between Iceland and Britain over fishing rights.

1988

Iran-Iraq War ends in stalemate. General Zia (b.1924) is assassinated; Benazir Bhutto becomes prime minister of Pakistan. Soviet republics of Azerbaijan and Armenia clash over the enclave of Nagorno-Karabakh. Soviet Union begins withdrawing troops from Afghanistan. Australian novelist Peter Carey publishes Oscar and Lucinda. British author Salman Rushdie publishes Satanic Verses. German composer Karlheinz Stockhausen (1928-2007) writes Montag aus Licht. U.S. scientists start a project to map the human genome. British mathematician and cosmologist Stephen Hawking publishes A Brief History of Time. George H. W. Bush is elected U.S. president. Sandinistas and Contras agree to an armistice in Nicaragua. US and the Soviet Union agree to limit the number of missiles in Europe by the Intermediate-range Nuclear Forces (INF) treaty signed. U.S. passenger jet is blown up by a terrorist bomb over Lockerbie in Scotland.

1955

British engineer Christopher Cockerell (1910-99) invents the hovercraft. U.S. physicists Clyde Cowan and Frederick Reines discover the neutrino. U.S. novelist Vladimir Nabokov (1899-1977) publishes Lolita. General Alfredo Stroessner (1912-2006) becomes president of Paraguay after a coup. U.S. Supreme Court rules that racial segregation in public schools must soon end. Irish dramatist and novelist Samuel Beckett (1906-89) writes his play Waiting for Godot. French novelist Alain Robbe-Grillet publishes his nouveau roman Le Voyeur. U.S. author James Baldwin (1924-87) publishes his essays Notes of a Native Son. Juan Perón (1895-1974) is forced into exile from Argentina. Allied occupation troops withdraw from West Germany, which joins NATO. U.S. civil rights activist Rosa Parks (1913-2005) sits in a whites-only seat on a bus in Montgomery, Alabama. Communist countries of east Europe form the Warsaw Pact with the Soviet Union. First summit conference of world leaders takes place in Geneva. Austria, Spain, Italy, Portugal, Ireland, Bulgaria, and Hungary are admitted to the UN. After a civil war, South Vietnam becomes a republic under President Ngo Dinh Diem (1901-63). Twenty-nine non-aligned nations meet at Bandung in Indonesia. Turkey and Iraq sign the Baghdad Pact defense treaty. Portuguese police kill Indian demonstrators in Goa.

1966

British engineers Charles Kao and George Hockham invent fiber-optic telephone cable. Soviet spaceprobe Luna 9 makes a soft landing on the Moon. Milton Obote becomes president of Uganda. Bechuanaland becomes independent as Botswana; Basutoland becomes independent as Lesotho. Colonel Jean Bokassa (1921-96) leads a coup in the Central African Republic. African-American activists Bobby Seale and Huey Newton (1942-89) form the Black Panthers. Ariel by U.S. poet Syvia Plath (1932-63) is published posthumously. British Guyana and Barbados become independent. Japanese author Yukio Mishima (1925-70) publishes his novel The Sailor Who fell from Grace with the Sea. Vatican abolishes the Inquisition and the index of forbidden books. Military coup overthrows President Nkrumah in Ghana. France withdraws from NATO. Indira Gandhi (1917-84) is elected prime minister of India. Mao Zedong (1893-1976) launches the Cultural Revolution in China; the Red Guards are formed. Raden Suharto (1921-2008) seizes power in Indonesia. South African prime minister Hendrik Verwoerd (b.1901) is assassinated; Balthazaar Vorster (1915-83) succeeds him. Indonesian-Malay conflict ends.

1948

British physicist Dennis Gabor (1900-79) invents holography. U.S. physicists Richard Feynman (1918-88) and Julian Schwinger (1918-94) formulate quantum electrodynamics. U.S. government pledges massive financial aid to Europe for the implementation of the Marshall plan. Truman is elected U.S. president. Organization of American States (OAS) is established. Ceylon (present-day Sri Lanka) becomes a self governing British dominion. Burma becomes independent of Britain. U.S. novelist Norman Mailer (1923-2007) publishes The Naked and the Dead. UN issues a declaration of human rights. State of Israel is established and is attacked by the Egyptians and the Jordanian Arab Legion. U.S. artist Jackson Pollock (1912-56) paints Composition No.1. Juliana (1909-2004) becomes queen of the Netherlands. Brussels treaty agreeing military and economic co-operation is signed by Britain, France, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg. Russians blockade Berlin; an airlift keeps the city supplied.

1989

Chinese troops kill pro-democracy protestors in Tiananmen Square in Beijing. Akihito becomes emperor of Japan. Voyager II transmits pictures of Neptune. Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) imposes a worldwide ban on the sale of elephant ivory. F.W. de Klerk becomes president of South Africa. Cuban troops are withdrawn from Angola; a ceasefire is declared in the civil war. General Manuel Noriega proclaims himself president of Panama; U.S. troops invade. U.S. and Soviet presidents officially declare the end of the Cold War. Vaclav Havel forms a democratic government in Czechoslovakia. Alfredo Stroessner (1912-2006) is overthrown by a coup in Paraguay. Hungary adopts a new constitution and opens its borders; popular protests in East Germany lead to the dismantling of the Berlin wall. Revolution overthrows Nicolae Ceausescu (1918-89) in Romania. San Francisco suffers a major earthquake. Solidarity candidates win a majority in Polish elections. Slobodan Milošević (1941-2006) is elected president of Serbia.

1969

DDT is banned in the United States. Anglo-French Concorde supersonic passenger aircraft makes its first flight. U.S. spacecraft Apollo 11 lands on the Moon; astronaut Neil Armstrong takes the first steps. U.S. engineer Douglas Engelbart invents the "mouse" computer input device. Left-wing coup seizes power in Sudan. British novelist John Fowles publishes The French Lieutenant's Woman. U.S. novelist Philip Roth publishes Portnoy's Complaint. Colonel Muammar al-Qaddafi overthrows King Idris in Libya. U.S. novelist Kurt Vonnegut Jr. (1922-2007) publishes Slaughterhouse Five. Willy Brandt (1913-92) becomes chancellor of West Germany. Spanish dictator Franciso Franco (1892-1975) names Bourbon prince Juan Carlos as his successor. De Gaulle resigns; Georges Pompidou (1911-74) is elected French president. Violence flares between Catholics and Protestants in Ulster. Soviet and Chinese troops clash along their border. U.S. troops begin withdrawing from Vietnam. War breaks out between Honduras and El Salvador. Ferdinand Marcos (1917-89) is elected president of the Philippines. Golda Meir (1898-1978) becomes prime minister of Israel. Yasir Arafat (1929-2004) is elected chairman of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO). Military coup seizes power in Pakistan. Dhofar rebellion starts in south Oman.

1986

Ferdinand Marcos (1917-89) flees the Philippines; Corazon Aquino becomes president. Iranian forces capture the Iraqi port of Al Faw. Japanese novelist Kazuo Ishiguro publishes An Artist of the Floating World. British composer Andrew Lloyd Webber writes his musical Phantom of the Opera. European spaceprobe Giotto intercepts Halley's comet. U.S. aviators Jeana Yeager and Dick Rutan fly the aircraft Voyager non-stop around the world without refueling. Voyager II transmits pictures of Uranus. U.S. warplanes bomb Libya. Space shuttle Challenger explodes immediately after launch. Spain and Portugal join the European Community (EC). Accident at the Chernobyl nuclear reactor in Ukraine releases a radioactive cloud over central and north Europe. Swedish prime minister Olaf Palme (b.1927) is murdered. Jean Claude "Baby Doc" Duvalier flees Haiti to exile in France.

1949

French feminist and novelist Simone de Beauvoir (1908-86) publishes The Second Sex. Chinese nationalists evacuate to Formosa (present-day Taiwan); Mao Zedong (1893-1976) declares the People's Republic of China. Indonesia becomes independent under President Achmad Sukarno (1901-70). Israel and Egypt agree to an armistice. French author and dramatist Jean Genet (1910-86) publishes his novel Diary of a Thief. North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) is formed for mutual defense by the United States, Canada, and west European states. Newfoundland becomes a part of Canada. Chiang Kai-shek (1887-1975) resigns as Chinese president following communist victories. Cambodia becomes independent under King Norodom Sihanouk. South Africa passes legislation enforcing a policy of apartheid. Independent republics of North Korea, under President Kim Il Sung (1912-94), and South Korea, under President Syngman Rhee (1875-1965), are established. France grants independence to Vietnam but does not recognize the regime of Ho Chi Minh (1880-1969). Warfare between India and Pakistan over disputed territory in Kashmir is ended by a UN ceasefire. U.S. dramatist Arthur Miller (1915-2005) writes his play Death of a Salesman. French anthropologist Claude Lévi-Strauss (1908-90) publishes The Elementary Structures of Kinship. Soviet Union breaks off close relations with Yugoslavia. Council of Europe and the European Court of Human Rights are established. Soviet Union tests an atomic bomb. Republic of Ireland is declared. Federal Republic of (West) Germany, with its capital in Bonn, and the (East) German Democratic Republic are established. Greek civil war ends with a monarchist victory. Soviet Union and the communist-controlled countries of east Europe form the Comecon organization for economic co-operation.

1967

International treaty bans weapons of mass destruction from space. South African surgeon Christiaan Barnard performs a heart transplant. Chinese explode a hydrogen bomb. British astronomer Jocelyn Bell discovers pulsars. State of Biafra declares its independence and secedes from Nigeria; a civil war starts. Britain evacuates Aden; the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen is established. The Beatles release Sergeant Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band. Colombian novelist Gabriel García Márquez publishes One Hundred Years of Solitude. British dramatist Tom Stoppard writes his play Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are Dead. EEC becomes the European Community (EC). U.S. artist Andy Warhol (1928-87) publishes his print of Marilyn Monroe. British artist David Hockney paints A Bigger Splash. Nicolae Ceausescu (1918-89) becomes head of state in Romania. Forty-six nations sign the General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs (GATT) in Geneva. Coup by Greek colonels takes power in Athens; King Constantine flees after a failed counter-coup. U.S. Court of Appeals orders the desegregation of Southern schools. Revolutionary Che Guevara (b.1928) is killed by Bolivian troops. Israel defeats its Arab neighbors in a six-day war; it recaptures the West Bank and east Jerusalem and occupies the Golan Heights.

1998

Iraq refuses access to UN inspectors; the United States launches cruise missiles against Iraqi military targets. Weakness of the Japanese economy causes other Asian economies to decline. Indonesian president Rahen Suharto (1921-2008) is ousted from power; he is succeeded by B.J. Habibie, who is in turn ousted (1999) by Abdurrahman Wahid. Adult sheep Dolly gives birth. Border dispute between Eritrea and Ethiopia flares into full-scale war. British and Irish prime ministers, together with representatives from eight political parties in Northern Ireland, sign the Good Friday Peace Agreement; David Trimble becomes first minister of the Northern Ireland Assembly. Thabo Mbeki succeeds Mandela as president of the African National Congress (ANC). Albanian separatists clash with Serb forces in Kosovo; ca. 200,000 Kosovar Albanians are forced to flee from Serbian aggression. Gerhard Schröder is elected chancellor of Germany. British composer Anthony Payne's completed version of Edward Elgar's incomplete Third Symphony is premiered. U.S. president Clinton faces charges of misconduct and of authorizing a cover-up of a sex scandal involving Monica Lewinsky. Former Chilean dictator Augusto Pinochet (1915-2006) is arrested in London, UK, on charges of human rights violations. British poet Ted Hughes (1930-98) publishes Birthday Letters. U.S. novelist Michael Cunningham publishes The Hours. Hurrican Mitch kills ca. 5500 in Honduras and ca. 4000 in Nicaragua; millions of people are left homeless.

1982

Israel invades Lebanon and forces the PLO to evacuate to Tunisia and Cyprus; south Lebanon comes under Israeli occupation; an international peacekeeping force arrives in Beirut. Iranian forces recapture port of Khurramshahr. Compact music disks (CDs) are introduced. Genetically engineered insulin is produced for human use. U.S. architect Maya Lin designs the Vietnam Veterans' Memorial in Washington, D.C. Israel returns the Sinai peninsula to Egypt. Chilean novelist Isabel Allende publishes her novel The House of the Spirits. Australian novelist Thomas Keneally publishes Schindler's Ark. Argentine troops invade the Falkland Islands (Malvinas); British forces invade and recapture the islands. Helmut Kohl is elected German chancellor.

1981

Israeli aircraft destroy an Iraqi nuclear reactor in a bombing raid. U.S. hostages in Tehran are released. Chinese "Gang of Four" are convicted of treason. IBM launch a PC using the Microsoft MS-DOS operating system. Disease Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) is identified. U.S. space shuttle makes its first orbital flight. French high-speed train (TGV) service enters operation. Anwar Sadat is assassinated; Hosni Mubarak becomes president of Egypt. Italian author Umberto Eco publishes his novel The Name of the Rose. U.S. author Toni Morrison publishes Tar Baby. Peruvian author Mario Vargas Llosa publishes his novel The War of the End of the World. Death of the Jamaican musician Bob Marley (b.1945). Andreas Papandreou (1919-96) is elected prime minister of Greece. Solidarity protests result in martial law being declared in Poland under General Wojciech Jaruzelski. François Mitterrand (1916-96) is elected president of France. Peruvian diplomat Pérez de Cuéllar becomes UN secretary general. Belize, Antigua, and Barbuda gain independence from Britain.

1997

Israeli troops withdraw from Hebron in Palestine. Rafsanjani is succeeded as president of Iran by liberal reformer Muhammad Khatami. Hong Kong is returned to Chinese sovereignty. U.S. author Carol Shields publishes her novel Larry's Party. U.S. scientist Jared Diamond publishes Guns, Germs, and Steel. A sheep ("Dolly") is cloned in Britain. Deep Blue computer defeats the world chess champion Gary Kasparov. Ghanaian diplomat Kofi Annan becomes UN secretary general. Zairean rebels rename the country the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Branch of the Guggenheim Museum designed by Canadian architect Frank Gehry opens in Bilbao, Spain. British novelist J.K. Rowling publishes Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone. Tony Blair is elected British prime minister. Lionel Jospin is elected prime minister of France.

1958

Nuclear-powered submarine USS Nautilus passes beneath the North Pole. U.S. satellite Explorer I discovers the Van Allen radiation belts around the Earth. Stereophonic music records go on sale in the United States. British industrialist Alistair Pilkington (1920-95) invents the float-glass process for making plate glass. Niger, Upper Volta, Ivory Coast, Dahomey, Senegal, Mauritania, Congo, and Gabon gain limited independence from France. Guinea becomes an independent republic. Military coup overthrows President Pérez Jiménez (1914-2001) in Venezuela. Mali and Senegal form the Federation of Mali. FLN rebels declare a provisional government in Algeria. U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) is established. British form the Federation of the West Indies. New constitution establishes the French fifth republic; Charles De Gaulle (1890-1970) is elected president. Nikita Khrushchev (1894-1971) replaces Nikolai Bulganin (1895-1975) as Soviet premier. U.S. economist J.K. Galbraith publishes The Affluent Society. Russian poet and author Boris Pasternak (1890-1960) publishes his novel Dr Zhivago. Egypt and Syria form the United Arab Republic (UAR). U.S. troops intervene during elections in Beirut, Lebanon. Iraq and Jordan form a short-lived Arab Federation; the federation is ended by a military coup in Iraq, which then becomes a republic. Chinese bombard the Quemoy islands off Formosa (Taiwan). After a military coup in Pakistan, Muhammad Ayub Khan (1907-74) becomes president.

1970

Palestinians hijack passenger jets and blow them up in Jordan. Jordanian forces loyal to King Hussein evict the PLO in a civil war. Hafez al-Assad (1928-2000) seizes power, becoming president of Syria. Boeing 747 "Jumbo jet" enters service. China launches an artificial satellite. Soviet space probe Venera VII soft-lands on Venus and sends information from the surface. Rhodesia declares itself a republic. British poet Ted Hughes (1930-98) publishes Crow. U.S. musician Jimi Hendrix (b.1942) dies of a drug overdose. The Beatles split up to pursue separate careers. Anwar Sadat (1918-81) becomes president of Egypt. New constitution restores the Moroccan Parliament. Australian feminist Germaine Greer publishes The Female Eunuch. Complete New English Bible is published. Biafran War ends with victory for the federal government forces. Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT) talks begin in Helsinki. Italian dramatist Dario Fo writes Accidental Death of an Anarchist. U.S. revolutionary Jerry Rubin publishes his Yippie manifesto Do It!. French-speaking separatists in Québec kidnap and murder a Canadian official. Portuguese dictator António Salazar (b.1889) dies. U.S. National Guard soldiers kill four protesting students at Kent State University in Ohio. Salvador Allende (1908-73) is elected president of Chile. Weathermen radicals bomb a U.S. Army research center. Norodom Sihanouk is overthrown; communist guerrillas threaten Phnom Penh; Cambodia becomes the Khmer Republic. Sultan Qaboos seizes power from his father in Oman. US resumes bombing North Vietnam.

1978

Revolution overthrows the republic in Afghanistan. Vietnam invades Cambodia. World Health Organization (WHO) announces that, apart from some laboratory samples, smallpox has been eradicated. First in-vitro fertilization baby is born in Britain. British paleontologist Mary Leakey (1913-96) discovers 3.5-million-year-old human footprints in Tanzania. French and Belgian paratroops try to restore order in Kolwezi after a secessionist rebellion in Zaire. Anwar Sadat (1918-81) and Menachem Begin (1913-92) meet at Camp David. U.S. author Susan Sontag (1933-2004) publishes Illness as Metaphor. U.S. author Armistead Maupin publishes Tales of the City. French philosopher Jacques Derrida (1930-2004) publishes Truth in Painting. U.S. novelist John Irving publishes The World According to Garp. Italian Red Brigade terrorists kidnap and murder politician Alberto Moro (b.1916). British novelist A.S. Byatt publishes The Virgin in the Garden. Group of Seven (G7) industrialized nations meet to discuss economic policy. Dominica gains independence from Britain.

1979

Soviet Union invades Afghanistan. Iranian shah Muhammad Reza Pahlavi (1919-80) flees a revolution in Iran; Ayatollah Khomeini (1900-89) arrives from Paris; students storm the U.S. embassy in Tehran and take the staff hostage. Vietnamese troops expel Pol Pot from Phnom Penh. Chinese and Vietnamese troops are involved in border clashes. Saddam Hussein (1937-2006) seizes power in Iraq. U.S. Voyager spaceprobes transmit close-up pictures of Jupiter and its moons. Liquid crystal display (LCD) television is developed in Japan. British scientist James Lovelock proposes his Gaia theory. Tanzanian troops invade Uganda and oust Idi Amin. Margaret Thatcher is elected British prime minister. Czech novelist Milan Kundera publishes The Book of Laughter and Forgetting. Conference in London ends the civil war in Rhodesia between guerrillas and the white minority government, and agrees majority rule. Hundreds of U.S. cultists commit mass suicide in the People's Temple at Jonestown, Guyana. Israel and Egypt sign a peace treaty in Washington, D.C. Sandinista guerrillas capture Managua; President Anastasio Somoza (1925-80) flees Nicaragua; Daniel Ortega forms a revolutionary government. Nuclear accident occurs at Three Mile Island power station in Pennsylvania.

1965

Soviet cosmonaut Alexei Leonov takes a "space walk" while in orbit. U.S. physicists Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson discover microwave cosmic background radiation. U.S. spaceprobe Mariner IV orbits Mars and transmits photographs back to Earth. French launch an artificial satellite. African-American activist Malcolm X (b.1925) is assassinated in New York. Race riots erupt in the Watts district of Los Angeles. Military coup leads to widespread fighting in the Dominican Republic; U.S. marines land and are then replaced by OAS forces. Gambia becomes independent. White settlers opposed to black majority rule declare Southern Rhodesia independent (UDI). Medicare and other welfare legislation is passed in the United States. Charles De Gaulle (1890-1970) defeats François Mitterrand (1916-96) in the French presidential elections. U.S. consumer advocate Ralph Nader publishes his book Unsafe at Any Speed. U.S. author Truman Capote (1924-84) publishes his non-fictional In Cold Blood. US begins a bombing campaign against North Vietnam. War breaks out between India and Pakistan. U.S. dramatist Neil Simon writes his play The Odd Couple. Houari Boumédienne overthrows President Ahmed Ben Bella in Algeria. Australian, New Zealand, and South Korean troops are sent to Vietnam. Singapore becomes an independent republic.

1963

Soviet cosmonaut Valentina Tereshkova orbits the Earth. U.S. astronomer Maarten Schmidt discovers quasars. Katanga surrenders to the Congo government. Organization of African Unity (OAU) is formed in Addis Ababa. Hot-line is installed between the White House and the Kremlin. Martin Luther King, Jr. leads a civil rights march to Washington. Kennedy is assassinated in Dallas, Texas; Lyndon Johnson (1908-73) becomes U.S. president. Military coup overthrows Ngo Dinh Diem (1901-63) in South Vietnam. Arrest of Islamic reformer Ruhollah Khomeini (1900-89) sparks riots in Tehran. France vetoes the British application to join the Common Market. Britain, the Soviet Union, and the United States sign a nuclear-test treaty banning all but underground explosions. U.S. artist Roy Lichtenstein (1923-97) paints Whaam!. U.S. environmentalist Rachel Carson (1907-64) publishes Silent Spring. Malaya, Northern Borneo, Sarawak, and Singapore form the Federation of Malaysia.

1961

Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin (1934-68) orbits the Earth. U.S. astronaut Alan Shepard (1923-98) makes a sub-orbital flight. U.S. civil rights activists organize "freedom rides" on segregated buses. South Africa becomes a republic and leaves the British commonwealth. President Kennedy announces the formation of the Peace Corps. Cuban exiles in the United States attempt an invasion of Cuba at the Bay of Pigs. Twenty-five countries attend a conference of non-aligned nations in Belgrade. U.S. novelist Joseph Heller (1923-99) publishes Catch-22. U.S. singer-songwriter Bob Dylan makes his debut performance in Greenwich Village, New York. Soviet authorities build a wall across the divided city of Berlin. Soviet dancer Rudolf Nureyev (1938-93) defects to the United States. Nazi war criminal Adolf Eichmann (1906-62) is tried and sentenced to death in Israel. Coup in Syria breaks up the UAR. British pop group The Beatles play their first performance at the Cavern Club in Liverpool. India conquers the Portuguese colony of Goa. Burmese diplomat U Thant (1909-74) is elected secretary general of the United Nations (UN).

1957

Soviet satellite Sputnik II carries the dog Laika into orbit. Scottish virologist Alick Isaacs (1921-67) discovers interferon. International Geophysical Year promotes earth sciences. UN forms the International Atomic Energy Commission. Soviet Union launches an artificial satellite—Sputnik I. U.S. Civil Rights Act appoints a commission to examine African-American voting rights. Morocco becomes a kingdom under Muhammad V (1909-61). François "Papa Doc" Duvalier (1907-71) becomes president of Haiti. Habib Bourguiba (1903-2000) becomes president of the republic of Tunisia. President Eisenhower (1890-1969) states his doctrine to oppose communism in the Middle East. Jamaica becomes self-governing. U.S. sculptor Alexander Calder (1898-1976) creates Mobile for New York airport. U.S. writer Jack Kerouac (1922-69) publishes On the Road. British colonies of the Gold Coast and Togoland are joined to form the independent state of Ghana. Harold Macmillan (1894-1986) becomes British prime minister. Saar region is returned to West Germany. Australian novelist Patrick White (1912-90) publishes Voss. Olaf V (1903-91) becomes king of Norway. France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, Italy, and West Germany sign the treaty of Rome establishing the European Economic Community (EEC) or Common Market. Israel evacuates the Gaza strip. Sihanouk again becomes head of state in Cambodia. Malayan Federation gains independence.

1952

The United States explodes a hydrogen bomb. British explode an atom bomb. U.S. researcher Jonas Salk (1914-95) develops a vaccine against poliomyelitis. British Comet aircraft makes the first jet passenger flight. British sculptor Henry Moore (1898-1986) creates King and Queen. U.S. composer John Cage (1912-92) conceives 4'33". Unité d'Habitation designed by Swiss architect Le Corbusier (1887-1965) is opened in Marseilles, France. Fulgencio Batista (1901-73) makes himself president of Cuba. Mau Mau secret society starts a campaign of terrorism against British settlers in Kenya. "Evita" Perón (b.1919), the wife of the Argentine president, dies. Dwight Eisenhower (1890-1969) is elected U.S. president. Eritrea becomes a part of Ethiopia. European Coal and Steel community is formed. King Farouk (1920-65) is overthrown in Egypt; the infant King Fuad II becomes a figurehead for prime minister Muhammad Naguib. Elizabeth II becomes queen of Britain. Greece and Turkey join NATO. Swedish diplomat Dag Hammarskjöld (1905-61) is elected secretary general of the United Nations (UN).