World History A

bubonic plague definition

contagious and fatal disease spread by the bites of fleas carried by rats

Michelangelo Buonarroti (1475-1564)

lived in Florence, Italy; apprenticed to painter at 13 had powerful patrons: Florentine ruler Lorenzo de' Medici and Pope Julius II became master sculptor and painter; depicted powerful human figures towering statue of David famous for its accurate anatomy and human form

oligarchy definition

government is ruled by a small group; leaders are wealthy property owners

martyr definition

person who willingly dies for his or her personal beliefs

dictatorial definition

pertaining to a ruler who holds total power and decision-making ability

empiricist definition

pertaining to a scientific method that relies on experience and observation, rather than intuition and deduction

Semitic definition

pertaining to peoples who speak the related languages of Aramaic, Hebrew, and Arabic

entrepreneurial definition

pertaining to the ability to create innovations and reap the financial benefits

humanitarian definition

related to helping humanity or promoting human welfare

evangelical definition

related to the religious practice of spreading faith by converting nonbelievers

What are some of the similarities between the Magna Carta and the United States Constitution?

social contract between the government and the governed separation of church and state trial by a jury of one's peers

subjugation definition

the act of conquering a people, exploiting and oppressing them, and forcing them to pay tribute

abolition definition

the act of ending the institution and practice of slavery

metallurgy definition

the science of extracting various metals from rocky ore

defenestration definition

throwing someone out of a window; a swift dismissal; from Latin "fenestra," window

sojourn definition

to stay in a place temporarily; stop at or visit

circumnavigate definition

to travel around the outer edge of a geographic feature

neutrons definition

uncharged, or neutral, particles in the nucleus of an atom

Which are aspects of both the Magna Carta and the United States Constitution?

Both protected the rights of citizens. Both placed limits on government.

Which accurately describe the theology of the Catholic Church during the Middle Ages?

Catholics could rise to the kingdom of heaven by faithfully following the seven sacraments. The price of sin was penance, through which sinners repented and atoned for their misdeeds.

Which most accurately describes why the Portuguese wanted to sail around Africa to reach India?

Muslims controlled trade routes along the Mediterranean, requiring a new route to acquire spices.

Why is compensation an extrinsic motivator?

The reward comes from outside the salesperson.

Mesoamerica

Major crops: beans, maize, squash Exported: north to North America and south to South America

China

Major crops: millet, mulberries, rice, sorghum, soybeans Animals raised: chickens, pigs Exported: east to Japan

The Catholic Church and the Protestant Reformation

Medieval Europe contained many different languages, cultures, and kingdoms. The one common element was the Roman Catholic Church. The Church was interwoven into the fabric of everyday life as well as European politics. The Reformation threatened this system, creating resentment among the Catholic rulers and the Church.

What were the early effects of the Industrial Revolution on the working class?

Members of the working class were forced into unhealthy and dangerous living conditions.

khan definition

Mongol leader; from the word qan, meaning "lord"

Yuan Dynasty - AD 1279-AD 1368 (reign of the Mongol Empire)

Mongolian leader Kublai Khan - controls the empire - adopts the philosophy of Confucius - promotes trade - reinforces China's infrastructure - encouraged art - welcomes Italian traveler Marco Polo - helps China become a center of science, medicine, mathematics, and literature

Which accurately describes Newton's Laws?

Newton defined three laws of motion that govern planetary bodies and objects on Earth.

What was the purpose of multinational corporations during the Age of Discovery?

to colonize foreign lands to make a profit

What act of Emperor Diocletian's reign significantly influenced the fall of the Roman Empire?

Diocletian divided the Roman Empire into eastern and western empires.

Which most accurately describes life events of explorer Sir Francis Drake?

Drake worked illegally as a slave trader, selling African slaves in New Spain.

The 13 Colonies

During the 17th and 18th centuries, hundreds of thousands of settlers and enslaved Africans arrived in North America. English colonists spread out and formed more and more townships, establishing the 13 colonies.

How did the Roman Empire contribute to modern-day legal systems?

Latin terms such as pro bono and affidavit are still used in the US legal system.

Which best describes Karl Marx's viewpoint on capitalism and the emergence of communism?

The proletariat will overthrow the bourgeoisie due to inequalities, resulting in a classless society.

Faith in the Byzantine Empire

had already been practiced for 300 years before becoming the state religion of Rome in AD 330 spread by the Roman Empire mainly found along the Mediterranean church influenced state, but had its own separate structure

assassination definition

politically motivated murder of a prominent figure

Which accurately describes events of the Haitian Slave Revolt on the island of Hispaniola (formerly Saint-Domingue)?

Slaves revolted against France and its leader, Napoleon Bonaparte, to win their independence in 1804.

religion definition

belief in a supreme force that guides earthly events

smelt definition

to heat raw ore in a furnace until the metal parts melt out of the stone

Communism Characteristics

1848: Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels write The Communist Manifesto. government controls all businesses and economy state provides for all regardless of the amount of labor Marx considers private ownership a form of greed Marx blames widening gulf between the upper classes and workers on capitalism under communism, people own everything in state equally proletariat is working class; bourgeoisie is middle class capitalist system allows bourgeoisie to oppress the proletariat believes inequality of capitalist system will make proletariat rise up to throw off oppression of the bourgeoisie results in a classless society where everyone is equal

Solon definition

6th-7th century BC statesman, lawmaker, and poet who helped lay the foundation of Athenian democracy

Setting Goals

A goal is a result someone wants to achieve. Salespeople tend to be ambitious, which is why goal-setting can be an effective motivator. A business will set the goals it expects its sales team to meet. If salespeople are allowed to set individual goals that contribute to the company's goal, they are more likely to work harder. Ex: Lou and Darshana set a sales goal for their team, but Tyrell surpassed that sales quota to meet a personal goal he set.

Which identifies a key stance taken by Luther that was in opposition to the Catholic Church?

A relationship with God does not require facilitation by the clergy.

Qing (Ch'ing) Dynasty - 1644-1912 AD

A series of wars and rebellions end imperial China. The last emperor abdicates in 1912.

Specialized Workers

Abundant food made it possible for some farmers to switch occupations. Some became skilled workers called artisans, who became an important part of a community's economy. Artisans were able to focus on making large amounts of goods like baskets, pottery, and textiles—enough to trade. Merchants bought their goods and resold them in marketplaces.

steps used in the scientific method scientific method steps

(1) pose a question (2) conduct background research (3) formulate a hypothesis (4) test the hypothesis (5) analyze the data and draw a conclusion (6) communicate the results

Kingdoms of Mesopotamia (Empires Rise and Fall)

- Around 2400 BC, cuneiform writing became widespread in the region. - Around 2300 BC, Babylonia arose on the site of the fallen Sumerian Empire. - The city-state of Babylon became the capital of the Babylonian Empire. - Babylonia's domain covered southern Iraq from the Persian Gulf to present-day Baghdad. - Around 1800 BC, Hammurabi united the majority of Mesopotamia.

Voltaire - France

- Born François-Marie Arouet - Voltaire was a pen name - known for his intellect and quick wit - wrote novels, plays, and essays - advocated religious tolerance - opposed to the church and embraced deism, where natural law controls humankind, and faith can be found in the light of rational thinking. God does not intervene.

Ancient Cultures - China

- China was populated by warring clans and kingdoms for much of its history. - Each dynasty added to the overall size of China. - Construction of the Great Wall of China began during the Qin Dynasty. -The Silk Road connected East and West well before extensive sea travel and trade. - Major dynasties: Shang (1500-1027 BC) Zhou (1027-256 BC) Qin (221-206 BC) Han (206-220 BC)

Kingdoms of Mesopotamia (Nubia)

- The fertile floodplains of the Nile River bend made Nubia an important agricultural center. - By the late 16th century BC, Nubian traders traveled north to Egypt to trade gold, salts, and oils. - Nubia adopted the Egyptian deities and erected Egyptian-style temples. - Around 1500 BC, Egyptian Pharaoh Thutmose I launched a successful invasion of Nubia, and Egypt occupied Nubia for 450 years. - Nubia regained its independence in the 700s BC and successfully invaded and defeated Egypt.

Scientific Method

1. Identify a problem or ask a question. 2. Collect background research. 3. Formulate a hypothesis regarding the problem. 4. Test the hypothesis by experimentation. 5. Analyze the data, and draw a conclusion from the results. 6. Communicate the results to the rest of the scientific community for further outside testing. The scientific method guides scientists worldwide on how to best conduct experiments. The steps of the scientific method ensure that research complies with a universal standard. This standardized approach is objective, so it's harder for a scientist's personal bias to affect the results.

The Rise of India

1500 BC: Sanskrit language is invented, beginning the Vedic period. 550 and 530 BC: Persia invades, ending the Vedic period. 327 BC: Alexander the Great extends his empire to the Indus Valley. AD 650: Muslim traders form settlements on the western coast of India. These colonies would later grow in power until they conquered India.

Mennonites

1530s: Swiss, Dutch, German members organized by Menno Simons as Anabaptists persecuted for beliefs in adult re-baptism, rejection of state church and military service 1680s: Swiss Mennonites migrated to Pennsylvania; mistakenly called the "Pennsylvania Dutch" (Deutsch) 1800s: German Mennonites migrated to Kansas and Canada a splinter group are the Amish

John Kay - England

1733: invents the flying shuttle to increase weaving of thread

James Hargreaves - England

1764: invents the spinning jenny (jenny meant "engine") needs only one worker to fill eight spindles at once; later version holds 120 spindles, eliminating 119 jobs with one machine

Which most accurately describe the involvement of the Catholic Church in the Crusades?

After 100 years of fighting over Jerusalem, the Catholic Church also waged war in Europe against Christians who did not follow Catholicism. The Knights Templar were an order of crusaders approved by the pope and ordered to protect Christian pilgrims traveling to the Holy Land.

Albigensian and Baltic Crusades (AD 1208-1225)

Albigensians, also called Cathars, are Christians who believe in freedom of religion. Innocent III calls for crusade against Albigensian heretics in southern France. Pope Innocent's Baltic Crusade is also limited to Europe—and against other Christians. Brutal raids are brought by Teutonic Knights on heretics and pagans in Baltic states. Crusade movement is used to wage war on papal enemies.

Which artist is credited with bringing the message of Greco-Roman revival to Germany?

Albrecht Dürer

What best describes Simon Bolivar's revolutionary efforts in Venezuela?

Bolivar was able to free Venezuela from Spanish rule and abolish slavery.

Han Dynasty - 206 BC-220 AD

China rivals the size and strength of the Roman Empire. The Silk Road opens. The civil service exam is established for Confucian government positions..

Confucius (Latinized Kung Fu Tze)

Chinese Philosopher | Teacher | Politician551 BC - 479 BC Biography: Confucian philosophy has received renewed attention as a model for ethical living in a global community. Many teachings, like "Do not do to others what you do not want done to yourself," are recorded in a collection of dialogues called The Analects. Confucius's praise of civil service led to the creation of the civil service exam around 200 BC, during the Han dynasty, to select government officials through testing. Mao Zedong's regime embraced this practice during the Great Leap Forward, beginning in 1958. Civil service exams continue in China and have been adopted in many countries, including the United States. Anecdote: According to most records, Confucius was born under the Chinese zodiac sign of the dog.

acupuncture definition

Chinese medical procedure involving the insertion of thin needles to treat various conditions

Which accurately describes the role of British corporations in the New World and their effect on colonists' opinions of England's monarchy?

Colonists were forced to purchase their goods only from British corporations, adding to colonial animosity toward England.

Which accurately describes life events of explorer Francisco Vázquez de Coronado?

Coronado led expeditions through the American Southwest and discovered the Grand Canyon.

The Roman Empire Emerges

Corruption and political unrest had created the turmoil in Rome, but the model on which Roman government was based was still solid. When Caesar Augustus became an emperor in 27 BC, Rome officially became an empire. A period ensued known as the Pax Romana, or Roman peace, which lasted until AD 180.

Which option most accurately describes Oliver Cromwell's rule of England?

Cromwell declared England a Puritan nation and took military action against Irish Catholics.

Necessity of Maritime Trade

Crusades Fail Failure of the Crusades to retain control over the Holy Land, specifically Jerusalem, motivated European powers to find a maritime route to Asia and the region of spices. Control of Markets European powers understood that whoever controlled the trade routes easily controlled the markets through the price of the goods. Trade Routes Major trade routes were controlled by Islamic or other powers not necessarily friendly to Christian nations. Challenges Bandits, terrain, and various climates worked against the swift transport of goods to markets.

Which statement is correct about the development of civilization in ancient Mesopotamia?

Cuneiform writing became widespread in 2400 BC.

Middle Colonies

Delaware, Pennsylvania, New York, and New Jersey Manufacturing as well as production of pork and beef Known rich soil and religious tolerance

Kingdoms and Empires of Europe

Early medieval Europe was a patchwork of major and minor kingdoms. Every kingdom was a separate state and accountable to no one. Disputes between bickering nobles became deadly. Princes conspired to gain power by treachery, deceit, arranged marriages, secret alliances, or even assassinations. For the people living in an unstable kingdom, life was full of dread and uncertainty. Suffering a sudden military attack was as likely as suffering the rule of a new and angry royal tyrant.

Which American inventor revolutionized the production of cotton with his invention of the cotton gin?

Eli Whitney

Who was the Mexican revolutionary leader who led peasant farmers against the government?

Emiliano Zapata

Map depicts England, France, Portugal, and Spain color-coded along with their respective territories during the Age of Exploration.

Europe Venture Abroad England, France, Portugal, and Spain were the major European powers competing during the Age of Discovery. Africa Africa was the first continent outside of Europe to be explored by Europeans. Lands Claimed Lands claimed by European powers in the Americas, Asia, and Africa were usually located close to the coasts. Navigation Exploration brought about advances in navigation and sailing technologies.

Which accurately describes Bartolomeu Dias's impact on future European explorers?

Europeans realized they could establish their own trade route to India by sea travel.

Which option most accurately describes the theology of the Catholic Church during the Middle Ages?

Excommunication was a possible punishment for anyone who disagreed with Church doctrine.

Which explorer was credited as the first to circumnavigate the globe?

Ferdinand Magellan

Feudalism's Decline

Feudalism declined in Europe in the 15th century as commerce and urban settlements increased. It continued into the 19th century in Japan. The main reasons for the end of feudalism were the arrival of money and a growing middle class of merchants. These changes eventually led to mercantilism.

Which correctly matches the European nation with the territory it colonized in the Americas?

France - Canada

Which best describes Alexander the Great's expansion of the Macedonian-Greek Empire?

His empire expanded from Greece all the way to India, an area of over 5 million square miles.

Haitian Slave Revolt Saint-Domingue

Hispaniola, the island occupied by Haiti and the Dominican Republic, was once the site of a French colony called Saint-Domingue. Its natural resources and enslaved population were very profitable for France.

Which Chinese religious text, whose title translates to The Book of Changes, influenced Hinduism in India?

I Ching

The Crusades

In 1095, Pope Urban II boldly used the political power of the Roman Catholic Church by calling for the Crusades. The Crusades were an attempt to regain control of Jerusalem from Muslims, which both Christians and Muslims consider the Holy Land. The Crusades also gave the Church a means to engage in politically motivated battles in Europe. The Church called for Crusades against the Cathars in France and non-Catholic Christians of the Baltic region. Many faithful Catholics began to question the motivations of Rome and scrutinize the pope's abuse of power.

Henry's Beginning

In 1415, 20-year-old Prince Henry founded a school of navigation and sailing in Sagres, Portugal. Henry's school attracted mathematicians, instrument makers, cartographers, astronomers, shipbuilders, and others who were well versed in the particulars of sailing and navigation. Henry's school fulfilled a pressing European need. The expanding Arab Empire had cut off the overland trade routes to the Spice Islands. Explorers were needed to find alternate routes. The prince also had reasons of his own: He wanted to gain geographic knowledge, enrich Portugal, spread Christianity throughout the world, and find gold. - Prince Henry's Expeditions Begin Prince Henry's first expedition explored the Canary Islands that lie in the Atlantic off the coast of lower Morocco. His next exploration party discovered the Madeira Islands, much farther out in the ocean than the Canaries. The explorers established a settlement on Porto Santo, making it the first Portuguese discovery of the 15th century.

Reaching the Indian Subcontinent

In July 1497, Vasco da Gama's fleet of ships sailed south from Lisbon, Portugal. They sailed around the Cape of Good Hope and up the eastern coast of the African continent. Past this point, da Gama was blazing a new trail. The fleet eventually decided to sail out into the open sea. In May 1498, da Gama and his fleet arrived in Calicut, India. Vasco da Gama had become the first European to sail around Africa to the Indian subcontinent, but he could not secure a trade treaty. In 1502, King Manuel charged da Gama with another mission to India. Manuel instructed him to use force to achieve a trade treaty. This da Gama did, brutally. He used intimidation to secure the treaty, and as his fleet headed back, the Portuguese plundered Arab ports and merchant ships.

Plant and Animal Exchanges

In addition to germs, Europeans brought with them other items completely foreign to the Americas. Fire ants from Africa along with honeybees from Europe all made their way to the New World via the Columbian Exchange. Prior to the Columbian Exchange, there were no cattle, pigs, or horses in the New World. The introduction of livestock contributed to a more stable food supply, and horses allowed American Indians to employ different hunting techniques. However, livestock also contributed to overgrazing, and horses also intensified the warfare between Indian tribes. In the same way that trade along the Silk Road had contributed to the transfer of the bubonic plague from Asia to Europe centuries earlier, the triangular trade initiated the ecological and cultural transfer of people, plants, animals, and germs known as the Columbian Exchange. The demographic effects on the regions of Europe, Africa, and the Americas were far reaching and are still felt today.

Tangible Rewards

In sales, tangible rewards are things other than money that can be assigned a monetary value. A sales manager might award the person with the highest sales a paid weeklong vacation. Managers use such motivators because they are easy to understand. Ex: When Tyrell broke a record by scheduling the most sales meetings in a week, Lou and Darshana awarded him with free lunch for a week.

Dias, da Gama, and Magellan

In the 15th century, the Age of Discovery was in its infancy. Across the seas, far-off lands beckoned, tempting the ambitious with the promise of riches and power. There was also a pressing need to forge new trade routes to the East Indies as the economic competition among European nations pushed this new age along at a breakneck speed.

Which accurately describes a scientific discovery of Johannes Kepler?

Kepler discovered that planetary orbits were elliptical rather than circular.

What did the Assyrian Empire leave behind as evidence of its culture?

King Ashurbanipal's extensive library at Nineveh, which housed thousands of inscribed clay tablets

Who argued for women's equality during the Enlightenment period, including equal rights in education?

Mary Wollstonecraft

Which option most accurately describes an artistic creation and innovation during the Renaissance?

Michelangelo completed carving a statue of David that displays accurate anatomy and human form.

Which best describes settlements in India during the Paleolithic Age?

Migrating humans settled in farming communities such as Harappa near the Indus River.

Which leader declared England a Puritan nation and took military action against Irish Catholics?

Oliver Cromwell

Why did the English Bill of Rights include a provision that Roman Catholics could not be crowned?

Previous Catholic monarchs had persecuted English Protestants.

Calvinism definition

Protestant Christian tradition based on the teachings of John Calvin

The Situation Worsens the new Constitution was not embraced

Radicals did not embrace the new Constitution of 1791. Its terms allowed the king to retain veto power and appoint ministers. An extremist group called the Jacobins invaded the palace and arrested the king on August 10, 1792. King Louis XVI faced the guillotine on January 21, 1793. Marie Antoinette followed nine months later. However, these two executions were not enough. This was just the beginning of one of the most violent uprisings in history.

Which most accurately describes events in the life of explorer Sir Walter Raleigh?

Raleigh led major expeditions to America, including the ill-fated Roanoke Colony.

Protestant England

Read the points to learn more. Scotland Scotland later gained the freedom to openly worship in the Presbyterian (Calvinist) style. Ireland Ireland continues to be torn by religious strife. It has a Catholic majority and an entrenched Protestant minority in the north. England and Wales England and Wales were Anglican by royal decree.

From 1793 to 1794, the Committee of Public Safety took control of France's government and used the guillotine to execute suspected enemies of the French Revolution. This time period is known as the _[blank]_.

Reign of Terror

religion and civilization

Since the species began, humans have held spiritual beliefs. The earliest religions were polytheistic. Religious ideas were based on nature. Animals were associated with certain deities. Violent storms suggested the anger of a god. A bountiful harvest showed the favor of a goddess. Every event was possible proof of supernatural forces. Urban living did not change this perspective. Religion served spiritual, social, and economic roles in Sumerian city-states. The Sumerians revered a sun god, a moon goddess, a river god, a fertility goddess, and many others. Ancient clay tablets found at the site of the Sumerian city of Nippur contain detailed accounts of the creation of man according to Sumerian religious myth. These stories relate that the gods created humans in their likeness in order to do their work on earth. The tablets also relate the epic journey of a hero named Gilgamesh that includes a flood story with many parallels to the later Biblical story of Noah and the ark. There was a deity for almost anything imaginable. Most households kept shrines dedicated to certain gods or goddesses. People believed that these deities could be persuaded to bring them riches or favorable results by making gestures or offerings. They often asked the priest to intervene with the gods on their behalf. Every city-state had its own patron deity and a large temple complex. The first Sumerian temple design was a small building set atop a high platform of earth that was covered with mud bricks. As time went on, stepped pyramids called ziggurats were constructed. Some of them were over 80 feet high. Sumerians believed that the towering ziggurat put the priest closer to the gods, making his prayers more effective. On the top was a sacred room where the priest, maintaining utmost secrecy, performed rituals to appease the higher powers. Besides overseeing spiritual duties, the priest administered the daily affairs of the city-state. He ordered surplus grain to be stored in the temple granary. During famines, he distributed grain to the citizens, laborers, and soldiers. He oversaw a large support staff of scribes, tax collectors, and other civil personnel. He rendered judgment in disputes between citizens. The priest became so powerful that he came to be regarded as the ruler of the city-state. Sumerian priests also fostered the spread of writing and recordkeeping. Cuneiform, the first system of writing, was a Sumerian invention. Temple scribes carved symbols into soft clay to record information about ceremonies, laws, and even day-to-day routines. Archeologists have found clay tablets stacked neatly and stored by the thousands in rooms at the base of a single ziggurat. These tablets revealed a wealth of information, such as the fact that priests and priest-kings were often the wealthiest landowners in their city-states.

Which most accurately describes how Chinese cultural advancements influenced later civilizations?

The Chinese invented ink and paper by the ninth century, which promoted literacy.

What was an outcome of the Council of Trent?

The Council of Trent condemned the selling of indulgences.

What was an outcome of the Glorious Revolution?

The English Bill of Rights was established.

Which accurately describes the role of the Moors within the Arab Empire?

The Moors conquered Spain from the Visigoths, effectively expanding the Arab Empire.

How did the operations of the Virginia Company bring success to England?

The company attracted settlers to the New World to establish prosperous colonies.

The Rise of Corporations

The company decided to appeal to the people of England to raise the needed funds. The board of directors authorized selling stock in the company. Thus, the Virginia Company of London became the first joint-stock company in the Americas. Joint-stock companies allowed everyday citizens to put money into a business venture with the possibility of making large returns on their investments. People now had the opportunity to make money by means other than labor. But private investment in businesses carried no guarantee of profit. Between 1609 and 1610, many of the colonists starved and died. It did not take long for the news to reach England. Investors started to back out. The Virginia Company was in financial ruin and faced with numerous lawsuits. No gold or silver was ever found, and the colony manufactured few profitable goods. To help itself stay afloat, the company embarked on a massive advertising campaign to promote the colony. They produced fliers and booklets. They even convinced the clergy to preach the importance of colonization. The sales pitch tugged at the heartstrings of English citizens. It described how colonization of the New World would expand their empire. England would become the world superpower it was always meant to be. American Indians would be converted to Christianity, more specifically the Church of England. English citizens in need of work could find employment there. The advertising campaign worked. More middle-class citizens purchased stock in the company. The company did not only sell stock; it also charged people to travel to Virginia. Paying for passage left many colonists poor. Some became indentured servants to pay for their passage or to purchase land in the colony. Despite the new advertising campaign, in 1624, the charter was revoked. During the Age of Discovery, there was a rise in the evolution of corporations like the Virginia Company that spanned the globe. The Dutch West India, Dutch East India, and British East India Companies were born and thrived in this age of maritime exploration. These corporations enjoyed favor from the governments in their home nations. The Dutch East India Company was founded in the Dutch Republic (present-day Netherlands). It was given a broad range of powers and permissions from the government. Similarly, the British East India Company was chartered in England. The company enjoyed special privileges granted by the king. The government and investors profited from these benefits, but colonists and American Indians did not. For example, colonists in British North America had to purchase their goods exclusively from British corporations like the British East India Company, in which the king owned shares. They were forced to either pay exorbitant prices, go without, or purchase goods on the black market—and face the consequences if caught. Corporations also took land, rather than purchase it, from indigenous people. These are just two examples that demonstrate how corporations and governments exploited colonists and indigenous people in order to increase profits.

Products of the Reformation

While Martin Luther is credited with beginning the Protestant Reformation, he was not the first Christian who had grown dissatisfied with the Church. For years, other critics of the Church had also voiced their opposition. These bold thinkers provided the philosophical background for Luther's ideas. Those who came after him added to the basic humanist argument concerning the governance of faith.

Resisting the Renaissance

While the Renaissance ideals were accepted and celebrated in most of Europe, some places resisted change. Feudal fiefdoms still remained scattered about the continent. Their rulers resented new ideas that threatened their political and social status quo. Warring states were preoccupied with military concerns and unreceptive to acquiring new ways. Though Greco-Roman principles spread easily to the east and west, the northern reaches of Europe proved indifferent to Italian ideas.

What were the consequences of urbanization during the early stages of the Industrial Revolution?

Workers with families were forced to live in crowded tenements. Garbage filled the streets due to a lack of sanitation services.

Enclosure Definition

a British policy of walling off communal lands and granting them to aristocrats

barter system definition

a means of trade where two people with items of similar value swap them with one another

commission definition

a payment given for completing a sale or job; often a percentage of the value of the sale or job cost

refugee definition

a person driven out of his or her homeland by war or persecution

privateer definition

a person or ship operating alone and authorized to seize vessels for a government

infidel definition

a person who does not believe in the Muslim faith

bark definition

a three-masted cargo ship that was maneuverable and sturdy

Telescope

a tube with lenses at the ends that make faraway objects look closer - The telescope was a critical invention for sailors. - 1608: Dutch eyeglass maker Hans Lippershey receives a patent for his "perspective glass." One was a convex lens, while the other was a concave lens. - 1609: An improved perspective glass by Galileo magnifies objects to a power of 30, ten times greater than Lippershey's patented device. - The telescope provided hard scientific evidence that supported the Copernican Theory. - Telescopes were used to sight land and navigate the ocean using stars. - 1668: Isaac Newton invents the reflecting telescope, which used mirrors instead of lenses to enlarge an object. - Newton's innovative design greatly improved the telescope's functionality.

alliance definition

a union between two groups

corporation definition

an organization where a large group of people share control and ownership of the business

stratified definition

arranged in layers, as in a stratified social system in which status and roles are rigidly defined

Which most accurately describes the Pilgrims involvement in the New World?

arrived at Plymouth Rock in 1620; aided in survival by the Wampanoag tribe; caused King Philip's War

perspective definition

artistic method of creating depth and distance

mandate definition

authoritative command; order to grant control and responsibility over another

Christianity (Monotheistic Religion)

based on ideas and traditions of Judaism and philosophy of Jesus Christ in the first century AD Roman persecution of early Christians ended in AD 313 by Byzantine emperor Constantine I Christian theology written in New Testament; combined with Old Testament as the Bible Christianity adopted by most of early Europe's nations fueled the Crusades in the Near East created cultural and architectural traditions spread literacy, ethics, philosophy, law

Shinto

began forming around 500 BC animistic religion beliefs involve living in harmonious balance with nature the state religion of Japan

Virginia Company

chartered by King James I in April 1606 purpose was to establish settlements in the colony of Virginia (Jamestown) investors took a partial risk, absolving the government from full financial responsibility took land, rather than equitably purchased it, from American Indians self-governing representative colony served as basis for American democracy

Utilitarianism

created by Jeremy Bentham measures the effectiveness of actions by the amount of general happiness that results believes government policy is only beneficial if it promotes the greater good

status quo definition

current state of affairs; from the Latin for "the state in which"

objective definition

dealing with or focusing on facts; unaffected by opinion or emotion

divinely ordained definition

directed by the wishes of a deity

abstract definition

existing as an idea only; not concrete or actual

splinter group definition

faction that splits off from a larger group to establish its own culture

sweatshops definition

factories set up in buildings not intended for business that are jammed with workers laboring in poor conditions for low pay

galleon definition

fast, stable, maneuverable sailing ship with minimal wind resistance and massive cargo space

Torah definition

first five books of the Old Testament that define basics of Jewish faith; meaning "law"

malleable definition

in metalworking, the quality of being easily bent or twisted

Infallibility definition

inability to be wrong or make mistakes

Which doctrine devised by Adam Smith argued that government should not interfere with economic matters?

laissez-faire

Treaty of Tordesillas definition

legislation between Portugal and Spain that settled territorial conflicts and divided lands along the meridian measured at 46°37' west

lodestone definition

magnetic mineral that attracts some metals

knight definition

mounted horseman who served in the military force of a king or a feudal lord

strait definition

narrow ocean passage between two landmasses

republic definition

political state in which power is held by the people through elected representatives

movable-type printing definition

printing process using separate letters that can be rearranged

exile definition

punishment in which a condemned party must leave his or her homeland

despotism definition

rule by tyranny or by a leader with absolute power

god-king definition

ruler seen by his people as a god or as having god-like powers

sanctity definition

sacredness; purity

French women influenced Enlightenment intellectuals, government officials, and the wealthy middle class by hosting gatherings in drawing rooms in wealthy urban houses known as _[blank]_.

salons

animal husbandry

science of domesticating, breeding, and caring for farm animals

horticulture

science of growing and crossbreeding plants

horticulture definition

science of growing and crossbreeding plants

Stalemate definition

situation in a competition in which neither side is able to make an effective move

shrine definition

small area or room dedicated to worship and acknowledgment of a deity or other holy figure Most households kept shrines dedicated to certain gods or goddesses. People believed that these deities could be persuaded to bring them riches or favorable results by making gestures or offerings. They often asked the priest to intervene with the gods on their behalf.

catalyst definition

something that causes activity or change

Junk

still utilized extensively throughout Asia allowed for shallow draft to navigate rivers and bays had many similarities with the Portuguese caravel shallow draft did not allow for successful open water navigation

elongated definition

stretched out, usually in a vertical direction

Taboo definition

strongly forbidden or restricted for spiritual or cultural reasons

sect definition

subgroup of a religion, usually one that has broken from the main religious body

Reformation definition

the 16th-century movement to reform the abuses in the Roman Catholic Church, resulting in establishment of the Reformed and Protestant Churches

Which nations primarily practiced Islam?

the Abbasid Caliphate the Ottoman Empire the Umayyad Emirate

Reconquista definition

the Christian agenda to retake Spain from its Moorish conquerors

Vulgate Bible definition

the Roman Catholic Bible; from Latin "vulgus," common, due to its common usage

theology definition

the study of the nature of God, faith, and religious beliefs

idolatry definition

the worship of religious images

predestination definition

theory that a person's destiny was determined by God before birth

Founding Fathers definition

those who helped create the United States, generally defined as the members of the American Constitutional Convention of 1787 The Constitution split the powers of the federal government into three equal branches. Each of these branches has powers and responsibilities to check the other branches and ensure that no one branch becomes more powerful than the other two.

disenfranchise definition

to deprive of the right to vote

assimilate definition

to fit in to another culture by taking on its dress, customs, and behavior

depose definition

to overthrow; remove from office

What is the purpose of government according to John Locke's Two Treatises of Government?

to protect the natural rights of people

annex definition

the act of acquiring a territory by peaceful means

caravel definition

small (about 60 feet long) and fast sailing vessel of the 15th and 16th centuries

Which best evaluates how humanist ideas introduced by the Renaissance changed European society?

They undermined the rigid social structure that gave privilege to aristocrats by encouraging a spirit of social mobility.

Why did Europeans seek a direct route to trade with Asia?

They wanted to bypass their Muslim rivals in the Middle East.

philosophe definition

a French intellectual of the Enlightenment

rabbi definition

a Jewish scholar of religious law or spiritual leader who often conducts worship

Coke definition

a byproduct of burnt coal

Bessemer process definition

a method for processing pig iron into steel using hot air

urbanization definition

development of small settlements into large cities

Which term is best defined as a religious opinion that goes against Church doctrine or established views?

heresy

revelation definition

information revealed by a divine being

pagan definition

marked by little or no religion, or polytheistic belief; concerned with sensual pleasures and praise of nature

empiricist definition

one who practices a scientific method requiring verifiable data from experience and observation

demographic definition

relating to the characteristics of human populations, such as growth, density, migration, and socioeconomic conditions

Which accurately defines Petrarch?

Italian scholar and poet who was one of the earliest Renaissance humanists

indulgence definition

a declaration of the Roman Catholic Church that certain sins are forgiven if a person says selected prayers or does specified good deeds

monarchy definition

a government system in which a central figurehead rules

humanist definition

a person who values human welfare and dignity and prefers critical thinking to established doctrine

Timeline of Early Greek History

1600 BC: Mycenaean civilization rises on Peloponnesian peninsula, dominating Greece for almost 500 years. 1250 BC: Mycenaean Greeks invade Troy in present-day Turkey, inspiring Homer's epic poem, the Iliad. 1100 BC: Mycenaean civilization collapses. 800 BC: Civilization begins to return. Greeks adopt a Phoenician alphabet, with consonants and vowels that go on to form the basis for many Western languages. 500-479 BC: The Persian Empire tries to invade several times, leading Athens to make alliances with other Greek nations to resist them, forming the Delian League. After the Persian War, Athens takes control of the Delian League, forming an empire and starting the Greek Classical Age.

Renaissance Innovations in Art

Artists made human forms expressive and individual, reinforcing focus on personhood. Anatomy and nature studies expanded the potential of artists, allowing for more lifelike creations. New ideas of composing art created mood and guided viewer's gaze in certain ways.

How did the Renaissance movement affect artistic innovations?

Artwork evolved from flat and cartoonish to realistic and detailed, including shadowing and perspective. Artists studied anatomy to better understand human form and create lifelike paintings.

Legacy of Greek city-states

Both the Spartan system of government and Athenian democracy have influenced the United States government, among others. The Spartan system was an early model for the United States with a structure for conducting government that has a separation of powers between different branches. The Athenian government provides the idea that citizens can have a voice in government. These two radically different systems were important for changing the way governments could be conducted, and they have helped shape governments in the modern world.

Which identify similarities between Pilgrims and Puritans?

Both were Protestant groups that were persecuted in England for their beliefs. Both groups migrated to the New World to be able to practice their religion freely.

What were the consequences of the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain?

Britain became the leader in the iron industry, producing more iron than the rest of world. Entrepreneurs found new ways to start a business in a laissez-faire market economy.

What did the eastern half of the Roman Empire become after the fall of the western half?

Byzantine Empire

Which city did Ottoman Turks overthrow and rename Istanbul?

Constantinople

Ancient Europe

European Tribes European tribes, including the Visigoths and Vandals, eventually sacked Rome. Language Ancient and Classical Europe was primarily divided by languages. European tribes had primarily agricultural societies. Roman Rule The majority of the continent was under Roman rule for centuries. Roman Collapse The collapse of the Roman Empire led to centuries of strife.

Why did Europeans sail across the Atlantic Ocean during the Age of Discovery?

European explorers tried to find oceanic routes to Asia to trade for spices. European explorers wanted to gain wealth and notoriety.

South American Cultures

Farther south in Mesoamerica, along the towering Andes Mountains on the Pacific side of South America, civilization was stirring in the 12th century. The Inca civilization was the largest empire in the Americas. Its architectural engineering was so advanced that paleontologists still argue about how this early civilization could have built such huge structures. These early builders worked under seemingly impossible conditions with limited technology. They had no wheel, and the only beasts of burden available were llamas. Unlike the Maya, the Inca had no written language. But paleontologists do know that the Inca worshipped the sun, represented by the sun god Inti. This is not surprising for an agricultural people living in mountainous terrain. Their main creator god, Viracocha, was not publicly worshiped but rather was reserved for Incan royalty, who were said to be related to this entity.

Who was the English king who turned England into a Protestant nation by breaking from the Catholic Church and founding the Church of England?

Henry VIII

caste system definition

Hindu practice of determining social status by birth; a rigid social structure

Which religion established a rigid caste system, but it was formally abolished in the mid-20th century?

Hinduism

Who was a Swiss theologian and humanist philosopher that rejected the principle of transubstantiation and believed in the supreme authority of the Bible rather than the clergy?

Huldrych Zwingli

Which option identifies the Catholic court that attempted to suppress anti-Catholic ideas by banning some books?

Inquisition

The Collapse of Rome

Internal Collapse Historians and scholars now realize that Rome had begun to collapse internally before the invasions from the North. Downfall Some of the practices that made Rome powerful and far-reaching also led to its downfall. Power It took centuries for another power as expansive as Rome to control large parts of the world. Rome Rome continues to influence the modern world even though the empire collapsed over 1500 years ago.

World of the Moors

Islamic Empire The majority of northern Africa and parts of Europe, primarily Spain, were added to the Islamic Empire by the Moors. Further Influence Moors and other Muslims were instrumental in returning classical learning to Europe, influencing the Renaissance. Moorish Influence There is Moorish influence of architecture, infrastructure, and culture in these areas, even after their control subsided. The Moors Moors were Muslims from North Africa.

Which option most accurately describes the purpose of the Council of Trent?

It was a meeting called by Pope Paul III to address Reformation issues such as the selling of indulgences, clerical corruption, and other abuses.

Which best describes the Dutch East India Company?

It was a multinational corporation used to boost trade with Asian territories.

Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion

Johannes Kepler was an astronomer and mathematician. Kepler worked on solving the few irregularities in Copernicus's calculations. Using Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe's records for the motions of Mars, Kepler ultimately determined the figures fit an elliptical orbit rather than a circular one. He published his findings as Astronomia Nova, "A New Astronomy." Kepler's pioneering theory became known as the laws of planetary motion. His work improved upon the Copernican model and supported the work of Galileo and Sir Isaac Newton.

Which accurately describe Kublai Khan's role in encouraging cross-cultural exchange?

Kublai Khan regulated trade along the Silk Road and was instrumental in promoting Chinese silk and spices to the West. Kublai Khan promoted religious tolerance and exchanges between Christians, Muslims, Buddhists, and Hindus.

Which most accurately describes events during Kublai Khan's rule of the Mongol Empire (Yuan Dynasty)?

Kublai Khan welcomed Marco Polo from Italy, which increased trade between the East and West.

What were the outcomes of King Henry VIII breaking away from Rome and forming the Church of England?

King Henry VIII selected the bishops and received the tax revenues from the churches. King Henry VIII ordered that Catholic monasteries be seized and their lands sold or given to supportive nobles. King Henry VIII became both the monarch of England and the head of the church.

Which most accurately describes how the Tang Dynasty influenced neighboring civilizations?

Korea admired the Tang Dynasty's government and adopted a merit-based bureaucracy.

The Rise of Macedonia

Macedonia is on the Balkan Peninsula north of Greece. Macedonians spoke Greek—and likely a distinctive local dialect as well—and drew much of their culture from their neighbor to the south. Macedonia, being the buffer between Greece and the barbaric tribes to the north, produced a warlike people. The region was ruled by multiple kings who struggled for dominance. When a power vacuum occurred in 359 BC, one man seized power over all of Macedonia: Philip II. By 352 BC, Philip ruled southern Greece. Then he conquered Thrace up to the Black Sea and the border of Persia, the primary enemy of Greece at the time. In 336 BC, before he could launch an invasion of Persia, Philip was assassinated.

What were the outcomes of Francisco Madera challenging Porfirio Diaz for the Mexican presidency?

Madero gained support of rebel leaders Pancho Villa, Pascual Orozco, and Emiliano Zapata to overthrow Diaz, resulting in the Mexican Revolution.

circuit riders definition

Methodists who traveled circular routes on horseback to minister to people in remote settlements

The Dark Ages of Science and Art

Obedient conformity was the ideal. The body language of the figures in medieval art reinforced this in a visual way for the Church's illiterate members. This rigid standard left little room for free artistic experimentation or expression. This was the restrictive atmosphere for science and art in the Western world until the late 13th century. Then the period known as the Renaissance emerged, and changes bega

Ongoing Tensions Spur Migration

On August 24, 1572, with an order from Pope Gregory XIII, Catholics conspired to massacre the Protestant Huguenots in Paris. On Saint Bartholomew's Day, the bells of Catholic churches rang at an appointed hour to signal the beginning of the violence. Armed Catholics surged through Parisian streets, killing thousands of their Protestant countrymen. Surviving Huguenots were among the first to flee Europe for the New World. The number of emigrants would keep rising. By the 1600s, a flood of humans began sailing across the Atlantic Ocean. Those who stayed would become involved in a war spanning the entire European continent.

Which empire overthrew the Byzantine Empire and effectively changed the region's religion to Islam?

Ottoman Empire

The Rise of Human Civilization

Paleolithic Age relics are noted for their rough, unfinished properties. The earliest stone tools were little more than random rocks used to smash objects—cracking open a bone to expose the marrow, for example. Around 10,000 BC, Neolithic tools began to take on a more finished appearance. Stone artifacts were shaped for specific purposes, and their surfaces were polished. Around this time, many nomadic clans began to settle down. They first found locations with fresh water. Then they cleared land, planted crops, and built homes. These small farm settlements soon attracted other groups looking to settle down. This prompted settlements to grow into villages. Sometimes these villages grew into large towns or cities. This move toward establishing cities is called urbanization. Living in communities had numerous benefits. Larger farming settlements built community storage houses to hold surplus grain. The availability of a granary was a strong motivator for a farmer to join a settlement. With crop yields increasing, farmers needed somewhere to store large surpluses. A well-stocked granary also ensured food reserves for a growing settlement's later needs. This was a new ability in human development—planning for the future.

What significant changes occurred from the Paleolithic Age to the Neolithic Age?

People began to farm and move to permanent settlements.

Which accurately describes cultural practices of ancient Kush?

People in Kush built temples and pyramids in the city of Meroë similar to Egyptian monuments.

Which best describes language differences between the Western Roman Empire and the Eastern Roman Empire?

People in the East spoke Greek, while people in the West spoke Latin.

Straight Salary

Straight salary means a person is paid a set amount of money on a regular schedule. Imagine you get hired by a company. When the offer is made, you are told that you will make $40,000 per year. The company won't pay you that amount of money at once. Instead, it is broken up into smaller amounts that are given to you at regular intervals set by the company. Those intervals can vary. You might get paid weekly, every two weeks, or once a month. Straight salary isn't often used for sales positions. Why? It doesn't offer an incentive, or reason, to work harder to make more money. Smaller companies might choose to pay their staff a straight salary because the salespeople do other tasks besides sell. Pros - reliable paychecks - no pressure to exceed sales expectations Cons - no reward for selling more product - no encouragement to exceed expectations

The French and Indian War

The war was an extension of a global conflict between the British and French Empires known as the Seven Years' War. When the war broke out in North America, the French allied with local American Indian tribes to fight the citizens of the 13 British colonies. Great Britain won the war, but accrued large war debts. To pay back these debts, they began to enforce economic policies in the colonies, including taxes. The abrupt end to England's policy of salutary neglect for the colonies led to widespread resentment.

Which accurately describes similarities between feudal Europe and Japan?

The warrior class in both Europe and Japan followed strict moral codes. Samurai followed moral codes regarding respect for elders, whereas European knights followed the rules of chivalry.

scurvy definition

a disease resulting from malnutrition and a lack of vitamin C

pen name definition

a false name used by a writer to disguise his or her identify

deism definition

a form of religion based on natural philosophy in which rational thinking provides a moral code

tabula rasa definition

a fresh starting point free of preconceived influences; Latin for "clean slate"

Islam's Influence

With the establishment of the Ottoman Empire, Islam and Islamic culture evolved and flourished. It influenced many of the societies it would come to neighbor or rule. The Ottoman Empire acquired the administration and bureaucracy of the Byzantine Empire, replacing Eastern Orthodox Christianity with Islam as the guiding religion in government and laws.

Methodism definition

a Protestant religion stressing discipline, converting nonbelievers, aiding the poor, and abolishing slavery

conquistador definition

a Spanish military man on a mission of conquest in the New World

tenet definition

a belief or doctrine that is regarded as a truth

Jean-Jacques Rousseau - France

- 1762: wrote The Social Contract, which stated man was born free, but had become the slaves of political systems which exploited them - designed the social contract theory, where people grant some of their rights to their government. In return, the government protects the interests of its citizens while it performs the daily functions of maintaining the society. Both sides maintain this balance. - believed a democracy could work only if it were small - a large nation with regional differences could not be unified enough to maintain its political center

Adam Smith - Scotland

- 1776: Smith wrote The Wealth of Nations, which analyzed the economies of industrial societies - a nation could ensure its economic success by promoting the welfare of its workers - social philosopher interested in aspects of morality in human behavior - an empiricist who used observation in his studies of how self-interest motivates individuals. - created the concept of the invisible hand, meaning the free market can regulate itself if left alone - developed the idea of the laissez-faire economic doctrine. This holds that an economy runs itself best without government regulation.

Ancient Cultures - India

- Ancient India is considered the birthplace of religion. - It is home to Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism, Jainism, and many other belief systems. - The region has one of the oldest known large cities, Mohenjo Daro. - The Indus River Valley is the site of many early civilizations. - Major empires: Mauryan (326-185 BC) Gupta (320-550 AD) Mughal (c. 1504-1707) British Raj (1858-1947)

Kingdoms of Mesopotamia (Diverse Region)

- Around 3500 BC, individual cities expanded throughout Mesopotamia. - By 3100 BC, about 20 city-states such as Uruk, Ur, Kish, and Nippur became urban centers of trade. - Every city-state had its own patron deity and large stepped pyramids called ziggurats. - Around 2500 BC, the city-states of Sumer unified, establishing the Sumerian Empire. - Around 2334 BC, King Sargon of Akkad came from the north and conquered Sumer.

Kingdoms of Mesopotamia (Land between the Rivers)

- Assyria arose in northern Mesopotamia near the start of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. - The Assyrian civilization developed war campaigns that were brilliant, complex, effective, and deadly. - Many wars were fought over food and access to arable land for farming in the region. - Around 2300 BC, King Sargon I led his armies west and seized lands as far away as Syria and Lebanon. He also conquered the Sumerian Empire to the south. - The Assyrian Empire rose and fell many times throughout its history.

Industrial Revolution around the Globe

- England 1712: Thomas Newcomen invents first steam engine, which is used to pump water out of mines. 1733: John Kay patents the flying shuttle, which improves weaving production. 1764: James Hargreaves invents the spinning jenny and improves the ability to spin thread. 1779: Samuel Crompton invents spinning mule, enabling the large-scale manufacturing of high-quality thread. 1782: James Watt improves the steam engine, which is used to power factories, steamboats, and the first trains. 1785: Edmund Cartwright patents the power loom, improving the ability to make cloth. 1803: Richard Trevithick constructed the first steam railway locomotive, improving on James Watt's designs. 1856: Henry Bessemer invents a method for making steel out of iron, which leads to the growth of cities. - France The Industrial Revolution is delayed compared to its start in England due to the French Revolution and Napoleon Bonaparte's reign. Louis Pasteur invents the food pasteurization process and vaccines for anthrax and rabies. 1830: Barthélmy Thimonnier invents first French sewing machine, and textile workers riot in fear of losing their jobs. - Germany The Industrial Revolution is delayed compared to its start in England because German states were not united. 1784: The first German textile factory is built. Germany uses coal and iron resources to develop heavy industry, such as producing steel. Alfred Krupp establishes an iron factory to make metal castings. 1866: Werner Von Siemens, a pioneer in the telegraph industry, invents a generator that produces electricity known as the electric dynamo. - Japan The Industrial Revolution impacts Japan in the late 1800s during the Meiji Period. Japan's isolation delays the Industrial Revolution compared to England and the United States. 1861: The first ironworks is completed in Nagasaki, the only open seaport during Japan's isolation period. 1885: Mitsubishi Heavy Industry starts construction of Japan's first iron ship. Japan's mining industry transforms its cities during the 1870s to early 1900s. - United States 1794: Eli Whitney patents the cotton gin, which helps southern states increase profits from cotton crops. 1807: Robert Fulton builds the first commercial steamboat, carrying passengers from New York to Albany. 1844: Samuel Morse invents the telegraph, which allows messages to be sent quickly over wire. 1846: Elias Howe invents the sewing machine. 1876: Alexander Graham Bell patents telephone, improving communication. 1879: Thomas Edison files patent for an electric lamp, which enables people to work at night.

Sahelian Kingdoms

- These kingdoms traded gold, ivory, and slaves for salt from Arabs and for horses, cloth, and swords from Europeans and North Africans. - The Kingdom of Ghana was the first major kingdom to arise out of this region. - The Mali Empire arose from the collapse of the Ghana in 1235. - Slaves were used to clear farmlands and grow rice, millets, cotton, peanuts, and other crops. - Trade routes crossed the continent, joining the Atlantic and Indian Oceans. - Songhai was the most powerful of the empires during the last half of the 1400s. - The region came under European control in the 19th century during the Scramble for Africa.

John Locke - England

- a principle philosopher of the Enlightenment - originated classical liberalism - 1689: wrote Two Treatises of Government, which defined the individual rights of free speech, owning property, and religious freedom - all humans were equal and possessed the same natural rights. Therefore, the government should protect the natural rights of the people, and not rule over them. - Locke thought of the natural human mind as a tabula rasa - the morality of right and wrong came from knowledge gained from personal experiences - a legitimate government exists by the consent of those governed—if the state violated this arrangement between itself and its people, the people had the right to rebel

Baron de Montesquieu - France

- launched the classical liberalism movement in France - envisioned a governmental system which limited the excesses of the king and church - 1748: wrote The Spirit of the Laws, which refined Locke's concept of the separation of powers to include the judicial branch with the executive and legislative powers - each branch regulates the others through the process of checks and balances - three basic types of governments: republic, monarchy, and despotism

The Age of Discovery

1415 - Portuguese begin exploring the coast of Africa, rounding its southern tip 1492 - Columbus arrives in the Americas, mistakenly believing he reached Asia 1494 - Treaty of Tordesillas establishes line of demarcation between Spanish and Portuguese claims in the Americas 1497 - John Cabot reaches the eastern coast of North America 1498 - Vasco da Gama arrives in India after rounding Africa 1507 - German mapmaker names the New World "America" after Amerigo Vespucci 1519 - Hernán Cortés lands in Mexico with a troop of conquistadores, burns ship to dissuade desertion 1533 - Francisco Pizarro executed the last Inca emperor 1600 - English merchants establish the East India Company 1602 - Dutch businessmen found the Dutch East India Company

Anne Hutchinson (Puritan)

1634: emigrated to Massachusetts Bay colony led discussion group after church services, sessions became popular John Winthrop, Puritan leader, prejudiced against women having power and considered Hutchinson's actions blasphemous 1637: Hutchinson convicted of heresy, banished from Massachusetts Bay colony fled to Rhode Island settlement with her family While struggles between different religious groups were evident, eventually the New World became a beacon of freedom for the oppressed people of Europe. The United States of America was founded on the principle of religious freedom as written in the First Amendment of the US Constitution: "Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion or prohibiting the free exercise thereof."

From Salutary Neglect to the Intolerable Acts

1651: Navigation Acts - established rules to regulate trade between England and the colonies but were not enforced. 1733: Molasses Act - tax placed on molasses, sugar, and rum from French and Spanish colonies. Intended to benefit trade from British West Indies but was largely unenforced. 1751: Currency Act - unsuccessful attempt to ban colonists from printing their own money to protect the value of British currency. 1754 - 1763: French and Indian War 1764: Sugar Act - intended to strengthen the enforcement of 1733 tax on molasses and refined sugar from non-British sources. 1764: Currency Act - effort to enforce 1751 ban on colonists printing their own currency. 1765: Stamp Act - tax on all printed items including legal documents, newspapers, pamphlets, playing cards, and dice. Repealed a year later due to widespread protests in the 13 colonies. 1765: Quartering Act - required colonial governments to pay for food and housing for British soldiers during peace time; allowed to lapse in 1770. 1766: Declaratory Act - immediately followed the repeal of the Sugar Act; asserted the British government's legal authority over the colonies. 1767: Townshend Acts - created new taxes on dozens of imported goods. Prompted boycotts of British goods in Boston. Many of the acts were eventually repealed. 1770: conflict between rioting colonists and British soldiers known as the Boston Massacre; prompted by colonists' anger over the Quartering and Townshend Acts. 1773: The Tea Act - granted the East India Trading Company a monopoly on importing tea into the colonies; resulted in the Boston Tea Party. 1774: The Intolerable Acts — also known as the Coercive Acts, series of laws intended to assert British control and punish colonial resistance. The acts closed Boston Harbor, replaced local government in Massachusetts with an appointed governor, expanded legal protections for British officials, and revived the Quartering Act.

James Watt - Scotland

1698: Thomas Savery invents the prototype steam engine 1712: modifications to Savery's engine by Thomas Newcomen 1765: Watt's altered design of Newcomen's steam engine increases strength of engine Watt begins successful steam-engine business with manufacturer Matthew Boulton 1777: hires chemist William Murdock uses Murdock's development of coal-gas lighting

Eli Whitney - America

1794: invents the cotton gin hand-cranked machine strips cotton fibers from seeds cleans 50 pounds of cotton a day vs. one pound by hand increases British demand for cotton; revives depressed economy of the American South 1798: introduces the idea of interchangeable parts

Robert Fulton - America

1807: invents paddle-wheel steamboat based on previous prototypes partners with Robert R. Livingston to design steamboat called the Clermont

Samuel F. B. Morse - America

1843: invents a successful telegraph system devises an alphabetic code using short taps (dots) and longer taps (dashes) enables messages to travel wherever wires could be strung

Socialism Characteristics

1845: experience in textile mill leads Friedrich Engels to write The Condition of the Working Class in England Engels's book exposed cruel practice of child labor, dangers of industrial machinery, long hours of labor, and pollution of environment due to capitalism Engels and Karl Marx believed the capitalistic system was flawed because of increasing class divisions Engels and Marx developed political, economic, and social theories under the umbrella term Marxism Marx and Engels created the political philosophy of scientific socialism democratic framework is the same as capitalism state owns and regulates production profit-making narrows gap between privileged and needy, bringing equality government, not free-market competition, maintains economy amount of goods allowed to each person is dictated by deeds

Elias Howe - America

1846: invents the first sewing machine eliminates need for cloth to be stitched together by hand with a needle and thread hundreds of hours no longer needed to stitch tents, sails, and elaborate clothing puts the needle's eye at the pointed end needle pierces the fabric and loops thread around shuttle thread fed from underside copy of Howe's device marketed by rival inventor Isaac Singer fights Singer for years in patent court

Henry Bessemer - England

1856: Sir Henry Bessemer develops Bessemer process, creates steel

Timeline: Greece, Rome, Troy, Carthage, and Phoenicia

4000 BC Carthage/Phoenicia: City of Sidon founded 2450 BC Carthage/Phoenicia: City of Tyre founded 1750 BC Troy: Troy of Homer 1400 BC Greece: Collapse of Minoan Civilization 1250 BC Troy: Trojan War 1100 BC Greece: Greek Dark Ages Carthage/Phoenicia: Phoenician Alphabet 813 BC Carthage/Phoenicia: City of Carthage founded 750 BC Greece: Greek Alphabet Rome: Founding of Rome Carthage/Phoenicia: Founding of colonyon Sicily 600 BC Rome: Etruscan Kings 546 BC Greece: Greeks under Persian rule 509 BC Greece: Democratic reforms Rome: Start of Roman Republic 490 BC Greece: Battle of Marathon 480 BC Greece: Battle of Thermopylae 450 BC Greece: Greeks make peacewith Persians 390 BC Rome: Celts sack Rome 330 BC Greece: Alexander conquers Greece Carthage/Phoenicia: Fall of Tyre to Alexander 264 BC Rome: First Punic War Carthage/Phoenicia: Carthage at war with Rome 216 BC Rome: Second Punic War Carthage/Phoenicia: Hannibal defeats Rome 146 BC Greece: Greece becomes province of Rome 49 BC Rome: Caesar begins Civil War Carthage/Phoenicia: Tyre Roman colony 20 BC Rome: Pax Romana Carthage/Phoenicia: Cleopatra rules Phoenicia AD 312 Rome: Constantine becomes Emperor AD 325 Rome: Council of Nicaea AD 410 Rome: Visigoths sack Rome AD 455 Rome: Vandals sack Rome

Tang (T'ang) Dynasty - AD 618-AD 960

A golden age of commerce and trade begins. Empress Wu takes the throne (first and only time a woman ruled). China extends its control to the Korean Peninsula. Civil service examination is reinstated. Woodblock printing and gunpowder are invented.

Hard Times Create Major Changes

According to the Centers for Disease Control, the plague killed off 60 percent of Europe's population, or about 50 million people. This population drop had a major economic impact on Europe's industries. Labor shortages occurred all over the continent. Workers were able to demand higher pay. When the landlords refused, the resulting peasant revolts further chipped away at the eroding feudal system. The Church's powerlessness in the face of the plague caused people to question their faith in its guidance. Piece by piece, the Middle Ages were falling away. A new era was rising.

England's Religious Conflicts

After the death of King Henry VIII, his successors switched between Protestantism and Catholicism. Elizabeth I proclaimed England a Protestant state. Her successor James I, who ordered the creation of the King James Bible, was a harsh ruler. His pro-Anglican policies angered the Puritans, a group of strict Protestant extremists. Bitter political and religious infighting divided English Protestants into Anglican and Puritan factions, with both sides hating Catholics.

Plowing Ahead: Evolution of Agriculture

Agricultural technology has advanced with the increased demand for food products. Its primary focus was to increase the amount produced without creating extra work. Genetic engineering and chemical manipulation have produced hardier crops. Ironically, malnourishment is still a challenge for many nations in the world.

The Macedonian Empire Is Established

Alexander still had pressing business with Darius. The Macedonians chased Darius's army throughout Persia, defeating them again at Gaugamela in northern Iraq. Darius fled and was killed by his own cousin. The Macedonians continued their march eastward. They reached the upper end of the Indus River Valley in the Hindu Kush. Then the Indian king Porus put up an armed resistance to Alexander's empire-building invasion. During a raging thunderstorm at the River Hydaspes (in modern-day Pakistan), Indian forces mounted on 200 elephants attacked the Macedonian armies. Though Alexander and his men had never seen elephants, they emerged victorious. In an act of cunning diplomacy, Alexander spared the defeated King Porus and appointed him satrap of the conquered region, opening India to Hellenic influence. This marked the easternmost reaches of Alexander's empire. In only 11 years, Alexander the Great had unified Eurasia from Greece all the way to India, an area of over 5 million square miles. In 323 BC, while heading homeward, Alexander stayed at the palace of Nebuchadnezzar II in Babylon. Suddenly, Alexander took ill. He died 12 days later, possibly of malaria, at age 32. His body was borne to his namesake city of Alexandria in Egypt, where it was installed in a lavish tomb.

Babylon's Downfall

Alexander the Great conquered the Persian Empire in 331 BC, gaining Babylon in the process. He intended to restore the city to its fabled glories, but his death in 323 BC effectively ended Babylonia's existence. Alexander's empire erupted into civil war, and Babylon, already falling into ruins, was abandoned. Desert sands swallowed up its traces until only Babylon's legend remained.

Surviving into Modern Times

All of these schools of design would contribute to the historical record of architecture and inspire artists and builders centuries later, even into modern times. These distinctive Gothic-inspired structures would become a visual trademark of many college campuses across the United States. However, the uncluttered lines of the humanist Greco-Roman style set a continuing standard of understated refinement, order, and grace.

Six Dynasties Period - AD 220-AD 589

Also called the Period of Disunion, China is broken into warring kingdoms. Buddhism takes hold in China.

Which options identify effects of the Columbian Exchange?

American Indian populations were decimated by European diseases. Enslaved Africans died on voyages from Africa to the Americas.

James Madison

American Politician 4th President of the United States March 16, 1751 - June 28, 1836 Biography: Too sickly to serve in the Continental Army, Madison began his political career on the board of the Virginia militia during the Revolutionary War. He supported religious freedom and a strong federal government. Considered the Father of the Constitution and the Bill of Rights, Madison also helped establish judicial review and diplomatically secure victory for America in the War of 1812. Madison served as president from 1809 to 1817. Anecdote: The diminutive president married Dolley Payne Todd in 1794. Outspoken and social, the popular Dolley Madison helped her husband win elections and win over enemies. Among many accomplishments, she rescued many national treasures from destruction when British troops invaded Washington, DC.

The Roots of Scientific Thought

Ancient Greek thought greatly influenced the Scientific Revolution. Greek society prized learning and intellectual curiosity. The Greek tradition of using logic and rationalism to solve problems became a core part of the scientific process.

Early American Civilizations

Around 15,000 BC, the Ice Age caused ocean levels to drop 350 feet, leaving dry land where water had been. Paleontologists suspect that early migrating humans were able to cross from Asia using a land bridge that was where the Bering Strait is today. Others believe that ancient peoples from present-day Australia or Japan sailed across the Pacific to the Western Hemisphere. However they got there, the humans of the ancient world somehow reached the other side of the globe. They then populated the Americas, filling the two continents with various cultures.

Writing Systems

As settlements prospered and grew, merchants and artisans needed to keep track of their business transactions. Governments needed to document laws and important events. Priests needed record rituals and scripture. These needs led to the earliest forms of writing. The first attempts at writing date from around 3200 BC. The development of writing marked the official end of the prehistoric age and the beginning of recorded history. The Sumerians developed cuneiform, a system of marks that were more like Chinese writing than an alphabet. Each mark represented a coded word. Cuneiform was extremely difficult to learn and read. Any task involving writing or reading often depended on a person called a scribe, who understood cuneiform. As a result, the scribe typically was a valued member of the community. The scribe wrote by using a stick called a stylus to make marks on flat, soft plates of unbaked clay.

Prince Henry the Navigator

As the 15th century dawned, most Europeans knew nothing of what lay along the western and southern coastlines of Africa. This would change, in part, because of the efforts of Prince Henry the Navigator. Though he was not a navigator himself, Henry helped train and fund generations of explorers. Through them, Henry was able to map many new lands and trade routes. For his efforts, Henry is often credited with launching the Age of Discovery—as well as the transatlantic slave trade.

Babylon Farmers

Babylonian farmers performed in each season. Farms produced sesame, barley, and dates, as well as cattle and sheep. The Babylonians were among the world's first astronomers, mathematicians, metalworkers, sculptors, and epic poets. But many of their early inventions focused on agriculture. Babylonian farmers studied soil cultivation carefully. Cuneiform records show they had developed at least eight different techniques for plowing a field. Babylonians charted the constellations and established a calendar so they could track the planting season more accurately. They created a system of weights and measures for selling crops in the marketplace. They perfected smelting metals from raw ore to make sturdier farming tools and bronze plowshares that made agriculture more efficient. They studied weather patterns to predict the flood season. Despite their care, farmers found that crop yields dropped over time. The soil deposited by the floodwaters could only restore so many nutrients. Luckily, some farmers had noticed that weeds grew quickly in pastures where herds of cows were kept. They began mixing manure into the soil, which replaced the necessary nutrients. The harvests boomed again.

Emergence of Capitalism, Communism, Anarchism and Socialism

Before factories, most manufacturing took place in homes or workshops. The hours of available daylight dictated the working hours. Then, industrialization caused the longstanding routines to change. Mechanization made the employer reconsider the place of the workers in the manufacturing process. The disregard that the employer showed the workers made them reconsider their rights within their society.

Education for a Better Future

Before the Industrial Revolution, education was available only to children of the wealthy. Then, thinkers of the early 19th century considered ways to help the poor rise from their poverty. They theorized that if poor people were educated, they could learn to better themselves. American educator and politician Horace Mann spearheaded the common school movement in 1837. Mann advocated the establishment of public schools on the state level. As the Massachusetts secretary of education, Mann was able to implement his policies. By the 1850s, many states had adopted Mann's policies. In the early 1900s, over 30 states had passed compulsory education legislation. By 1918, every state of the union required children to complete six years of elementary school. The British shared concerns about child labor and educational reform. Parliament passed the Factory Act of 1833. The minimum age for child textile workers was raised to nine. Each child worker was required to have two hours per day of schooling. This was only a start. Finally, the 1870 Education Act required compulsory schooling for the majority of lower-income children. Poor children finally had access to education.

The Advantages of the Salon

Benefits came from holding salons in private homes. Whether a salon was held in a nobleman's grand hall or a middle-class drawing room, the intimate atmosphere stimulated conversation. But the biggest benefit of the salons was that women could freely attend. Eighteenth-century society was rigidly stratified, especially where women were concerned. Intellectual discussions took place in male-only establishments like taverns and coffeehouses. However, the salons presented a perfect excuse for female involvement. It was not unusual to see the lady of the house and her female friends among the guests. Besides intellectual discussions, salons also included music, poetry readings, gambling, and theatrical performances. Philosophes and their enthusiasts brought female friends who joined in the discussion. When they finally had a chance to participate in the conversation, women began to influence fellow intellectuals, government officials, and the well-to-do middle class.

The New World Populates

Between 1620 and 1650, thousands of people boarded ships in England and headed across the Atlantic. Most of them settled in New England. This flood of various peoples formed the foundations of early American culture.

Gothic versus Renaissance

Between the medieval era and the Renaissance, a transitional style of art flourished called Gothic. The Gothic movement demonstrated many of the qualities of medieval art. But it also displayed certain traits that linked it to the Renaissance styles that would follow.

Independence in Latin America

By the early 19th century, the Spanish colonies in Latin America had been living under the harsh rule of a distant king for a while. The Spanish Crown demanded that the colonies send natural resources and riches such as timber, sugar cane, gems, and precious metals to Spain regularly. South America's unforgiving terrain made production of goods and governing the colonies a challenge. The seeds of revolution began to take root.

What empire did the Ottoman Empire defeat that enabled them to control trade routes in the Mediterranean?

Byzantine Empire

Individualism

Catholic Church - encouraged feudal system to keep social roles within a narrow range - treated believers collectively rather than individually Protestant Church - most believed in the free will of individuals in society - taught members to trust their own interpretation of faith

Religious Subject Matter in Art

Catholic Church - long tradition of religious art since Byzantine era - acceptance of religious art depicting nudes during Renaissance - cathedrals and churches elaborately decorated, even ceilings Protestant Church - iconoclastic; art regarded as idolatry by Calvinists especially - former Catholic churches stripped of art and bare walls painted white - English Puritans suppressed "monuments to superstition"

Translation of the Bible

Catholic Church - only approved translations that supported Catholic doctrine - opposed vernacular translations of Bible - advocated burning of Protestant Bibles Protestant Church - preferred vernacular translations of Bible - numerous Bible translations written by Protestant reformers - promoted accessibility to Bible by common folk

Papal versus Secular Authority

Catholic Church - pope regarded as infallible messenger of God's word - papal authority outranked secular authority of kings - local clergy had authority over local Catholics - papal authority established through Saint Peter Protestant Church - disregard of papal authority and divinity - secular authority of leaders respected - accepted scripture as the highest religious authority and expression of God's will - personal morality enough to maintain social order

Which options identify key differences between Catholic and humanist ideologies during the Renaissance?

Catholic ideology believed in a Church-controlled education, while humanists believed in private education. Catholic ideology taught obedience to centralized authority, while humanism supported representative democracy. Catholicism considered the Church the foremost authority on nature, whereas humanism recognized science as a way to understand nature.

Mesoamerica definition

Central America from Mexico to Nicaragua; home of Aztec, Maya, and Olmec cultures

Renaissance Painting

Characters drawn from classical mythology. Artists celebrated the unclothed human body. Figure work was lifelike and realistic. Use of contrapposto, an Italian word meaning "counterpose." Michelangelo's statue of David is an example. Made the characters extremely realistic and lively.

Which identifies the main cause of the English Civil War?

Charles ruled as a tyrant and angered Puritans.

Qin (Ch'in) Dynasty - 221 BC-206 BC

China is named based on the Qin (Ch'in) dynasty. Confucianism becomes state religion. Construction begins on the Great Wall of China. Emperor Qin Shi Huang brings various warring states together under a centralized government. Chinese characters for writing, standardized weights and measures, and coins are all established. Thousands of life-sized terracotta warriors are created for a burial tomb.

East and West after the Empire

China was isolated by great distances and forbidding geography. Its culture was largely unknown to the Western world. The first Europeans to visit China came back with fantastic stories of this marvelous land of dragons. Traders returned from the Far East bearing wonders like silk fabrics, gunpowder, and paper. This was only the first wave of Chinese cultural contributions that would affect the entire world.

Shang Dynasty - 1600 BC-1050 BC

China's first recorded history begins in the Shang Dynasty. Metalsmiths work with bronze. Shang rulers are buried in elaborate tombs.

What best describes the outcome of the Spanish Inquisition?

Christian armies defeated Muslims and took control of Spain.

Which best describes how the Age of Discovery affected religious practices of indigenous peoples in the New World?

Christian missionaries set out to convert the indigenous inhabitants of newly discovered lands.

Which option explains one reason why Europeans sought to convert indigenous people to Christianity?

Christian subjects would be easier to control, thus allowing trade to flourish.

Christopher Columbus (1450-1506)

Christopher Columbus is perhaps the best-known explorer from this era. However, the Portuguese had already been sailing southward, exploring the western coast of Africa for almost a century before Columbus arrived in the New World in 1492. Christopher Columbus' arrival in the New World was a major navigational feat, made possible by Renaissance learning and technological advances. However, it is important to note that Columbus was trying to reach India instead of the America's. Regardless, his discovery opened up the Americas to European colonization - Genoese (Italian) navigator who sailed for Spain - sought a westward passage to Asia - credited with discovering the Americas - named "Admiral of the Ocean Sea" by King Ferdinand of Spain - made four journeys to the Americas

Chinese Inventions

Compass primitive versions invented around fourth century BC made with magnetic lodestone Gunpowder invented around AD 800 a mixture of charcoal, sulfur, and potassium nitrate first used to make firecrackers, fireworks, and signal flares soon used for warfare Crossbow developed in the fourth century BC Ink and paper The Chinese invented ink and paper by the ninth century, which promoted literacy. movable-type press helped promote literacy.

Ming Dynasty - AD 1368-AD 1644

Construction ends on the Great Wall of China. Arts and culture flourish. Power struggles weakened the Empire.

Sui Dynasty - AD 581-AD 618

Construction on the Grand Canal begins.

Rise of the Byzantine Empire

Constantine renamed his new capital after himself. Constantinople, called Istanbul today, sat on a peninsula called the Golden Horn on the Bosporus Strait. In this position, Constantinople straddled the Black Sea to the east and the Mediterranean Sea to the west. This was the crossroads of multiple ancient trade routes, making Constantinople an important trading harbor. Traders from the Far East had to pass through Byzantine territory to reach the Mediterranean, Africa, or the Near East. The Byzantine Empire could control land and sea trade routes. Luxury wares like silk, linens, glassware, jewels, and gold passed through the Bosporus, as did much of Europe's grain supply. Constantine's empire became wealthy from trade revenues. Byzantine architecture drew heavily from such classical Roman advancements as arches and domes. Mosaics appeared as wall murals or flooring. Greek and Roman artisans also had worked in mosaics; however, in Constantinople, mosaics had a distinctive appearance featuring dynamic lines and flat areas of color. One of the greatest achievements in Byzantine architecture was the basilica of Hagia Sophia ("holy wisdom"). For almost 1,000 years, this was the largest church in the world. Its massive dome is an architectural marvel, and the cathedral contains numerous Byzantine mosaics. Constantinople became the hub of civilization throughout the Mediterranean and Near East. Merchants built palace-like homes for themselves. Scholars came from afar to pore through Constantinople's library and to study philosophy, geometry, medicine, and languages. Theodosius II established a university in Constantinople around AD 425. Various cultures mixed and coexisted with minimal friction in this well-regulated society. Constantinople became the hub of civilization throughout the Mediterranean and Near East. Merchants built palace-like homes for themselves. Scholars came from afar to pore through Constantinople's library and to study philosophy, geometry, medicine, and languages. Theodosius II established a university in Constantinople around AD 425. Various cultures mixed and coexisted with minimal friction in this well-regulated society.

The Crusades Influence Culture and Society (Crusades Culture, Crusades Society)

Crusaders returned to Europe with a taste for spices like ginger, pepper, and cumin. These new flavorings altered European cuisine. Also, the Crusades occurred during a time of increasing literacy. The result was an upsurge in written accounts left by the knights who fought these wars. The Arab tradition of documentation encouraged numerous Muslim writers to record their experiences interacting with the infidels. Arab historians wrote extensive chronicles of each Crusade. Similarly, the first crusaders influenced Arab architecture when they rebuilt Jerusalem. Saladin had a citadel built in Cairo that featured a bell tower, a Western feature previously unseen in the Arab Empire. Conversely, European church design began to incorporate spires into its architecture, perhaps inspired by Islamic minarets.

Disagreements Erode Unity between East and West

Differing opinions regarding secular control were another source of conflict. The leader of the Catholic Church was the pope. The West considered the pope's power absolute and above the authority of any secular ruler. His authority included the ability to levy taxes. The Byzantines rejected this faraway pope's authority. Byzantine emperors were autocratic rulers, meaning that they had complete control over government. The emperor was also the head of the Orthodox Church, with the power to appoint a head bishop called a patriarch. Patriarch was the highest ecclesiastical position in the Orthodox Church, though the emperor outranked him. Hostilities increased during the eighth and ninth centuries. The language preferences of the Greek-speaking East and Latin-speaking West became an issue. Additionally, the Western church opposed the use of religious icons, while the Eastern church favored them. Finally, in 1054, the Catholic and Orthodox factions officially split apart. The pope and the emperor mutually excommunicated each other's churches. This separation was called the Great Schism.

After Rome Fell

During Emperor Constantine's rule, the Roman Empire was split into two halves. The Western Roman Empire spoke Latin, followed the Roman Catholic Church, and housed its capital in Rome. The Eastern Roman Empire spoke Greek, worshiped under the Eastern Orthodox Christian Church, and had its capital in Constantinople (today called Istanbul). The eastern half of the empire became known as the Byzantine Empire. The fall of the Western Roman Empire to the Visigoths destabilized the Mediterranean. The Roman Empire had maintained order among its people. Following its fall, the Byzantine Empire was destined to serve as Rome's successor. But the Arab Empire was on the rise too.

The Printing Press

During the Middle Ages, spreading the written word had been a laborious process. The first books were written out by hand on parchment by monks. Each copy of the Bible required around 300 sheepskins for the parchment alone. This made books extremely rare and expensive.

Bonds of Obedience Knights and samurai

During this time, land was power. The more land a noble owned and controlled, the greater his wealth in food and manpower. Woven into this economic structure were certain ethical and moral codes. In Europe, this was known as chivalry. In Japan, it was referred to as bushido. These codes required qualities such as courage, justice, mercy, and courtesy as well as obedience to the noble in the form of honor and loyalty. The established religions of the time reinforced these codes as divinely ordained. medieval European knights followed a code of conduct known as chivalry. In addition to requiring knights to be loyal to their lords and protect their lands and serfs (peasants), chivalry also required them to strictly adhere to the Roman Catholic Church and its teachings and ritual practices. Additionally, in order to be a knight, a man also had to come from a proper lineage and hold enough wealth to support his rank. Some basic requisites of chivalry included the following: - believe in the teachings and directions of the Catholic Church - defend the Catholic Church - defend the weak and poor - love your country - fight bravely - fight infidels and heretics without mercy - tell the truth - be generous - be a champion of right and good versus injustice and evil - respect the honor of women (leading to the term chivalrous) - never refuse a challenge from an equal or turn one's back on a foe Like chivalry, bushido was the code of conduct followed by the Japanese samurai. The primary obligation of the samurai was to his daimyo (Japanese lord). The literal meaning of bushido is "the way of the warrior." The term was not officially used until the 16th century, yet the idea and unwritten rules of bushido date back to the 12th century. Bushido ethics were influenced by Chinese Confucianism and Buddhism. The samurai were required to display obedience to authority while exemplifying virtue to the lower class. The moral code of bushido evolved over time. However, the ideals of military skill and fearlessness in battle always remained. Some basic principles of bushido included these: - live frugally (spending little money) - be honest - show kindness - have honor in all dealings - show filial piety (respect for one's parents) - practice self-discipline - display courage The samurai also believed in a practice known as seppuku. This could happen due to cowardice in battle, being taken prisoner, or getting caught in a dishonest act.

How did the Crusades affect Jewish societies?

England entered the Crusades during the Third Crusade, and crusaders massacred hundreds of Jews in Britain. Christian groups passing through the Rhineland massacred hundreds (perhaps thousands) of Jews on their way to Jerusalem. Crusaders massacred Jews in France when Pope Eugenius III called for the Second Crusade, led by French and German kings.

John Locke

English Philosopher | Physician | Economist August 29, 1632 - October 28, 1704 Biography: While studying medicine, Locke met Anthony Ashley Cooper, Earl of Shaftsbury and Lord Proprietor of the Carolina Colony. Locke conducted business for the earl and wrote the Fundamental Constitutions of Carolina. This document established representative democracy and religious freedom. In 1679, Lord Ashley created the Whig party to stop James II's ascendance to the throne. When James II was crowned, those opposing him were in trouble. Guilty by association, Locke fled to Holland in 1683, where he wrote his most significant work, Two Treatises of Civil Government. It describes people's natural rights and the idea of a social contract between government and citizens. Anecdote: Lord Ashley also hired Locke as his personal physician, and Locke saved his life with a groundbreaking operation to remove a cyst from the earl's liver.

Henry Hudson (1570-1611)

English explorer and navigator made two attempts to find the legendary Northwest Passage to Asia sailed for the Dutch East India Company disappeared after crew mutinied and set Hudson, his son, and supporters adrift

Absolute Monarchies

Europe's early modern age saw the rise of new empires. The imperial rulers who led these mighty states held unimaginable power. An absolute monarch was above any law. Such a tyrant could sentence enemies and friends to death, impose a new religion on everyone in the empire, or forcibly draft an army to conquer another kingdom. An absolute monarch had the power to create or destroy a magnificent state.

Romance language definition

European languages based on Latin, including French, Italian, Portuguese, Romanian, and Spanish

Which accurately describes how spices impacted the Age of Discovery?

European monarchs sought to control the spice trade with Asia to grow their wealth and prosperity.

Gerardus Mercator (1512-1594)

Flemish cartographer, mathematician, astronomer, engraver, and philosopher devised system of latitude and longitude to aid navigation created world globes to show locations of landmasses on spherical surface designed flat map, Mercator projection, in 1569, with land size scaled for navigational use

Amerigo Vespucci (1454-1512)

Florentine (Italian) navigator who sailed for Spain proved that the "New World" was a separate landmass from Africa and Asia also sailed for Portugal, under whose flag he traced the South American coast first recorded European to reach the mouth of the Amazon River North, Central, and South America named after him

The Moors and Their Empire

Following the death of Muhammad in AD 632, Muslim elders appointed members of the Umayyad clan to serve as caliphs, meaning "successors." The clan directed the new religion of Islam under the title of the Umayyad caliphate. The caliphate already controlled Arabia, but the caliph wanted the large territories held by the Byzantines.

Change Comes—but at a Price

For centuries, people had accepted the Church's explanation of the natural world. That changed as scientists questioned these teachings with their gathered evidence. Italian astronomer Galileo Galilei was persecuted for his support of the Copernican heliocentric theory. This challenged Church doctrine. A devout Catholic himself, Galileo simply had agreed with Copernicus's theory based on his own astronomical research. But the pope charged Galileo with heresy. Galileo was convicted and imprisoned in his home, where he died, blind and in poor health, in 1642. The Church's verdict would not be reversed until 1992.

Estates-General definition

France's legislative body until 1789; represented the clergy, nobility, and commoners First Estate - Catholic clergy = Didn't pay taxes Second Estate - wealthy nobility = Didn't pay taxes Third Estate - common people (98% of the French population) = Paid taxes

What event created an opportunity for slaves in Haiti to revolt?

French Revolution

Which identifies the event that overthrew the monarchy of France in 1789?

French Revolution

Galileo vs Church

Galileo Galilei was an Italian mathematician, astronomer, and scientist. He spent 20 years devising a mathematical formula describing the acceleration of falling bodies. Galileo studied the heavens with a telescope. He discovered that the moon had craters. He also observed that Venus had phases like the moon and Jupiter had four moons orbiting around it. The phenomena Galileo described caused him to be tried for heresy in 1533. The inquisition threatened to torture Galileo if he did not recant his acceptance of the Copernican theory. Galileo recanted, and he lived under house arrest for the last decade of his life.

What the Bands Tell Us

Growth bands can tell us the environmental factors that affected a tree during its growing season. A thick growth band demonstrates favorable conditions for a tree during a growing season. A narrow growth band could indicate that drought conditions or other hardships affected the tree during the growing season.

Which correctly identifies an important characteristic of Simón Bolívar?

He encouraged revolutions against Spanish imperialism in South America.

Which best describes accomplishments of Ferdinand Magellan?

He sailed around South America before sailing across the Pacific Ocean to the Philippines.

Which options accurately describe key events of Peter the Great's reign?

He successfully created a new Russian Senate and created the Table of Ranks to classify military members. He abolished Russia's existing government, waged war with Sweden, and westernized Russia's culture.

Which most accurately describes some accomplishments of Vasco da Gama's exploration efforts?

He successfully sailed from Lisbon, Portugal, around Africa to reach India.

What were the occupation and beliefs of Petrarch?

He was an Italian scholar and humanist who opposed hereditary monarchies in favor of a philosopher-king.

What sparked the beginning of the Thirty Years' War?

Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand II issued a decree that everyone in Bohemia must be Catholic, and his officials began closing down Protestant churches.

Hominidae definition

Hominidae is the scientific term for the family of primates. It includes orangutans, chimpanzees, bonobos, gorillas, and humans. The scientists who study ancient human history are called paleontologists. They use the word hominid to refer to early social ape-like primates and early humans. Another term, prehistoric, means the period that occurred before recorded history. The era called the Stone Age is separated into two periods: the Paleolithic era (the Old Stone Age) and the Neolithic era (the New Stone Age).

Reconquering Spain

In 1212, Castilian king Alfonso VIII appealed to Pope Innocent III to declare a crusade to help the Reconquista. Zealous crusaders poured into Spain and captured the Muslim capital of Cordoba in 1236. Over the next decade, the Moors retreated to remote mountains in Granada at the southern tip of Iberia.

Walter Raleigh

In 1585, Walter Raleigh financed a colony in North America and named the land Virginia, in honor of Elizabeth, the virgin queen. Colonists sent by Raleigh built a settlement on Roanoke Island, in present-day North Carolina, and returned to England with potatoes and tobacco. However, the colony struggled. When Sir Francis Drake sailed to the settlement to bring supplies, the colonists instead returned to England with him. Still, Raleigh sent a second settlement effort to the same area, which became the infamous Lost Colony of Roanoke; no trace of the colonists has ever been found.

Ancient and Classical Rome

In 753 BC, Rome was founded in a region of central Italy ruled by the Etruscans. The Etruscans enjoyed an advanced culture patterned on Greek civilization. By 509 BC, Romans overthrew the Etruscan king and declared Rome a republic. As the Romans developed their culture, they also incorporated Greek ideas into their own models of architecture, law, and government.

Plato's Oligarchy

In Plato's oligarchy, much like in a timocracy, a government is ruled by a small group. This type of government has sometimes been called a plutocracy. Its leaders are wealthy property owners. They often use their power to serve their own purposes and gain even greater wealth. Their corruption eventually leads to increased poverty for other citizens. The best examples of oligarchies come from the merchant city-states of Italy during the Renaissance. These cities were ruled by small families that made fortunes by importing goods from Asia. For instance, the Medici family became so powerful that it controlled the banking system in Florence, influenced the tax code, and married into royalty. The Medicis actually held the power to have a family member elected as pope.

Origins of the Plague

In the 1300s, an unwelcome visitor arrived in China. It was the bubonic plague, commonly referred to as the Black Death due to the color that the infected buboes (swelling lymph nodes) turned the skin. Most medical historians believe that the plague, Yersinia pestis, traveled by means of fleas living in the fur of rats. An outbreak of the plague occurred in the Yuan Empire in AD 1331. Over the next 50 years, the plague (and a famine outbreak) would take another 25 million Chinese lives. From China, the plague spread via trade routes to all corners of Asia, reaching Russia, Korea, Vietnam, Iran, and India. The bubonic plague significantly affected Mongol rule. The massive death tolls weakened the Mongol government, economy, labor force, and military. This contributed to the collapse of the empire.

William Tyndale's Bible

In the early 1500s, William Tyndale produced an English-language translation of the Bible. Tyndale Bibles were printed by the thousands in Germany and smuggled into England. However, public access to the scriptures threatened King Henry VIII. Henry ordered Tyndale's Bible denounced from every pulpit in England. The Tyndale Bible was banned. Confiscated copies were burned. This controversial period created a boom in printing. Underground groups with access to printing presses printed even more copies of Tyndale's Bible. Henry had Tyndale executed for heresy. Ironically, the king later made an English translation of the Bible the official book of the Church of England—which owed a vast debt to Tyndale's work. Thousands of copies were printed. Over 90 percent of the King James Bible, still used by modern-day Christians, was actually translated by Tyndale.

Francis Drake

In the mid 1500's, Francis Drake began sailing for England. He had first sailed with his cousin to Africa, where they worked as illegal slave traders. They sailed from Africa to New Spain (present-day Mexico and other parts of North and South America) to sell their slaves to the colonists, an act strictly forbidden by Spanish law. In 1568, the Spanish captured them, and Drake resented the Spanish since that time. By 1572, Queen Elizabeth made Drake a privateer, authorized to seize vessels for a government. Drake raided Spanish vessels loaded with plunder from the New World. Elizabeth's treasury was soon filled with stolen Spanish gold.

The Golden Age of India

India's first empire emerged in the fourth century BC under the reign of Chandragupta Maurya (340-297 BC). After successful military conquest, Chandragupta was able to unify large parts of India by creating a strong central government, a strict law code, and over over 1,000 miles of road to help connect his new empire. But perhaps the most important change brought to India during the Mauryan Empire came from Chandragupta's grandson, Asoka. After brutally conquering the region of Kalinga, Asoka felt remorse over the destruction. Giving up wars of conquest, he converted to Buddhism and sponsored the religion throughout northern India. His laws, inspired by Buddhist beliefs in non-violence, were inscribed on pillars throughout the country. Although the Mauryan Empire collapsed due to foreign invasions and weak rulers after Asoka, it helped establish the idea of a single, unified India which would influence future Indian history. After the collapse of the Mauryan Empire, another empire rose to power nearly five centuries later. From AD 320 to 550, the Gupta Empire ruled the northern half of India. Although not as politically powerful or centralized as the Mauryan Empire, the Gupta reign is known as a high point in Indian cultural achievement, sometimes called its Golden Age. Many intricate and beautiful Hindu temples were constructed during this period, and Hindu and Buddhist art flourished. Indian merchants became key traders in the Indian Ocean and along the Silk Road.

Changing Powers Lead to Cultural Advances

Inland to the east, the Songhai Empire came into its power around AD 1400. Sonni Ali, also known as Sunni Ali Ber, was a ruthless ruler in some ways, but his empire flourished. The Songhai created some of the first irrigation networks, which benefited farmers. Eventually, the Songhai Empire spanned the middle of Africa from Mali to Sudan. When Askia Muhammad rose to the throne, he proclaimed Islam the religion of all classes of society. The Koran was taught in schools along with law, astronomy, medicine, and philosophy. The Songhai Empire reached a great height of scholarship and intellectual thought. In Mali, literacy was nearly universal among the population. African cultures produced remarkable achievements. The Dogon people of Mali were ancient astronomers. Hundreds of years ago, they knew about Jupiter's moons, Saturn's rings, and that the so-called "Dog Star," Sirius, was a binary star system. In the 14th century AD, the Muslim explorer Ibn Battuta chronicled his 75,000-mile travels through Africa and Asia. Other African advances included medicine and herbal remedies, such as the Egyptians using willow-tree bark as a source of salicylic acid, an important ingredient in aspirin. Those cultures that never gave up the hunter-gatherer lifestyle, such as the Bushmen and Hottentots of southern Africa, did not progress in technological or intellectual advancement. The great accomplishments of the African empires happened as an indirect result of their advanced agricultural traditions, which provided a firm foundation for advancement and expansion.

Hebrews

Israel, the homeland of Judaism, stands on the geographic pivot point between three continents. Throughout Western history, the rulers of Asia, Africa, and Europe often have coveted this strategic strip of land. Israel's location has affected the course of its history and that of its people, the Hebrews. Over the centuries, mighty empires have invaded the Near East. Again and again, the Hebrew people have been in the path of mighty armies bent on conquest. The struggles that the Hebrews endured have defined them as a people.

Portraits of Religion Facts about Judaism, Christianity, and Islam

Judaism Founder: Abraham (born c. 1800 BC) Symbols: Star of David Nature of God: Monotheistic - in Hebrew God is called "Yahweh." Holy book(s): Tanakh - called the "Old Testament" by Christians. It contains the Torah (first five books of the Old Testament), writings of prophets, and other books Way to salvation: by obeying God (e.g., Ten Commandments), good works, and the grace of God Practices: observing the Sabbath; praying; bar mitzvah (for boys) and bat mitzvah (for girls) is a coming of age ceremony Approximate number of followers: 15 million Christianity Founder: Jesus Christ (born c. 4 BC) Symbols: cross Nature of God: Monotheistic - one God who exists in three persons (Holy Trinity): Father, Son, and Holy Spirit Holy book(s): Bible - containing the Old Testament and New Testament; New Testament - contains the four gospels, which recount the words and deeds of Jesus; Letters from Paul, Peter, and other apostles of Jesus Way to salvation: by placing faith in the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus; based on God's grace Practices: baptism; Holy Communion; prayer Approximate number of followers: 2.3 billion Islam Founder: Muhammad (born AD 570) Symbols: crescent moon and star Nature of God: Monotheistic - in Arabic God is called "Allah." Holy book(s): Koran - holy book containing the message Muhammad claimed to receive from God; Sunnah - deeds, sayings, and teachings of Muhammad that serve as an example for the Muslim way of life Way to salvation: by doing good works and obeying God; by observing the Five Pillars of Islam Practices: Five Pillars of Islam, which include a statement of belief, giving to the poor, praying five times a day, fasting during Ramadan, and a pilgrimage to Mecca The approximate number of followers: 1.8 billion

Byzantine Empire

Language Greek was the official language. Religion Orthodox Christianity was the state religion. Constantinople The Byzantine Empire was also known as the Eastern Roman Empire, and Constantinople became a second Rome. Islamic Empire The Byzantine Empire had regular interaction with the growing Islamic Empire.

Advanced Cities

Larger settlements created unique problems. Solving these problems sometimes led to advances. For instance, the increasing size of cities created drainage, traffic, and sanitation issues. The solutions resulted in advances like paved gutters and roadways and underground sewer systems.

Bantu Culture (c. AD 1200 AD-c. AD 1600)

Location: Mount Kilimanjaro region Population: unknown; more than 10,000 in and around the Great Zimbabwe complex Government: god-king presiding over tribal chieftains who oversaw familial clans Religion: polytheistic; animistic; deities based on nature Agriculture: grew yams, beans, okra, onions, and bananas plus extensive cultivation of millet and sorghums due to drought; oceans and rivers provided fish; livestock included goats and cattle; successful agriculture may have brought about the expansion of the Bantu culture throughout Africa Highlights: The Bantu culture of Central Africa was noted for its subsistence agriculture, which included foraging indigenous yams and grains. It was also a herding culture. Some scholars believe that the Bantu culture first discovered the coffee bean along the foothills of Mount Kilimanjaro.

Phoenicia (c. 1200 BC-332 BC)

Location: Near East coast of the Mediterranean Population: unknown; 100,000 residents in city of Tyre Government: monarchy with dynastic king and council of elders; republic, 605 BC-562 BC Religion: pantheon based on Greek deities Agriculture: - grew wheat, fruits, olives, grapes for wine, sesame - not much land for farming - aquaculture farming of murex (type of sea snail) for dye Highlights: Phoenicia was known throughout the ancient world for its bright purple dye made from certain shellfish. Phoenicians cultivated these crustaceans in order to command the highest prices for the dye.

Inca Culture (c. AD 1400-AD 1532)

Location: along Pacific coast of South America and in Andes Mountains Population: around 12 million Government: hierarchy of god-king, nobles, common people Religion: polytheistic; deities based on nature; human sacrifice rarely practiced Agriculture: extensive cultivation of 70 kinds of crops in high-altitude terraced fields; maintained storehouses with up to seven years' worth of food Highlights: Incan agriculture was adapted to the mountainous and rocky terrain of the Andean highlands. Sweet potatoes and guinea pigs were special dishes for the Inca.

Who wrote the famous political work The Prince?

Machiavelli

Factions Emerge

Madero was elected by a landslide as the new president in 1911. However, while he had honest intentions, much of the government was corrupt. Madero and his revolutionary leaders only agreed on two things: The end of the Diaz dictatorship, which had been accomplished, and returning the nation's prosperity to the hands of the people. Revolutionary leaders removed foreigners from the country and gave their land to the poor. Shared beliefs were not enough to unite the leaders. Villa, Zapata, and Orozco turned against Madero when reforms did not come quickly enough. Each leader mobilized his forces to fight for the lower classes from which he had emerged. The internal fighting did not help the revolution. In 1913, Victoriano Huerta led a coup d'etat against Madero, who was deposed and assassinated.

A War, Not a Revolt

Madero was released on bond and fled to Texas, where he wrote a document that called for the elections to be nullified and declared him the rightful president of Mexico. He also called for an armed uprising. His call was taken up by several local leaders: Pascual Orozco, Francisco "Pancho" Villa, and Emiliano Zapata. The Mexican Revolution—Madero's quest was to create a new government, a new nation, and a new constitution—became a civil war rather than a revolt.

Southeast Asia

Major crops: bananas, rice, yams Animals: chickens, oxen, pigs

Southwest Asia

Major crops: barley, olives, peas, wheat Animals raised: cows, goats, sheep Exported: southwest into Africa, northwest into Europe, northeast into central Asia, east into East Asia and Japan.

Dissent in Latin America

Many people in Latin America had become dissatisfied with the dictatorial rule of the Spanish Crown thousands of miles away. The ideas of the Enlightenment—the notions of self-rule, natural law, and the intrinsic worth of each individual—trickled down into Central and South America. People wanted to live their lives their way. Anger toward the monarchy grew, but they needed a leader to unite these colonies in a single front and direct their aggression toward the Spanish Crown. That individual was Simón Bolívar. Bolívar was educated in Europe and exposed to a multitude of Enlightenment ideas. An ardent fan of the American Revolution, Bolívar became a brilliant diplomat and a genius at political strategy.

Cato the Elder Biography

Military Leader | Politician | Author234 BC - 149 BC Marcus Porcius Cato, known as Cato the Elder to distinguish him from his also-famous grandson, was born into a plebian family. However, thanks to the democratic nature of government during the Roman Republic—as well as his own dedication and ideas—he rose to the highest government office. Marcus Porcius Cato was raised in a plebian agricultural family and began military service at 17. In the First Punic War, he served under Scipio Africanus in the legion that killed Hannibal. The Carthaginians kept coming. To inspire Roman troops, Cato ended a rallying speech with "Carthago delenda est!" ("Carthage must be destroyed!"). He used the motto in political speeches as he moved up to the highest post of consul. Ironically, in Cato's political career, his greatest adversary was Scipio Africanus. Cato championed Roman values and is often called Cato the Censor (responsible for public morality). Anecdote: Besides politics, Cato wrote about medicine, history, and farming. He also created Rome's first encyclopedia. Yet he once said, "After I'm dead, I'd rather have people ask why I have no monument than why I have one."

Machiavelli

Niccolò di Bernardo dei Machiavelli was an Italian philosopher and writer. He also served as a government official in the Florentine Republic. Machiavelli wrote about history, diplomacy, philosophy, humanism, and politics. He is considered by many scholars to be the founder of modern political science. He wrote his seminal work, The Prince, after the Medicis removed him from his political post and exiled him from Florence. In The Prince, Machiavelli focuses on the possibility of a new kind of prince rather than the ones provided by heredity. Basically, Machiavelli supported the idea that the ends justify the means. He believed that "The Prince," or ruler, needed to separate his private morality from his public morality. Essentially, the Prince must be willing to commit publicly immoral acts, such as killing or being deceitful, to attain his political goals. Recently, scholars have begun to reexamine the writing of Machiavelli, especially The Prince, in a different light. Some scholars have pointed out the satire in the text. They claim that The Prince was not really a "how-to" text on government and politics. Rather, it was a skewering of human frailty and a means of pointing out the folly of expecting humans to perfect any form of government.

North Africa and the Holy Land

North Africa North Africa originally had separate caliphates that eventually became united in the Ottoman Empire. Jerusalem Control of Jerusalem was a point of tension between nations, not only for religious reasons, but for economic and political reasons as well. Global Conflict The region of North Africa and the Holy Land continues to be an area of global conflict, especially after the collapse of the Ottoman Empire after World War I. Trade Routes Access to trade routes and natural resources continues to make this region a highly valued part of the world.

The New World Map

North America and South America The continents of North America and South America were unknown at the time. They were discovered as a consequence of the search for a passage to Asia. Asia Sea routes to Asia were finally established. In addition, the Americas proved to be just as rich in resources. Sailing Navigators believed that sailing far enough west would bring them to the East. Natural Resources European nations sought easier access to Asia for its natural resources, primarily spices.

Native Tribes of North America Map

Northeast Northeastern tribes such as the Iroquois Confederation lived in forests and cut down trees to build lodgings and plant crops. Southeast Many Southeastern tribes, including the Adena, Hopewell, and Mississippian, were mound builders. Great Basin and Northwest The tribes of the Great Basin and Northwest included nomadic hunters (Shoshones) and those who combined farming and hunting (Nez Perce). Great Plains Most Plains tribes were hunters and gatherers. Bison herds were important for their survival. They included the Sioux, Comanche, and Blackfoot. Southwest The Mogollon, Hohokam, and Anasazi were Southwestern tribes. Typically these tribes lived in small farming communities.

Mob Violence Leads to the Great Fear

On July 14, a large mob attacked the Bastille, a fortress-like prison. The fall of the Bastille brought a period called the Great Fear. Uprisings flared up throughout France. On October 6, 1789, a mob invaded Versailles. They slew the guards, seized Louis and Marie Antoinette, and marched the overthrown monarchy back to Paris. The National Constituent Assembly drafted "the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen." This document laid out the assembly's goals of equality, freedom of the press, free speech, and representative government—all principles grounded in Enlightenment philosophy.

Commercial and Political Roots of Exploration

Once Columbus had reached the Americas, claiming the land for the Spanish crown, other European kingdoms realized that the race was on. It became apparent that controlling the prices and quantities of available spices and other natural resources in high demand in European markets was not enough. It was also necessary to control the lands they came from.

Schism of 1054

One power struggle that the Church fought ended with the East-West Schism of 1054. Theological disputes often formed between the Roman, Catholic branch of Christianity in the West and the Byzantine, Orthodox branch in the East. Both the leaders of the western church, known as popes, and the eastern leaders, or patriarchs, claimed they were the true leaders of Christianity in all of Europe. The churches also disagreed on religious doctrine including the procession of the Holy Trinity, clerical celibacy, and the use of unleavened bread in the Eucharist. The final split occurred when Pope Leo IX excommunicated Patriarch Michael Cerularius and his followers. Excommunication was a possible punishment for individuals who committed offenses against the Church, such as those labeled heretics. In retaliation, the patriarch excommunicated the pope, resulting in the official breakup of the two churches.

Autonomy

People who have autonomy have the power to control their own actions. Giving salespeople control of their schedules and priorities can be important motivators. It shows that the company trusts them to succeed. Lou and Darshana know how important this is, so they allow Tyrell to set his own schedule and work from home two days a week.

Which most accurately describes the involvement of Pericles in the political system of ancient Athens and its influence on later civilizations?

Pericles helped Athens move to a direct democracy government, which later influenced Western European nations.

Which accurately describes life events of explorer Francisco Pizarro?

Pizarro led expeditions to Peru in South America and conquered the Incan Empire.

Plato's Timocracy

Plato believed that a timocracy would arise out of an aristocracy if individuals who had been selected to serve were not of the best quality. New rulers are then selected out of the auxiliary class, the military. These leaders are soldiers, but they do not seek to protect the other classes. They are expected to provide their own weapons and equipment as well as to produce. Everyone in the society is required to produce. The only known implementation of a timocracy was in Athens under the Solonian Constitution. The government was based on the amount of crops that could be generated in a year. The highest-producing citizens were selected as leaders and named generals in the army. This system also had a progressive tax. Those who were wealthier paid more than the laborers at the lower end.

Plato's Aristocracy

Plato's aristocracy was based on the idea of rule by philosopher-kings, selfless individuals who have no interest in monetary gain and rely on the producers to provide life's necessities. Rulers in this type of government succeed to power through a rigorous education. The closest real-world example of Plato's aristocracy might be a meritocracy, or government of leaders selected through testing. This idea predates Plato. It was first suggested by Confucius and became implemented during the Han Dynasty in China. Other countries eventually adopted civil service examinations. The United States began this practice in 1871 for some non-elected positions.

Second Crusade (AD 1147-1149)

Pope Eugenius III calls Second Crusade, led by French and German kings; crusaders massacre Jews in France. Crusaders decide to take Muslim stronghold of Damascus in Syria. Muslims crush crusaders in Damascus, ending Second Crusade. Displeasure grows in some European kingdoms against papacy in Rome for its call for Crusades.

Fifth Crusade (AD 1216-1221)

Pope Innocent III calls for Crusade against Muslim-held Egypt instead of Jerusalem. Bickering nobles initially refuse call, until Pope Innocent III offers indulgences. Poor planning and insufficient provisions weaken crusaders. Crusaders surrender to Saladin's nephew, Al-Malik al Kamil.

Which best describes the purpose and outcomes of the First Crusade?

Pope Urban II called for crusaders to protect pilgrims and defend the Holy Land, resulting in Europeans recapturing Jerusalem.

First Crusade (AD 1096-1099

Pope Urban II calls for crusaders to protect pilgrims and defend Holy Land. Christian groups passing through Rhineland massacre hundreds (perhaps thousands) of Jews on their way. Westerners win only successful Crusade and leave "crusader states" to govern captured land, including Antioch and Jerusalem. Papacy exploits practice of indulgences—acts for the forgiveness of sins—to recruit warriors to fight in Crusade, promising forgiveness of all sins for military service.

Which nation was the first to begin exploring the coast of Africa?

Portugal

Ferdinand Magellan (1480-1521)

Portuguese explorer who sailed for Spain first European to circumnavigate the world commanded fleet of five vessels to find a better route to the Spice Islands killed in the Philippines by natives

Caravel

Portuguese were the first to utilize the caravel design extensively for open water exploration design borrowed from Muslim ships used throughout the Mediterranean allowed for ships to weather rough seas was foundation of other ship designs, such as the Spanish galleon

Renaissance: Petrarch and Machiavelli

Powerful city-states became the Renaissance norm in 14th century Italy. From within this structure, two poets and philosophers come to the forefront in the development of government. They were Francesco Petrarch and Niccolò Machiavelli. During their own time, their work was widely read and their ideas had far-reaching impact on the lives of Europeans. Both men are considered great examples of humanist philosophers and writers. Their works helped to change society's popular perspective. It was centered on the Church before; now, it was centered on the individual.

Geologic Ages - Evidence of Life

Precambrian - 600 million years ago - evidence of simplest life: bacteria and eukaryotes Paleozoic - 250 million years ago - algae, early invertebrates, fish, first reptiles, and seed plants Mesozoic - 65 million years ago - age of the dinosaurs Cenozoic - present day - extinction of dinosaurs, rise of mammals

Protestant States

Protestant and Catholic Protestant and Catholic European states were primarily divided by geography, with Protestants in the northern region and Catholics in the southern region. Location Protestant and Catholic concentrations continue today in the same regions. The Council of Trent The Council of Trent provided for religious toleration for Protestants. German states States in Northern Europe were part of the Holy Roman Empire during the Reformation.

How did the publication of Martin Luther's 95 Theses affect European understanding of government?

Protestant churches established local governing bodies or councils. Martin Luther's proclamation of forming a relationship with God led to the petition of monarchs and to self-governance.

Which groups did Queen Isabella and King Ferdinand of Spain target and persecute during the Spanish Inquisition?

Protestants Muslims Jews

Which reasons accurately reflect why Protestants left England for the New World?

Puritans settled in Massachusetts and parts of New England in search of religious liberties. Pilgrims landed and settled in Massachusetts Bay to practice their religion without persecution.

Islamic Empire

Reconquista It was a target of the Reconquista in Spain. Traditions The Islamic world safeguarded the intellectual traditions of Europe during the medieval era. Great Influence The Islamic Empire greatly influenced the European Renaissance. Shared Religion This empire was bound by shared religion, rather than language or government. Islamic Expansion The Islamic Empire expanded through warfare and trade.

The Cultural Effects of Christianity

Regional languages began to form. Several of the main languages were based on Latin. These were the Romance languages that are still spoken today: French, Italian, Portuguese, Romanian, and Spanish. Although languages were changing, the one common trait that these scattered cultures shared became their Christian religion. The number of followers and the power of the Christian religions and church began to grow. When Rome fell in the fifth century, it was the Christian church that took the place of the former empire as a mainstay of European civilization. During what is known as the Dark Ages, people were looking for structure. The Catholic Church was founded and rose as the sole authority of morality and knowledge. For centuries, the Church held control over education in Western civilization. As a result, its ideas and understanding of the world and the role humanity played in it became the dominant philosophy and perspective of European society. The establishment and practice of feudalism as an economic, political, and social system worked hand-in-hand with the Church.

What was a prevailing characteristic of Renaissance architecture?

Renaissance architecture followed classical Greco-Roman design.

The English Renaissance

Renaissance influences were apparent in English drama, especially the works of Shakespeare and Marlowe. England was the last part of Europe to experience the Renaissance. Renaissance ideals influenced a resurgence in individual rights and representative government in England.

Which best describes René Descartes's contribution to the scientific method?

René Descartes was influential in the development of the scientific method, in which he relied on mathematics and logic rather than ancient teachings.

Northern / New England Colonies

Rhode Island, Connecticut, Massachusetts, and New Hampshire Settled mostly by families Many New Englanders grew their own food and made their own clothing Farming, Shipbuilding, manufacturing, and fishing

Notable Differences between the Roman Catholic Church and Protestants

Roman Catholic Church - pope regarded as messenger of God's word - opposed vernacular translations of Bible - literacy and Bible interpretation limited to monks and clergy - approved religious art depicting Bible and saints - followed seven sacraments - saints are object of worship - believe in transubstantiation of Eucharist (conversion of bread/wine to body/blood of Christ) - migrated to New World; established French, Spanish missions Protestant Church - disregarded pope's authority - preferred vernacular translations of Bible - literacy promoted; Bible open to personal interpretation - some sects did not approve religious artwork (Calvinists) - fewer sacraments followed - humans are unable to become divine - some Protestants do not believe in transubstantiation of Eucharist (conversion of bread/wine to body/blood of Christ) - migrated to New World to avoid persecution; established many of the original 13 colonies

Hispaniola

Saint-Domingue was the name of a colony founded on the island of Hispaniola. This colony occupied the western third of the island. The island was primarily populated by the Carib tribe of American Indians. The Treaty of Ryswick (1697) divided the island between the French and the Spanish.

Which ruler of the Arab Empire recaptured Jerusalem during the Crusades and negotiated a treaty with King Richard Lionheart of England?

Saladin

Which accurately describes 19th-century revolutions in Latin America?

Simón Bolívar mounted a revolution against Spain, gaining freedom for Venezuela, Ecuador, Bolivia, Peru, and Colombia.

Social and Cultural Influences

Social and Cultural Influences While the main purpose of the Dutch East India Company was to make money, Europeans believed that it was also their duty to spread Christianity. The ships of the VOC often carried missionaries and helped to resupply their missions in remote areas of Asia. The Dutch East India Company also played a vital role in spreading technology, Western education, and medical supplies throughout Asia. The company's leaders and the government believed that spreading Western culture to other parts of the world would civilize the indigenous people of Asia.

Where did Admiral Zheng He explore and establish trade routes?

Southeast Asia along the Indian Ocean

The Reconquista

Spain United The majority of Spain was united under King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella. Expulsion of Muslims and Jews In addition to Muslims, the Reconquista also drove out the majority of Jews from the Iberian Peninsula. Moorish Influence Moorish influence from centuries of occupation is still present in Spain.

Which best describes how Sparta's culture influenced the city-state's government?

Sparta was a society based on being prepared for war, and its government was also based on this concept.

Islamic World

Spread of Islam Islam spread around the old trade routes of the Mediterranean and Southwest Asian regions. Religion Religion informed and influenced government, and it united diverse peoples with a shared religion and language. Arabic The majority of Muslims read and spoke Arabic as part of their religious beliefs. Trade Routes The Islamic Empire controlled many of the vital overland trade routes.

Shifting Borders of Islam

Spread of Islam Islam spread with the use of trade routes. Church and State There was no separation of church and state. Political Islam quickly became the political force in this region.

Gothic Sculpture

Statues take long, narrow forms. Figures are elongated and the folds of their sculpted garments were hard-edged and angular. Statues are meant to augment architecture in an ornate way. Stern-looking saints and grimacing creatures reminded churchgoers of the traditions and doctrines of the Catholic religion.

Politicized Religion Breeds Discontent

Such a far-reaching network of churches required a huge bureaucracy to maintain its day-to-day operations. The Church possessed its own law, called canon law, which established rules, regulations, and a binding organizational structure. The Catholic Church was not simply a religion, but an institution driving the way of life for serfs, knights, nobles, and the clergy.

Huldrych Zwingli

Swiss theologian, pastor, and humanist philosopher like Wycliffe, rejected the principle of transubstantiation like Luther, believed in the supreme authority of the Bible rather than the clergy

From Temujin to Genghis Khan

Temujin's warlord father Yesugei was a khan, or leader. When Temujin was nine, his father was assassinated by an enemy clan, and his own clan abandoned him and his family to avoid having to care for them. But by the time he was 20, Temujin was respected as a fierce warrior. He gathered followers and convinced the bickering tribesmen to cast aside their differences and unite for their common benefit. In 1206, a tribal council declared him the Great Khan of the Mongols. Temujin became Genghis Khan. Soon the Great Khan's mounted hordes, up to 80,000 strong, raged across Asia.

Legacy of Gutenberg's Invention

Thanks to the printing press, the widespread dissemination of information became possible. This enabled the changes of the Renaissance and Reformation to occur. With many people having access to knowledge, the workings of the world became far less secret. The new concepts of religion and politics spread throughout Western culture, along with scientific thought. The printing press was taking Europe—and the rest of the world—in a new direction.

Catholic & Protestant Politics

The 16th century was an era of social upheaval and religious reform. The differences between the provocative beliefs of Protestants and the traditions of the Catholic Church were numerous. They pervaded every aspect of religion and life in general. Yet they both remained factions of Christianity and shared certain fundamental ideals.

Origins of England's Textile and Mining Industries

The 18th century was a time of progress and extreme changes. The First Industrial Revolution brought a world of mechanical wonders that seemed unlimited. Scientists adapted scientific principles to create machinery capable of improving life. Each discovery and invention led to greater advances. Major industrial advances were on the rise in Britain. But the progress brought by industrialization also would have repercussions.

From Renaissance to Discovery

The Age of Discovery was a time in human history in which people, primarily in Europe, began voyaging across the seas. They left the safe shores of home and struck out to find new places.

The Shifting Balance of Power (Byzantine Empire)

The Byzantine Empire began as the eastern half of the old Roman Empire. By AD 550, Byzantium had expanded to include much of Rome's Mediterranean territories and millions of inhabitants. The geography of the Byzantine Empire provided significant protection from external attack. From AD 527 to 565, Justinian I ruled the Byzantine Empire. During his reign, the empire encompassed most of the land around the Mediterranean Sea. He conquered lands throughout Northern Africa and some of the old Western Roman Empire. Under his rule, magnificent monuments were built. Most notable is the Hagia Sophia church in present-day Istanbul, which at the time was the largest church in the world. During the latter portion of Justinian I's rule, the Byzantine Empire began to spread too far to be managed well, and the economy suffered. The Byzantine Empire was the largest state in Europe, but war had left it poor. Citizens were taxed heavily to make up for this. These things weakened the Byzantine Empire, as did the rise of the Arab Empire. In the early seventh century, scattered desert kingdoms united under the new religion of Islam. They established the Arab Empire and began an agenda of conquest. A century after its founding, the Arab Empire had conquered the formidable Persian Empire. The Arab forces took Byzantine territories throughout the Middle East and Northern Africa, including its most prosperous territories: Syria and Egypt. Arab armies attacked Constantinople in AD 674. After a siege lasting four years, Constantinople's massive stone walls still held firm. But 50 years later, the Byzantine Empire had shrank to less than half its size. Most of its former territories were now under Muslim control. The empire consisted of two-thirds of Anatolia, part of the Balkans, and a few small colonies scattered about the Mediterranean region. At this time, the Arab Empire covered 5 million square miles of territory—more land than Rome at its height. The Abbasid dynasty maintained control of these occupied territories, which were supervised by military commanders called emirs. The emirs were under the authority of the caliph in Baghdad, but geography allowed them a great degree of autonomy over their regions. The Arab Empire was both a political and religious entity. When Muslims captured a region, they did not simply declare themselves its new masters and move on. The conquered culture was expected to conform to Muslim values and customs. With few exceptions, the conquerors forced the populace to convert to Islam.

One Empire Ends as Another Rises

The Byzantine Empire played an active role in the Crusades from 1096 to 1285, when Christian forces from Europe sought to retake holy lands from Muslims. The Byzantines also wanted to retake Muslim lands, but political friction developed with many of the Roman Catholic nations of the West. Crusaders conquered Constantinople in 1204, seriously weakening the empire. Internal revolts and continual wars with neighboring nations hastened the empire's decline. The Byzantine Empire was conquered by the Ottoman Empire in 1453.

Sowing the Seeds of the Reformation

The Catholic Church rose as a branch of Christianity sometime in the 4th century and prospered quickly during the Middle Ages. The institution becoming very rich and powerful. The Catholic Church owned as much as one-third of the land throughout Europe, and every churchgoer gave one tenth of their earnings to the Church. Bishops, leaders in the church, often came from wealthy, landowning nobles who sat on the king's council and shaped local government. The blending of the Church's hierarchy with government, politics, and theology would result in controversy, division, and eventually, the Protestant Revolution.

Early Chinese Scientific Advances

The Chinese were a disciplined people, and their culture developed rapidly. They became metallurgists by 3000 BC, smelting bronze, hammering wrought iron, and formulating steel. The Chinese invented gunpowder, the crossbow, the clock, porcelain, the wheelbarrow, and the magnetic compass. The magnetic compass became very important for use in navigation, both by land and by sea.

Which best describes Christianity's influence on the feudal system in Europe?

The Christian church's hierarchical structure inspired the organizational structure of the feudal society.

European Involvement

The Crusades The Crusades were a result of mixing religion, politics, and economics. Protestant Reformation Some scholars point to the failure of the Crusades as part of the beginning of the Protestant Reformation. Conflict Centuries of fighting depleted the treasuries and populations of both the Christian and Islamic worlds. Salvation European knights and Islamic warriors were both promised salvation if they fought for sacred sites in the Middle East.

The Crusades Affect Politics

The Crusades arose at a time when constant bickering among European nobles had caused deep divisions. Redirecting the nobles' attention to the struggle in the Holy Land channeled their energies in ways that were politically beneficial to the Church. The fractious kingdoms of Europe became a unified empire. This was equally true on the Muslim side of the conflict. The Arab world was wracked by infighting between the Sunni and Shiite factions of Islam during the First Crusade. The fall of Jerusalem was an awakening for the arguing Muslims. They understood the Christian agenda was to claim the Near East as their own. Muslims ceased their quarreling and united against a common enemy.

The Rising Threat of the Ottoman Empire

The Crusades drew to an official close in 1291, when Acre was regained by Muslims. During this time, the Turkish Seljuk tribes had been chipping away at the slowly declining Byzantine Empire. Osman Gazi organized the Seljuks into the Ottoman Empire in 1299. The Ottomans were a hybrid of the Turkish, Byzantine, and Sunni Muslim cultures. They had embraced Islam and adopted Saladin's perspectives on jihad. Conquest was their agenda. The main concern of the Ottoman government was collecting taxes to finance more military campaigns. The Ottoman Empire absorbed the Byzantine colonies until it had conquered sections of North Africa along the seacoast, all of Egypt, and most of the Middle East. Then the Ottomans turned their attention to the West. This time, the Muslim jihad would intrude into European territory. For the next 150 years, Ottoman armies captured territories in the Byzantine Empire. By 1453, the Ottoman Turks conquered Constantinople, renaming it Istanbul. After more than 1,000 years, the Byzantine Empire had fallen.

Spiritual Fallout in Europe

The Crusades left medieval Europe physically and spiritually devastated. All of the Crusades, except for the first, were military and financial failures. Most families ended up penniless and grieving. The Catholic Church offered little solace to survivors. Many people questioned their spiritual values. This caused them to embrace the humanist ideals of the coming Renaissance. Christendom refers to the worldwide community of Christians. Explore this map for facts about Christendom in the 12th to 16th centuries.

Dutch East India Company

The Dutch East India Company's purpose was to buy goods from Asia and bring them back to Europe for a profit. During its two centuries of operations, it sent almost a million Europeans to Asia. The company also brought millions of tons of Asian trade goods to market using close to 5,000 ships. Even more impressive was the power that the Dutch East India Company wielded throughout its existence. Its charter gave the company widespread privileges and responsibilities. The VOC coined its own money. It also was able to establish colonies, monopolize the spice trade, and maintain a standing military. The company could even adjudicate court cases in its colonies and territories. No other company up to this point, and really no true company since, has enjoyed such control. The Dutch East India Company ruled throughout much of modern-day Indonesia, especially in the capitol of Jakarta. Its courts, soldiers, and business administrators oversaw the daily operations of the colony known as Batavia at the time. As one of its backers, the Dutch government earned a substantial annual return on their investments throughout the company's lifetime. They also established a strong presence in the Pacific without having to heavily invest in a military force or spend money on risky explorations.

Salutary Neglect and Taxation

The English colonies in North America were founded, in part, to provide resources for the empire. For over 150 years, however, England did not exert much control over its colonies. After the French and Indian War, Great Britain began to enforce its policies in an attempt to raise more revenue. Tensions quickly developed between England and the colonists. Over time, these tensions led to rebellion—and the beginnings of a new nation.

Which accurately describes how the Enlightenment influenced social change?

The Enlightenment influenced philosophes to spread ideas concerning political, social, and legal reforms.

The Inventive Spirit Lives on

The First Industrial Revolution changed the world economically and socially in far-reaching ways. The impact of life-improving devices caused widespread migrations, environmental destruction, and other massive changes. Pioneering inventors of this period helped lay the foundations of our present technological society. The legacy of these thinkers, designers, and hands-on mechanical engineers is still strong today.

Which event is known as the start of the French Revolution when rioters stormed the Bastille fortress to steal weapons?

The Great Fear

Muslims Mount a Defense

The Holy Roman Empire had been a disordered collection of quarreling kingdoms until the Crusades began. The Crusades gave Europeans a common enemy and a sense of multinational identity. The First Crusade ended in AD 1099 with the crusaders holding Jerusalem. But one battle could not settle the conflict. The Crusades wore on. After 80 years of fighting, forces on both sides became tired and misdirected.

Into the Light

The Inquisition could not erase the humanist ideas that had reached Spain. In 1596, Pedro de Valencia's book Academica defined his philosophy of skepticism based on the teachings of Aristotle. He also wrote against the excesses of the Inquisition and the burning of the accused. His connections in Philip III's court protected him from the inquisitors. Another factor held the Inquisition at bay. Spain's Habsburg rulers were seeking to update their country's backward image. The Age of Exploration was in its early days, and Spain was well on its way to becoming a superpower. The Spanish could not afford to seem brutish if Spain were to maintain its power.

The Templars and the Saracens

The Knights Templar were an order of crusaders approved by the pope in 1129. Their mission was to protect Christian pilgrims coming to the Holy Land. The king of Jerusalem awarded them the captured mosque on the Temple Mount in Jerusalem, leading to the name Templar. The Knights Templar became very powerful. They were above secular laws and not subject to taxes. Grateful kings showered them with donations. Pilgrims who feared theft entrusted the Templars to hold their money. The Templars soon established a network of banks throughout Europe and the Near East. The knights became incredibly wealthy. In 1307, an inquisition accused the Knights Templar of heresy and Satanism. The Church seized all Templar assets. The Templars were tortured and killed, and the order was destroyed. Church officials soon after retracted the accusations of heresy and restored the good name of the Templars.

Results of the Struggle

The Mexican Revolution produced mixed results. The corruption of the previous Mexican government meant that a constitution was created. The new constitution provided for greater equality for citizens, including women. It opened the doors for average citizens to improve their lives and become involved in the modernization of the country, rather than having all benefits go to a few wealthy families. Yet the decade-long revolution left its scars on the country. One of the lasting effects was the creation of a new political party that is still around today, the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI). In fact, this party held the majority of the political power in Mexico from 1929 until 2000.

New Lands and Opportunities

The Protestant Reformation influenced the civilization of Europe on a scale of monumental proportions. However, the Reformation also brought turmoil. Europe was no longer unified under one faith. Catholics and Protestants fought wars that devastated entire regions. Christians slaughtered one another by the millions. The Protestant religion splintered into bickering factions that struggled to assert their authority over their fellow Protestants. Wars and persecution drove Europeans from their homelands in search for something better. Populations shifted throughout Europe as religious and political refugees migrated to other regions.

Scientific Theories: Copernicus, Galileo, Kepler, & Newton

The Renaissance and Reformation brought enormous changes to the Western world. Many Europeans adopted humanist principles as a way of life. The revival of science was an important part of this movement. The scientific theories of this era would redefine humanity's place in an expanding universe.

Which best describes a consequence of Emperor Theodosius updating the Roman law code in AD 438?

The Roman law code was translated from Latin to Greek.

Which accurately describes aspects of the Trans-Saharan Trade in the 1400s between Europe and Africa?

The Trans-Saharan trade included slaves as a primary commodity, with slavery being permitted by Islamic practice.

What advancements were made by the Islamic governments of the Umayyad Empire?

The Umayyad's fostered achievements by establishing libraries and universities.

The Dutch East India Company and the Rise of Multinational Corporations

The Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie (VOC), or the Dutch East India Company (as it is known in English), was the first, largest, and most powerful multinational corporation to exist during the Age of Discovery. The Netherlands, one of the smaller European powers, granted the company its charter in 1602. The Dutch East India Company rose to prominence and shaped the course of world events for close to 200 years.

Which accurately describes the purpose and history of the Virginia Company?

The Virginia Company was a joint-stock company that received an English royal charter, allowing for the settlement of the Virginia Colony.

Navigation

The art of navigation has been around since early humans first began to wander the face of the Earth. But it took Renaissance science and mathematics for explorers during the Age of Discovery to sail the oceans of the world.

Which option accurately describes Greek and Roman ideas that were revived during the Renaissance by humanist philosophers?

The art of public speaking and debate, known as rhetoric, was revived during the Renaissance.

Which is an accurate statement concerning the bubonic plague?

The bubonic plague is believed to have started in Asia and migrated to Europe via diseased fleas carried by rats aboard trading vessels.

Which best describes the origins of the bubonic plague and its effects on Europe?

The bubonic plaque started in China and spread to India, Persia, and North Africa, then reached Italy and the rest of Europe, and eventually killed 60 percent of Europe's population.

Preservation of Knowledge in the Dark Ages

The collapse of the Roman Empire and the rise of the early Christian Church brought with them the Dark Ages. In Europe, knowledge was lost, and scientific progress halted. However, the scientific knowledge of the Greek and Roman civilizations remained alive in the work of Jewish and Islamic scholars. Jewish scientists had built much of their scientific philosophy upon the work of ancient Greeks and Romans. Jews living in the Arab Empire had introduced Muslim scholars to the Greco-Roman scientific tradition. Sciences like medicine, geometry, and astronomy flourished in the Middle East and Moorish Spain.

The Tide Turns

The course of the French and Indian War began to change for the British in 1758. The British formed important alliances with other American Indian tribes that opposed the French. This included the Iroquois Confederation, whose members were rivals of the French-allied Algonquin. Several tribes formerly siding with the French also withdrew aid. The French collapsed in 1759 after a resounding defeat at Quebec. By 1760, the British had captured the New France city of Montreal and controlled North America. The Treaty of Paris in 1763 ended the worldwide Seven Years' War. As a result, France surrendered all of its North American possessions to the British and the Spanish. After the war, American Indian tribes including former allies continued to clash with British colonists over land rights. Animosity also developed between the colonists and England, starting with who would pay the bill for the war.

Mexican Revolution

The early 20th century was a difficult time for many people living in Mexico. Most were poor, illiterate, and lacking any hope of a brighter future. The human need for freedom and fulfillment fueled a revolution. President Porfirio Diaz ruthlessly held power for decades. He was in total control of his country. While he—and his friends and supporters—grew richer, the people of Mexico grew poorer. Citizens called for change. In 1908, Diaz revealed to a reporter that he planned to retire in 1910. But 1910 came without any retirement announcement. Francisco Madero, a writer and reformer, challenged Diaz in the 1910 election. When Diaz saw that Madero might win the election, he had the reformer arrested on false charges and declared himself the winner.

Byzantine Culture

The empire had great regard for science and technology. Mosaics often depicted portraits of religious or political figures. It passed Greek cultural influences on to Arabs. It included a vast trading network with focus on seagoing trade. Biblical standards dictated personal moral behavior.

As Empires Collapsed, China Endured

The empires of the West—Egyptian, Greek, Roman, and then Byzantine—all rose and fell. Through it all, the Chinese culture endured and flourished. To this day, Chinese advances in printing, papermaking, and ceramics benefit people the world over.

Henry VIII and the Church of England

The events and consequences of the Reformation varied throughout Europe. The Reformation in England was initiated by King Henry VIII, who ruled from 1509 until 1547. His marriage to Catherine of Aragon had united two of the most powerful Catholic nations at the time: England and Spain. Yet Henry needed a male heir to the Tudor line to retain the throne. Catherine had suffered through several unsuccessful pregnancies but had given birth to only one child who lived past infancy: a daughter, Mary.

New Development Affects the World's Future

The fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks had a serious effect on the European economy. The Muslim empire stood as gatekeeper to the major east-west trading routes. Throughout this period, Arab trade with European markets never slackened, but shipments of European goods heading east were heavily taxed. This situation resulted in a cultural change so massive that it had a global impact. Meanwhile, the Ottoman Turks continued to conquer European territory until they controlled southeastern Europe. Suleiman the Magnificent then turned his attention to his eastern empire, where uprisings were occurring in Iran. He led major war campaigns against the Persian Empire in the Near East and North Africa. Through it all, the Ottoman Empire at its height had significant effects on European, Near Eastearn, and North African cultures. The Ottoman Empire spread Islam while simultaneously impacting trade, art, architecture, and warfare tactics.

The Impact of the Roman Catholic Church

The feudal system controlled the political and social structure of the Western world, and Christianity unified the quarrelsome kingdoms of Europe. Kingdoms that had been unstable became more solid. The feudal structure was capable of supplying an army by the king's command. The church could direct dozens of European kingdoms to act in a collective effort. These developments set the stage for the Crusades. In 1095, Pope Urban II issued a call throughout Europe for Christian warriors to defend the Holy Land. Thousands responded. Faith was their motivating force. This bloody conflict lasted 200 years as two cultures, each driven by a mixture of politics and religion, collided in a series of wars. The Middle Ages drew to a close by 1485. Spain and England had risen and were evolving into the next major empires. France, Italy, and Germany also were on the way to another level of civilization. The feudal system was phased out. The overall climate became intellectual as people began to progress toward the ideals of the Renaissance.

Humanist Thought Fuels the Renaissance

The feudal system exerted control over most individuals. Peasants were expected to serve the lord without complaint and stay in their designated places for life, with no opportunities for advancement or improvement. Humanist philosophy changed that. Humanists rejected the idea that the hierarchical structure of a society was more important than the desires of the individual. For humanists, each person mattered. Educated citizens, in turn, could make better contributions to their society. This affected politics, spirituality, trade, and even interaction between community members. The rigid social structure of the feudal era was no longer an obstacle to life. Social mobility was now possible and not based on birth. People were able to aspire to higher status. A new entrepreneurial spirit gave people fresh hope of making better lives for themselves. People whose families had always been peasants were able to invent or improve common devices and reap the financial bounty of their discoveries.

Greek City-States

The first cities developed independently and had their own laws to govern the city and surrounding territory. This was the creation of the city-state. The large governments of city-states began as early as ancient Egypt. During this period, city-states became empires by enveloping nearby cities and land. These empires were ruled by monarchies or by governments led by a single ruler. This was not the case with ancient Greece. The physical geography of Greece consists of mountainous regions and islands. These geographic barriers initially prevented Greece from developing into an empire. Due to the geographic restrictions, each Greek city-state or polis formed and flourished with little intervention from other parts of Greece. The governments of the city-states were headed by monarchs but evolved over time into different types of government. The city-states with the greatest legacies are Athens and Sparta. In these two pivotal cities, new types of government were formed.

Social Change and Women's Rights

The first humanist ideas had been regarded as heresy. But the Reformation destroyed the church's power to control information. This new generation of philosophers focused on correcting humanity's social, moral, political, and legal wrongs.

Religion and Belief Systems

The focus of ancient civilization was to attain basic human development, establish a social structure, and make advances in processes and culture. Early religions were animistic nature religions with pantheons of gods, goddesses, demons, and spirits. While the religious traditions and rituals of the Mesopotamian, Egyptian, Greek, and Roman civilizations became more structured, they all remained polytheistic (having many deities). During the post-classical era, the focus of civilization moved to the development of organized religions. As they were adopted by major civilizations, spiritual beliefs spread throughout the populations of the world. Most of the major religions of this age are still practiced in the modern day.

Humanism Offers an Alternative

The fundamental ideas of humanism greatly differed from the structured hierarchy of Catholicism. Humanism focused on the individual and revered the dignity and potential of humankind. Humanists were not atheists; most believed in the existence of God but rejected the idea that God intervened in the daily lives of humans. Instead of looking to God and the Church, individuals had the right to better themselves. Humanists proposed that the way to this self-improvement was through the study of classical values as laid down by Greek and Roman philosophers. Ancient Greek and Roman values included an emphasis on education, individualism, and a vigorous search for truth. For example, ancient Greeks valued intelligence, and most men were required to go to school and learn. To this end, humanist educators focused on the study of rhetoric. They revived the writings of Cicero, Plato, and other Greco-Roman scholars who were adept in the use of language and persuasion. Classical humanist education produced eloquent speakers who could further promote the philosophy. Throughout Europe, humanists began establishing schools to teach students the values and disciplines of the Greco-Roman civilization. Reforming the educational system put the Church and state in direct opposition.

Which accurately describes the Arab Empire's government practices?

The government of the Arab Empire was a theocracy based on the religion of Islam.

How did the establishment of the Church of England change government?

The head of state and the head of the church were the same person.

Copernicus and the Heliocentric Universe

The idea that the earth was at the center of our solar system (the geocentric model) was said to be divinely dictated and perfect. However, despite his best efforts, Nicolaus Copernicus could not reconcile data about planetary motions with the model. Copernicus, a Polish clergyman and faithful Catholic, did find that putting the sun at the center instead made the data fit perfectly—almost. The heliocentric model still had planetary orbits be elliptical, not circular. Kepler's later discovery of elliptical orbits would fit the data perfectly. Copernicus was shaken by his discovery, knowing that it was heresy and punishable by death. Copernicus kept quiet for 30 years until, with his health declining, he published his work in 1543 in the book On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Bodies. Copernicus died soon after, not knowing that in a few years his discovery would lead to the so-called Copernican revolution.

Early European Civilizations

The influence of the Greek and Roman empires raised the standard of living throughout Southern Europe. These civilizations brought literacy, science, and art to other cultures. Their concepts of law, government, and philosophy gave order to chaos. Their roadways and viaducts connected far-flung lands. Much of our modern global culture might not have developed without the civilizing effects of the Greeks and Romans. But the scattered native cultures in Northern Europe maintained Neolithic lifestyles. The Romans scorned these early Europeans as being fit only for conquering. Yet these "uncivilized" peoples would be the ones who survived the fallen Roman Empire.

The Fruits of Technology

The innovations of the First Industrial Revolution created excitement throughout the scientific world. Inventors in other countries adapted and improved on industrialized machinery. But advances in industry had eliminated jobs for thousands of workers. The anger and desperation these people felt would generate a violent backlash.

Aftermath

The island was renamed Haiti, based on its original Arawak name. (This remains the name of part of the island, while the rest is now called Dominican Republic, after the colonial terms Saint-Domingue and Santo Domingo.) The slave population gained freedom. The Haitian Revolution signaled the beginning of the end of European slave trade. France demanded that the new republic, Haiti, pay reparations to former slave owners for the cost of their slaves lost, as well as crops and personal property. The republic complied.

How did the Silk Road impact relationships between Europe and China?

The journeys of Marco Polo along the Silk Road helped promote cultural exchanges. The Silk Road was a primary trade route of Chinese silk and spices between Europe and Asia.

The Impact of the Crusades on Trade

The mid-13th century saw the beginning of a period known as the Pax Mongolica ("Mongol Peace" in Latin). Kublai Khan, the Mongol emperor of China, had negotiated a period of peaceful relations during which anyone could travel through Mongol territories with complete safety. Pax Mongolica was a period of both safe travels and great cultural exchange.

Social Divisions

The peninsulares were colonists who were born in Spain and immigrated to the American colonies. They formed the highest colonial social class. The native populations were seen as lower in status than the European colonists. The Spanish term indios was used in the Americas to describe the native population. Indios were on the same social level as slaves. A child born to a peninsular and an indio was considered a mestizo. The mestizos formed the second, or middle, rung on the colonial social ladder.

The Different Crusades

The period of Western history from AD 1095 through 1285 was marked by the Crusades, an international holy war among three empires: the declining Byzantine Empire, the aggressively rising Arab Empire, and the recently formed Holy Roman Empire. The 200 years of successive wars affected all parties in distinct ways. The resulting social, political, and religious changes went on to further alter life in the Western world.

Philosophy Leads to Action

The philosophical discussion that had begun during the Renaissance still continued. A French intellectual movement arose whose loosely allied members called themselves philosophes. Large groups of philosophes would gather in the homes of interested nobles for lively philosophical discussions. Such a forum was called a salon. Philosophes believed religion and society forced natural man to conceal himself beneath layers of falsehood. Civilized man could be made whole only by understanding natural man within him.

Founding the Colonies

The power of Spain and Portugal, which both had claimed land in the Americas, had begun to decline by the 17th century. England and France saw an opening and took an interest in settling the New World. England claimed most of the eastern coastal land of the Americas and some island chains. Settlers came to the New World for religious freedom, economic prosperity and social mobility.

Deceit and Disillusionment

The present-day Catholic Church acknowledges that there have been self-serving and unethical popes in its history. Their actions undermined the strong foundations of the Church and shook the faith of its believers. These popes, along with other actions of the Catholic Church, had caused resentment and anger among its believers. These actions included - Pope Innocent III's Crusades against heretical European Christians - the 14th century Western Schism, in which the Church split into two; the two Churches were ruled by two separate popes, who bickered with each other - the conspicuous wealth of Church officials, which contrasted starkly with the meager existence of most impoverished followers These actions drove a wedge between the faithful and their Church. When humanist thought finally gained acceptance, some believers who had harbored doubts felt empowered to speak out. It was time for a change.

Which identify Protestant arguments that challenge the sanctity and infallibility of the Catholic papacy?

The principle of a papacy controlling the Church does not appear in the Bible. During the Western Schism, two feuding popes ruled at the same time.

Which helped the Jamestown colony continue?

The production of tobacco as a cash crop led to the successful support of the colony.

How did the Protestant Reformation contribute to migration to the New World?

The religious disunity in Europe caused wars and persecution, which Protestant groups attempted to escape through migration.

Political Protestantism

The transition into the Early Modern Age was not easy for the people of Europe. The Reformation had begun as a spiritual movement, but it provoked widespread changes. Every level of European society felt the impact. The new ideas and behaviors of the Reformation offered Europeans more freedom than they were accustomed to, but moving from old methods to new concepts created social, religious, and economic frictions. These heated disagreements often exploded into violent conflicts.

The Crusades Increase Trade

The warfare of the Crusades left lasting damage on all sides, but the contact between Europe and the Middle East did encourage international trade and cross-cultural exchange. This exchange brought new technologies and ideas to both sides. The Mediterranean and Middle East regions experienced an era of increased trade and prosperity. The Crusades also saw the establishment of an extensive network of banks created by the Knights Templar. This network of banks, built throughout the Near East, allowed crusaders and pilgrims to store their money for safekeeping while they traveled.

How did the ancient Greek and Roman focus on education, individualism, and a search for truth impact Renaissance educators?

They focused on the study of rhetoric.

In what way were Jamestown and Plymouth colonies similar?

They were both established by joint-stock companies.

Recognition

Think about a time someone acknowledged you for doing something well. How did it make you feel? Salespeople also like to be recognized for their success. Not only did Tyrell win free lunch for a week, Lou also announced his record-breaking numbers at the weekly department meeting. Tyrell was also chosen to present his successful prospecting techniques at a sales conference.

Children's Crusade (1212)

This Crusade allegedly is led by children and young people, yet scholars do not have definitive proof. Thousands of children march from France and Germany toward Jerusalem. These Crusaders die, and it is believed no one reached Jerusalem.

Zhou Dynasty - 1046 BC-256 BC

This becomes the longest lasting Chinese dynasty. The "Mandate of Heaven" (rule based on divine right), feudalism, Confucianism, and Taoism all take root in China. Sun Tzu writes The Art of War.

Pair Selling definition

This game pairs two salespeople, one of which has sold more product than the other. The pair that makes the highest sales total at the end of the month wins a prize. This game helps build teamwork and allows for stronger sellers to mentor sales reps who need help.

Impact of Chinese Civilization

Though far away from the centers of Western civilization and possessing a language which was unfathomable to Europeans, the Chinese culture had its effect on the West. Traders spread Chinese advances throughout the civilized world. While papermaking increased written communication, gunpowder was pivotal in creating weapons that would kill great numbers of people. The compass and the teachings of Confucius provided guidance for progress, physical and spiritual. China would go on to wield influence as one of the largest countries in the world.

Maritime and Terrestrial Trade Routes

Throughout history, several major trade routes have connected Europe with Asia and the New World. The most famous is the Silk Road, which was actually not one road but an ancient network of trade routes. With its beginnings sometime in the first century BC, it was important for centuries in trade and cultural interactions on the Asian continent. It helped connect the West and East from the Mediterranean to China.

Types of Rings

Trees add two new rings each year. One is known as the growth band. This wide band is lighter in color and shows how much the tree grew during the growing season. The other is the rest band. This smaller, dark bank illustrates the limited growth that occurred during the winter months.

The Enduring Heritage of Troy, Phoenicia, and Carthage

Troy, Phoenicia, and Carthage have had a lasting effect on history. Each of these civilizations were involved in trade, warfare, and the development of new innovations, as well as philosophy and literature such as Homer's epic poem the Iliad and the Phoenician alphabet. Lastly, these civilizations greatly influenced the Greek and Roman Empires, arguably two of the most powerful and impactful empires in history.

What was the reasoning and result of the Saint Bartholomew's Day massacre?

Under Pope Gregory XIII order, Catholics slaughtered thousands of French Huguenots who were considered heretics.

Which accurately describes the impact of the Roman Catholic Church on Europe during the Middle Ages?

Under the rule of Charlemagne, the Catholic faith became the dominant religion in Europe.

Nile (Ancient Egypt)

Understanding Egypt requires understanding the Nile River. The Egyptians revered the river as the source of life. The Nile River splits the country into Upper Egypt in the south and Lower Egypt near the Mediterranean Sea. At the seacoast, the Nile Delta spreads 120 miles wide. Ancient Egypt's agricultural fortunes rose and fell with the Nile. Each year, the Nile floods left layers of black silt on the fields, ensuring bountiful crops. Without the floods, crops withered and died, plunging Egypt into famine. Surplus grain from temple granaries could sustain the populations only temporarily.

Which most accurately describes events leading to the fall of the Roman Empire?

Visigoths sacked Rome after Emperor Constantine moved the Roman capital to Constantinople.

War Shapes Cultures on Multiple Levels

War affects more than the combatants. It is a catalyst for social change. The pressures of mounting a war or defending a territory alter the economies, politics, technology, and societies of both sides. Most wartime populations find a unified purpose as the focus shifts to one enemy. People at war are also psychologically affected. War forces citizens to accept drastic changes in their routines. After a war, when ties to previous ways of life have been broken, it is easier to effect change. The Crusades lasted for generations, causing recurring fractures in the political, religious, and social systems of Europe. These fractures led to the collapse of the feudal system.

Commission Only

When commission only is used as compensation, a salesperson gets paid only when sales are closed. This sales compensation structure is the most challenging. It's a high-stress model because if a sales rep doesn't make a sale, then they don't make any money. The risk is greater, but the reward is usually much higher because the commission is a higher percentage of a sale than in the base-salary-plus-commission model. The commission-only sales model is a strong incentive because it can be extremely profitable. Pros - earnings based on a higher percentage of sales - compensation "controlled" by salesperson Cons - low pay in poor sales months - pay depends on closed sales rather than hours worked and can lead to burnout

How did the end of the English Civil War affect the founding of Pennsylvania?

William Penn's Quakers were persecuted in England when the Church of England reestablished its power, which convinced Penn to establish religious tolerance in his colony.

Which identifies the 16th-century English scholar who translated the Bible into English and was executed for it?

William Tyndale

joint-stock company definition

a company owned by shareholders who purchased stock

pathos definition

a feeling of sadness, tragedy, or pity

animosity definition

a feeling of strong dislike, ill will, or anger

siege definition

a military strategy in which attacking forces contain defenders in a place they cannot escape

Prophet definition

a person regarded as divinely inspired or who receives messages in visions or prayer

plague definition

a quickly-spreading, deadly disease

denomination definition

a religious congregation united in beliefs and practices

Hypothesis definition

a testable and falsifiable statement made based on observations

parliament definition

a type of legislative body in a representative government

laissez-faire definition

an economic policy of allowing business to run free of regulation; French for "to allow to do"

chiaroscuro definition

art technique of using light and shadow to create depth, form, and mood

infrastructure definition

basic framework that a society requires to function, such as road systems or political systems

Gothic Architecture

began rising in France around 1135 following a towering, majestic style elaborately decorated with statues of saints and hideous monsters called gargoyles outer walls supported by arching frameworks called flying buttresses sunlight beaming through stained-glass windows arches that come to a point on top vertical design

plowshare definition

blade of a plow, which breaks up the soil

government definition

body of people vested with authority to administrate over a population

How did the Catholic Church react to the increase of books that it found unfavorable?

by attempting to ban books

Leonardo da Vinci, scientist (1452-1519)

champion of the Enlightenment and the pursuit of truth through observation of natural world designed early versions of tank, airplane, and more promoted knowledge of human anatomy, a controversial topic of the time kept detailed notebooks of observations of natural world, designs for advanced machines

In his 95 Theses, which practices did Martin Luther criticize about the Roman Catholic Church?

clerics holding multiple offices the selling of indulgences unethical money lending

yurt definition

collapsible circular dwelling used in Mongolia; wooden frame covered with thick wool felt

Talmud definition

collected rabbinical teachings from the first to seventh centuries AD; meaning "study"

Desiderius Erasmus

considered to be a dominant force in the humanist movement 1516 translation of the New Testament featured the Latin translation and the original Greek text side by side so that other scholars could compare the texts took issue with much of the Church's doctrine stating there was no scriptural basis for Mary's everlasting virginity became the most celebrated philosopher of the Renaissance

Which artistic elements of the Renaissance reflected the shift toward humanist thought?

depiction of the unclothed human body use of contrapposto

Virginia Declaration of Rights definition

document written in 1776 that proclaimed the inherent rights of men

vision definition

dream or hallucination that is believed to contain a divine message

industrialism

economic system that uses mechanized industry and large-scale production of goods versus farming and trade to build wealth

ornate definition

elaborate or overly decorated

Which identify how the Renaissance contributed to greater education opportunities in European society?

establishment of new colleges and universities increased publishing and distribution of books

Patronage definition

financial backing or support provided by someone with wealth or power

alluvial plain definition

flat land beside a river that becomes flooded periodically, making the soil rich for agriculture

Lutherans

follow the teachings and beliefs of Martin Luther Protestants from Germany, Denmark, Finland, Sweden, Norway, Iceland 1619: settled in New Netherland (modern-day Delaware) 1700s: thousands of Palatine and Salzburger Lutherans migrated from Austria and Germany to the New World to avoid persecution

Renaissance Architecture

followed the classical Greco-Roman design cleaner lines, free of excessive ornamentation rounded arches Details suggesting harmony and elegance emphasis on proper proportion horizontal design square or rectangular columns Famous examples of Renaissance architecture include: - The Basilica of St. Peter and the Sistine Chapel, both in Vatican City. - Palazzo Pitti in Florence, Italy. - El Escorial in Madrid, Spain. Making stained-glass windows was a difficult process. Powdered metals produced vivid colors when added to molten glass. An artist sketched a design the size of the window and cut glass into shapes to cover the design like a puzzle. Then the artist fit strips of malleable lead around the edges of the glass pieces, laid them in place, and soldered the lead together. Details like facial features were created using black paint on the glass. The entire window was fit into a sturdy metal frame and mounted in the open space.

Nationalism

gains strength in the 1800s middle-class philosophy of patriotic pride civic nationalism inclusive for all citizens, while identity nationalism has ethnic basis

timocracy definition

government based on principles of military glory; rulers include military personnel

bureaucracy definition

government system involving many officials with power over different functions and areas

vizier definition

high-ranking advisor in ancient Egypt or in Muslim countries, especially the former Ottoman Empire

Macedonians

history begins in the Balkans north of Greece around 800 BC inhabited by the Mackednoi tribe; first to call themselves "Hellenes," a term later applied to all Greeks Macedonian Philip II comes to rule Greek Empire in 338 BC, absorbed Greek culture Philip II's son, Alexander the Great, spread Greek knowledge and culture throughout empire Alexander the Great conquered Persian Empire in Asia; Macedonia became world's largest empire Greek literature, philosophy, and advancements in science spread through conquered lands Alexander established Alexandria and Macedonian-Greek Ptolemaic Dynasty in Egypt after death of Alexander the Great, civil war erupted; Macedonian generals fought over land and opportunity to rule Macedonian stability under Antigonus II Gonatas conquered by Roman legions in 146 BC; improved Macedonian economy

jihad definition

holy war waged on behalf of Islam

hominid definition

human-like primate

laissez-faire definition 2

idea that free markets are better off without government interference; French for "leave alone"

interchangeable parts definition

identical pieces in machinery that allow easy assembly and repair of mechanical devices

compulsory education definition

instruction and learning for a specific period of time as dictated by law or rule

carrack definition

larger (100 feet or longer) sailing ship with extensive cargo space

Sunni definition

largest sect or branch of Islam

Jainism (Nontheistic Religion)

last Jain saint Mahavira (b. 599 BC) knew Buddha; contemporary of Zoroaster and Confucius shared Hindu/Buddhist concept of karma (correct behavior) and Buddhist views of suffering unlike Hinduism and Buddhism, focus on extreme asceticism (noble self-denial) in life teaches that matter is eternal; atoms assume any form in the material world one faction believes in wearing white, another in wearing no clothes at all

indigenous definition

native to a certain area or region

contrapposto definition

natural stance with the weight shifted to one foot

chronometer definition

navigational instrument used to measure time and calculate longitude despite weather conditions or motion

steppes definition

open, treeless plains

first agricultural revolution definition

period during the Neolithic era when nomadic hunters began farming

heretic definition

person who holds a belief not accepted by other members of his or her faith

Martyr definition

person who willingly dies for his or her personal beliefs

Aboriginal definition

pertaining to native peoples who have existed in a region since its earliest time; capitalized when referring to the indigenous peoples of Australia

Icon definition

portrait or statue representing a religious figure

philosophy definition

pursuit of wisdom and truth through the use of logical reasoning and critical thinking

transubstantiation definition

religious belief that, during Holy Communion, bread and wine become the body and blood of Christ

priest-king definition

religious figure who is also a ruler, often seen as an earthly representative of a higher ruling power

artisan definition

skilled craftsmen who create and construct products for sale in marketplaces

The demand for which commodity led to European exploration during the Age of Discovery?

spices

theses definition

statements presented, then defended by facts; from Greek thesis, "to put forward"

Empiricism definition

technique that bases conclusions on personal observation and experimentation alone

Which Renaissance invention enabled Galileo Galilei to confirm heliocentric (Copernican) theory?

telescope

purge definition

the act of ridding an area of people, usually violently or suddenly

Ratification definition

the act or process of confirming or sanctioning

motivation definition

the act or process of giving someone a reason for doing something Motivation is the reason someone pursues a goal. When you were a child, your parents may have motivated you to clean your room by promising to take you to the park when you were finished. As an adult, you might be motivated to join a gym and exercise because you want to live a healthy lifestyle. Ex: Lou and Darshana own a spices and cookware company. Tyrell is one of their salespeople. Take a look at how Tyrell stays motivated. Last year, the economy was not doing well, and Tyrell struggled to get new customers. He's been feeling discouraged and needs motivation. There are two primary approaches to motivating people: intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation.

samurai definition

the hereditary warrior caste in feudal Japan

sheikh definition

the patriarch or leader of an Arab tribe

pharaoh definition

the ruler of the Egyptian kingdom

fauna definition

the scientific term for all the animals that live in a particular environment or region

inflation definition

the sustained rise in the price levels of goods and services over time

industrialization definition

the transitional process of going from an agricultural society to one based on manufacturing

bicameral definition

two-chamber legislature

Protestant churches wanted the word of God to reach as many people as possible, so the Bible was translated into _[blank]_.

vernacular languages

gargoyle definition

water spout in the form of a monstrous figure, often found on Gothic cathedrals

Satanism definition

worship of the devil

tenement definition

​a run-down building for the poor, often partitioned to hold more occupants than originally intended

The Kings and God-Kings of the Sumerian Empire Empire definition

large region of multiple populations or nations, often conquered by military force, which is controlled by one central ruler Around 2900 BC, a ruling class of secular kings arose in the city-states and began replacing the priest-kings. By 2500 BC, the city-states of Sumer unified under a central king called a lugal, or "big man." This established the Sumerian Empire. Around 2334 BC, King Sargon of Akkad came from the north and conquered Sumer. The Akkadian domination of Sumer lasted for over 150 years. Revolts flared up against the occupation, but the Sumerians failed to drive off the invaders. Eventually, the growing Akkadian Empire passed to Sargon's grandson Naram Sin, who proclaimed himself god-king. The Akkadians worshipped many of the Sumerian deities, and like the Sumerians, believed humans were at the mercy of the gods. Examining the historical record left by the Sumerians and Akkadians illustrates the significance of religion in these civilizations. Many early city-states were ruled by priests or by kings who were seen as representatives of the gods. Religion not only shaped people's understanding of the world, but it informed the activities of their daily lives and their society.

cuneiform definition

primary system of writing in which a scribe used a stylus to carve coded marks into wet clay

Which most accurately describe the impact of the Crusades on the Jewish community?

During the Third Crusade, England entered the Crusades and massacred hundreds of Jews in Britain. During the First Crusade, a Christian group passed through the Rhineland and massacred Jews. During the Second Crusade, French and German kings massacred Jews in France.

Puritans

English Protestant group different from Pilgrims believed that Church of England was not sufficiently reformed from Catholicism punishments for their religious beliefs included imprisonment, facial disfigurement, and branding 1630s: 20,000 emigrated to New England colonies and West Indies to practice their religion freely established powerful Congregational Church in New England

Walter Raleigh (1554-1618)

English explorer, soldier, spy, and poet explored the Americas looking for the fabled city of gold, "El Dorado" established a colony near Roanoke Island in present-day North Carolina granted a patent by Queen Elizabeth to explore and colonize Virginia

The East

European demand for spices and other goods from Asia, the Middle East, and North Africa encouraged exploration for quicker and less expensive trade routes. European nations became involved politically in claiming newly discovered lands, which were rich with natural resources. Soon, major European powers such as England, France, and Spain were busily exploring the world to find as many resources as possible.

The Race to Expand Empires

European powers including France, Spain, and Britain scrambled to send their fleets abroad to find new lands and new resources and claim them for their ruling monarchs. Doing so ensured, at least temporarily, that they would be able to exploit the natural resources and indigenous inhabitants for their own gain. During the Age of Discovery, European kingdoms expanded their empires, and missionaries set out to spread their beliefs and convert the indigenous inhabitants of newly discovered lands. Missionaries made sure that the native populations were nominally loyal to the monarch through Christianization. In theory, this would keep the native population subdued and the natural resources flowing from the colonies. The public demand for spices, combined with the stranglehold their Muslim rivals had on the spice markets of the Middle East, created a powerful incentive to bypass the region and find a direct route to Asia.

Renaissance Sculpture

Freestanding statues were meant to be displayed on their own, without distraction. Both religious and secular statues were commissioned. Secular sculptures often featured scenes from classical Greek mythology. Religious sculptures were almost always depictions of the Old or New Testament or Catholic saints. Famous examples of Renaissance sculptures include: - Michelangelo Buonarroti's David, the Pietà, Moses, and The Slaves - Bartolommeo Bandinelli's Hercules and Cacus - Donatello's Judith and Holofernes.

Which accurately describes causes and effects of the French Revolution?

French citizens revolted against their monarchy, causing one of the most violent uprisings in history.

Samuel de Champlain (1574-1635)

French explorer, navigator, and cartographer explored North America, including parts of modern-day northern New York and the eastern Great Lakes considered the "Father of New France" and acknowledged founder of Quebec helped establish one of the oldest, continuously inhabited settlements in North America, Port Royal in modern-day Nova Scotia

Code Noir

French for "Black Code" 1685 decree from French King Louis XIV controlled slaves' lives: - Slaves must be baptized and can only practice Roman Catholicism. - Children of a slave and free person were free. - Slave weddings could be carried out only with owner's consent.

John Calvin

French lawyer turned theologian work led to the creation of the Reformed Church and the Presbyterian Church, which would come to be known as Calvinism like Luther, called for local governance for churches like Luther, challenged the Catholic Church's selling of indulgences and papal corruption instituted standardized worship services Calvinism instituted penalties for believers caught swearing, dancing, skipping church, or playing cards Calvinism was brought in parts to the New World by Puritans of England, Presbyterians of Scotland, members of the Dutch Reformed Church, and French Huguenots believed in predestination

Denis Diderot (1713-1784)

French writer and philosophe chief editor of the Encyclopédie; one of the most influential philosophical publications of the Enlightenment a bold social critic; was passionate about social, legal, and political reforms. promoted the political theories of John Locke and encouraged the development of democratic republics 1746: Catholic Church had banned Diderot's book Philosophical Thoughts wrote well-reasoned criticisms of France's corrupt and unequal political system for the Encyclopédie; contributed to the French Revolution Catherine the Great of Russia supported Diderot's philosophical pursuits

The Spanish Inquisition Lashes Out

From 1568 to 1623, the Inquisition persecuted a group of religious mystics known as the Alumbrados, meaning "the Enlightened." The Inquisition reacted to this wave of higher thinking by suppressing books condemned by the Church. They began publishing a regular list of books that Spanish citizens were forbidden to possess or read. Many of the masters of Spanish Renaissance literature appeared in these lists. But declaring books forbidden only increased the public's curiosity about them, fueling an underground circulation of condemned books.

Fall of Rome

Historians estimate that more than 60 million people were Roman citizens. The total number of Roman subjects could double that when counting slaves and conquered noncitizens under Roman rule. The empire controlled provinces on three continents and maintained networks of aqueducts and 50,000 miles of roads. With so much depending on a single empire, the consequences of its eventual collapse were vast.

The Significance of Magellan's Discovery

Historians often credit Magellan with being the first person to circumnavigate the globe, though Magellan did not survive his own voyage. Other scholars credit Enrique, Magellan's personal slave (and an expert sailor in his own right). At any rate, the 18 surviving crewmen deserve the honor for completing their mission. The Magellan expedition proved the Earth was indeed round. It also established that a western route to the Far East was too long and risky to be profitable. The greatest benefit was the increased knowledge of the lands that lay beyond the edge of the known world. South America and the islands of the Pacific were at last on the map.

Habsburg Rule Brings the Renaissance to Spain

In 1516, a Flemish-born heir of the Habsburg dynasty took the throne as Charles I of Spain. In 1519, Charles became Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, gaining further power. The Habsburgs were patrons of the arts, and under their rule, Spanish culture began to bloom. Some of this new literature set the rigid social structure of Spanish society against the new wave of humanism. In 1605, Miguel de Cervantes wrote Don Quixote, considered to be the first modern novel and one of the great masterpieces of Western literature. Cervantes used realism to draw his characters with vivid detail. Don Quixote is a satire, a comedy that points out weaknesses in human nature and society. In his novel, Cervantes ridiculed the Inquisition, the class struggle, and human weakness from an Enlightenment perspective.

France's Religious Wars

In 1515, a rampage of anti-Protestant persecution and murder began in France. Catholics slaughtered thousands of Huguenots, often with the open approval of the pope. In 1589, Henry IV, a Huguenot, became ruler of France. He used his position to promote religious tolerance. His 1598 Edict of Nantes granted religious liberty to French Huguenots. Anti-Huguenot political factions plotted Henry's assassination. In 1610, a fanatical Catholic assassin killed him. Henry's son, Louis XIII, succeeded him. The Catholic Louis resumed the Huguenot persecution. The violence went on until the 1789 French Revolution.

Francisco Pizarro

In 1531, Pizarro and his brothers sailed south with 180 men and about two dozen horses toward Peru. They eventually met the Inca king, Atahualpa. The king became angry at the conversion attempt made by a Catholic priest, and Pizarro's men proceeded to attack and kill about 5000 Incas in an hour. Atahualpa was held for ransom for a whole year. After Pizarro's men gained a fortune in gold and silver ransom payments, they killed Atahualpa; the king had become useless to his conquerors. Pizarro sacked the Inca capital of Cuzco and went on to become viceroy of Peru, conquering the Incan Empire. He founded Lima as the "city of kings," which remains its capital today.

Jacques Cartier

In 1534, King Francis I of France chose Jacques Cartier to lead the expedition to find a western passage to India. Cartier sailed directly west with two ships and a 60-man crew. This brought him to the coastline where the present-day United States joins with Canada. Cartier explored and mapped Newfoundland and the islands in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence. Cartier named this new land "Canada," from kanata, a Huron and Iroquois word for "settlement."

The Huguenots and the New World

In 1538, a party of Huguenots settled on the island of St. Kitts in the Caribbean. But even in this isolated place, Catholic persecution followed them. Spaniards found the colony and slaughtered its inhabitants. Another Huguenot colony that was established in 1562 in South Carolina was also destroyed by the Spanish. In 1564, Huguenots successfully colonized the coast of Florida near present-day Jacksonville—until 1565, when they too were massacred by Spanish explorers. After initial failures in 1541 and 1598, other French settlers began colonizing Newfoundland and Québec in Canada. - The Human Flow Increases The pace of emigration from Europe quickened in the 17th century. Wars had ravaged much of the Netherlands and Northern Europe. In England, economic inflation and poverty caused further problems. Due to these poor conditions, many sought refuge in the New World. In 1620, a party of English Separatists known as the Pilgrims left Plymouth in England to avoid persecution from the Church of England. Their goal was a sheltered harbor that the Dutch sea captain Henry Hudson had explored in 1609. Instead, a navigation error brought them to the shores of Massachusetts Bay. Puritans followed, settling Massachusetts and other parts of New England. In the New World, Puritans would be able to freely practice their own form of Christian beliefs.

Francisco Vázquez de Coronado and Hernando de Soto

In 1540, Francisco Vázquez de Coronado, a governor in New Spain, led an expedition of 1,300 north out of Mexico. The purpose of the expedition was to find a land called Cíbola, a place of untold riches. This fabulous land was apparently located in the heart of what would become the United States. Coronado's expedition headed north into present-day Arizona and New Mexico. At the panhandles of Texas and Oklahoma, Coronado became disheartened and sent most of his group back to Mexico. Coronado continued with 30 horsemen and a Franciscan friar. He explored as far north as Kansas. Coronado spent three years seeking Cíbola but never found his fabled golden cities. However, along the trek, he was determined to have his men fully scout the territory, which is how they became the first Europeans to see the Grand Canyon. Coronado's exploration contributed a wealth of geographic knowledge about the lands north of Mexico. At the same time Coronado was in Kansas, another Spanish explorer was investigating the American South just a few hundred miles away. Hernando de Soto was a Spanish nobleman who had accompanied Pizarro on his conquest of the Incan Empire in Peru. In 1539, de Soto acted on his dream of finding "another Mexico" to plunder in North America. The de Soto expedition was organized to search for gold in the southeastern United States. He and about 600 men became the first Europeans to explore much of the Southeast. Over the next three years, his party passed through what would become nine more US states. Constant attacks by local American Indians reduced de Soto's forces by half. Like Coronado, de Soto never found the gold he desired. He did, however, map this unknown region and discover the Mississippi River.

Thirty Years' War

In 1618, Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand II was also the Habsburg king of Bohemia. Ferdinand issued a decree that everyone in Bohemia must be Catholic. His officials began closing down Protestant churches.' Protestant leaders of Bohemia protested the action as a violation of a 1609 charter guaranteeing religious freedom. They called two of the Catholic governors of Bohemia to a meeting in Prague Castle. The Protestant assembly declared the governors guilty. As punishment, they were thrown out a high window of the castle. The governors survived the almost 60-foot drop by landing on a large pile of manure. News of the so-called "defenestration of Prague" raced across Europe. Ferdinand called on Spanish forces to invade Bohemia, and the Thirty Years' War was on. Germany became the site of most of the conflict. The war became a jumble as states throughout northern Europe jumped in. By the war's end, 17 different states had been involved. Even the Netherlands and France, both embroiled in their own wars at home, fought in this war. The tangle of alliances and hatreds roared on until 1648 when the Peace of Westphalia put an end to the fighting. After three decades of combat, a quarter of Germany's population had died, and its countryside was ravaged. Outcomes The Thirty Years' War shaped the political and religious terrain of Europe. The balance of power shifted wildly during this time. The powerful state of Spain was weak and defeated, having lost control of the newly independent Netherlands. Sweden had positioned itself as the ultimate power of the Baltic region. France emerged as the power to be reckoned with in Europe. But the most radical change was in the mighty Holy Roman Empire. The Thirty Years' War had brought the most feared power in the Western world to its knees.

The Rise of the Umayyad Emirate

In Damascus, ongoing power struggles, infighting, and assassinations had been going on between Shia and Sunni factions over control of the Arab Empire. By AD 750, the Abbasid dynasty seized power. The Abbasids were "hardline" Muslims. They deposed the Umayyad rulers, going so far as to seek out and murder members of the Umayyad family line. One Umayyad clan member, Abd ar-Rahman, survived the purge. He fled to Spain, where he was able to unify the fractious occupying groups and gain political control of Spain. Taking the title of emir, he established his own Umayyad Emirate at Cordoba in AD 756.

Greeks

settled in 2100 BC, promoted a culture of learning and intellectual pursuits in ancient world developed sophisticated ideas of ethics and systems of democracy, law, government devised base-60 number system; Euclid and Pythagoras developed mathematics and geometry existence defined by philosophers like Socrates and Plato; philosopher Aristotle also an astronomer developed democratic principles of government and law adopted by modern republics; basis for modern democratic governments such as the United States

According to Rousseau, an agreement between citizens and the government in which citizens empower the government to make laws as long as it serves the people is known as _[blank]_.

social contract

feudal system definition

social/political structure in which nobles swear loyalty to a king; in turn, lower classes are subordinate to the nobility

aristocracy definition

socially higher class of citizens who hold elite status form of government in which political power is held by the most qualified individuals who have no interest in monetary gain; socially higher class of citizens who hold elite status

Raphael (1483-1520)

son of Italian court painter; became an independent master at 17; died at 37 at 25, commissioned by Pope Julius II to decorate papal court and palace master portraitist is known for soft drapery, glowing skin tones, human warmth renowned for painting many versions of the madonna and child

sacrament definition

spiritual ritual of the Christian faith

John Wycliffe

spoke against the principle of transubstantiation, saying that bread and wine do not actually become the flesh and blood of Christ, but are merely symbols Wycliffe denounced by Gregory XI for blasphemy English Church banned all English Bibles and placed severe restrictions on any new translations of the scripture

The Third Crusade Lays a Foundation

In Europe, Saladin's recapture of Jerusalem had prompted the call for the Third Crusade. The British king Richard the Lionheart wore the red-crossed tabard alongside the Knights Templar to take Jerusalem back. Richard's offensive against the Saracens won back Acre from the Muslims, but Jerusalem eluded him. Ultimately, the Third Crusade ended in a draw. Saladin negotiated a treaty with King Richard so that Muslims retained control of Jerusalem in exchange for allowing Christian pilgrims safe passage. Failure to retake the Holy Land would lead to the Fourth Crusade in 1192. Saladin retired to Damascus and died in 1193, but he remained a heroic figure in Islamic history.

The Virginia Company and Other Early Business Ventures

In Europe, one of the first modern companies was the Virginia Company. It became one of the first corporations. The company's founders secured a royal charter from King James I of England in 1606. This charter allowed them to create the Virginia Colony (Jamestown Island) in present-day Virginia. The owners, however, did not have enough money to fund exploration and settlement, and the Crown did not provide any money.

hieroglyphics definition

system of writing that used symbolic pictures to convey meaning

outcomes of the Council of Trent

the Vulgate Bible became the only legitimate biblical source indulgences were to no longer be sold

purge definition 2

the act of ridding an area of people, usually violently or suddenly

rhetoric definition

the art of using words effectively; the art of debate and intellectual argument

rhetoric definition

the art or skill of speaking or writing formally and effectively especially as a way to persuade or influence people

animism definition

the belief that spirits inhabit all plants, animals, and objects

theology definition

the body of religious beliefs and concepts; the study of religious belief and practice

flagship definition

the captain's vessel in a fleet of ships

Eurasia definition

the combined area of the European and Asian landmass

Which identifies a key turning point in the Haitian Slave Revolt?

the defeat of Napoleon's army by Toussaint Louverture's forces

diaspora definition

the dispersing of a people from their homeland, sometimes by military force

electrification definition

the early promotion of widespread electrical wiring of public buildings and private homes

Tanakh definition

the entire Hebrew holy scriptures, corresponding to the Old Testament

Columbian Exchange definition

the exchange of plants, animals, resources, ideas, and diseases between Europe, Africa, and the Americas during the Age of Exploration Europeans who arrived after Christopher Columbus quickly recognized the natural wealth of the Americas. A complex and lucrative economic trade system developed. This transfer of people, plants, animals, ideas, and resources between Europe, Africa, and the Americas has become known as the Columbian Exchange. The results were the most significant ecological and demographic changes in human history. Columbus's four voyages across the Atlantic to the Americas initiated the Columbian Exchange. Columbus brought finished products, such as tools and clothing, to the Americas. He took natural resources, such as food crops and precious metals, back to Europe. This became one leg of what would become the triangular trade. Soon, the French, British, Dutch, and Portuguese were utilizing these new routes to the Americas to increase their trade. Manufactured goods and luxuries from Europe were transported to North America. Guns, cloth, iron, and beer from Europe were transported to West Africa. Rum, iron, gunpowder, cloth, and tools are sent from New England to West Africa. Slaves were sent from West Africa to the Caribbean. Slaves, sugar, and molasses were sent from the Caribbean to North America. Sugar, molasses, and wood were sent from the Caribbean to Europe. Rice, silk, indigo, tobacco were sent from the American South to Europe. Fish, livestock, flour, and lumber were sent from New England to the Caribbean. Whale oil, lumber, and furs were sent from New England to Europe.

What is the Law of the Twelve Tables?

the first laws written down in Rome

prototype definition

the first working model of an invention

globalism definition

the idea that economic and political policies of one country transcend geographic boundaries and affect other countries around the globe

Horizon definition

the line where the Earth appears to meet the sky

Middle Passage definition

the middle portion of the triangular trade in which African slaves were transported from West Africa to the New World

Cape of Good Hope definition

the name given to a geographic feature on the southernmost coast of Africa

papacy definition

the office of the pope in the Roman Catholic Church; adjective, papal

entrepreneur definition

the organizer of an economic venture; especially one who organizes, owns, manages, and assumes the risks of a business

coup d'etat definition

the overthrow of an existing authority

Great Fear definition

the period of French history beginning with the storming of the Bastille on July 14, 1789

oral tradition definition

the practice of spreading information and culture through the spoken word or by singing

Which inventions were developed during the Renaissance?

the printing press the microscope the telescope

Christianization definition

the process of converting individuals to Christianity

deductive reasoning definition

the process of thinking that involves considering an overall general idea or theory and drawing specific conclusions or making specific predictions about it

inductive reasoning definition

the process of thinking that involves considering specific ideas and using them to make a final, more general conclusion

fanatical definition

the quality of being extremely zealous or devoted to an idea

Intrinsic motivation Definition

the reason to do something comes from within yourself. Memory tip: "in" refers to something inside of you When you have intrinsic motivation, you do something because you want to. You do not receive a physical reward when you reach a goal you set for yourself. Instead, the reward is the sense of accomplishment or satisfaction you feel. Sales managers use intrinsic motivation to inspire their sales teams. This kind of motivation appeals to the salesperson's own goals and ambitions. Managers use a variety of intrinsic motivators. Example: You want to improve your presentation skills, so you attend a public speaking course outside of work hours.

What important idea, which served as the foundation of the United States Constitution, was based on precedents set by the Magna Carta?

the right to a fair and speedy trial

anatomy definition

the science of how the human body is constructed and how it works

flora definition

the scientific term for all the plants that grow in a particular environment or region

rationalism definition

the view that reason and logic form the foundation of knowledge

Which theological teaching stated that the church and the state are two separate spheres of influence that can advise one another, but each is its own distinct area?

two kingdoms doctrine

pictographs definition

writing in which pictures symbolize particular meanings

A charter is a(n) _[blank]_. Which most accurately completes the sentence?

written grant

Circumnavigation

In late summer of 1519, five ships departed Seville, Spain, headed by Ferdinand Magellan. Magellan was on a mission to find a sea route to Far East spice markets—by sailing westward. Bad luck dogged the venture. Storms destroyed Magellan's scout ship. The largest ship turned and fled toward Spain, taking most of the expedition's supplies with it. Magellan guided the remaining three ships into the inlet at the southern tip of the South American continent. For 38 days, they maneuvered through 350 miles of dead ends and blocked inlets. This route was later named the Strait of Magellan.

Scientific Revolution and Religion

In specific circumstances, a revolution is something radical and life-changing. Beginning in the 1550s, a current of exploration and discovery was surging through Europe. As democracy and learning grew dramatically, advances in science abounded. Part of what helped this shift was the Protestant Reformation. Theological reformers like Martin Luther and John Calvin tore down the hierarchy that had been in place for over a thousand years with the Roman Catholic Church. The separation of church and state was held forth in Luther's two kingdoms doctrine, which provided a greater opportunity for scientists and thinkers to question nature. Brave men like Galileo Galilei, Nicolaus Copernicus, Francis Bacon, and René Descartes all challenged the many commonly held notions of the nature of the universe and humanity's place in it. However, the Roman Catholic Church did not always agree. In 1542, the pope instituted the Roman Inquisition to enforce faithfulness to the Church. The pope's enforcers were a special order called the Society of Jesus, known as the Jesuits. The Jesuits were dedicated to the promotion and defense of Catholicism. They were led by Ignatius of Loyola, a Spanish soldier turned priest who was well-suited for militant Christianity. The Jesuits had no fixed duties, wore no uniforms, and were answerable to only the pope. Catholics feared and resented them.

The Rise of the Ottoman Empire

In the 11th century AD, the Abbasid Caliphate had appointed the chieftains of a nomadic Turkish tribe called the Seljuks as deputies to oversee Muslim Persia. The Seljuks used their authority to engage in battles with outlying Byzantine provinces in Anatolia, known in the present day as Turkey. Splinter groups of Seljuks established their own small emirates throughout the Anatolian frontier, chipping away at the edges of the Byzantine Empire. Invasions by Mongol hordes made the region even more unstable. Osman Gazi, a leader of one of the emirates, unified the various Seljuk factions and established the Ottoman Empire in AD 1299. The Seljuks were kept busy with the defense of the region from the Mongol hordes. Even so, they still preserved culture and knowledge that the Ottoman Empire was known for. Its lasting legacy can be seen in the art, culture, language, and government of the area. Richly brocaded textiles and exotic fabrics such as silk, for example, were trademarks of the Ottoman Empire, along with the traditional spices which had made this region economically and politically important during the medieval era. The Ottoman Empire occupied most of Anatolia. Ottoman forces crossed the Aegean Sea and began to conquer European territory in a wide arc from the Balkans to the Black Sea. It was just a matter of time before the declining Byzantine Empire fell. Battling alongside the Turks were the Janissaries, an elite class of soldiers. The Janissaries were captured Christian children who had been converted to Islam and forced into military service. In AD 1453, after 150 years of bloodshed, the Ottoman Turks launched a successful offensive against Constantinople. Continuous cannon fire blasted the massive city walls into rubble. Finally, Constantinople fell. The conquering Ottoman Turks changed the name of its new capital to Istanbul, erasing the last traces of the Byzantine Empire.

Which accurately describe the involvement of the Catholic Church in the Crusades?

In the 12th century, the pope called for the Baltic Crusades, sending the Teutonic Knights from Germany to slaughter heretics and pagans in present-day Latvia, Estonia, and Finland. In 1208, the Church declared the Albigensian Crusade that took place entirely within France against Christian opponents. In AD 1095, Pope Urban II called the Roman Catholic Church to wage war against Muslims over the possession of Jerusalem.

Olmec Culture (c. 1200 BC-c. 400 BC)

Location: Gulf Coast of Mexico near Veracruz Population: unknown; 18,000 in major city of San Lorenzo Government: precise form of government unknown; no priests or ruling caste known Religion: polytheistic; animal deities based on nature; human sacrifice Agriculture: extensive agriculture; grew corn, beans, cacao beans to make chocolate for drinking; latex Highlights: Olmec culture was the first known human culture to cultivate cacao to make chocolate. The world has been a happier place ever since. They also built complex monuments for worship, created massive stone sculptures, and devised elaborate ball game contests.

Carthage (c. 800 BC-146 BC)

Location: Northern African coast of the Mediterranean Population: around 500,000 Government: monarchy modeled on Greek concepts of democracy and citizenship Religion: pantheon based on Greek deities Agriculture: - grew wheat, barley, olives, fruits, grapes for wine and raisins - fertile land - farming leads the economy rather than trade Highlights: Despite a smaller population, this area had great success in agriculture. Carthage took advantage of its location and soil to produce a range of foods, especially raisins and other fruit, and export them. The steady rain and warm African winds made it an ideal place for these crops.

The Ottoman Empire Declines

The Ottoman Empire declined after the death of Suleiman in 1566. The Ottoman culture had been slow to embrace modern advances. As the empire fell further behind developments in the Western world, it was no longer thought of as a threat by the West. Though diminished in strength, the Ottoman Empire long remained essentially the same size. It began losing European territories in 1699, and its lands along the North African seashores and Egypt in the late 1800s. But the Ottoman Empire continued to be a political force into the 20th century.

Which best describes how the fall of Constantinople to Ottoman Turks affected Europe?

The Ottoman Empire now stood as gatekeeper of east-west trading routes, affecting Europe's economy.

Which accurately describes military conquests of the Ottoman Empire?

The Ottoman Empire seized control of Constantinople and defeated the Byzantine Empire.

How did the conclusion of the Crusades and weakening of the Holy Roman Empire in the 13th century affect the Ottoman Empire?

The Ottoman Empire was able to conquer northern Africa, including all of Egypt, most of the Middle East, and eventually Constantinople, renaming it Istanbul.

The Enduring Heritage of Roman Government and Law

The Roman Empire dominated the Western world until its collapse in AD 476. Almost 2,000 years after the decline of Rome, its advanced ideas and achievements still exert a powerful influence. Rome's systems of government and law are perhaps its greatest contributions to civilization, providing a basis of law and representation for many future cultures.

Roman Law in Action

The Roman theory of government was only one advance adopted by later civilizations. Rome's first code of civil law was established in 450 BC. This was the Law of the Twelve Tables. This foundational legislation was written on twelve bronze tablets and displayed in Rome's public meeting place, the Forum. The Roman law code detailed the rights and duties of citizens and defined the legal process. It, too, became a model followed by other civilizations.

Which accurately describes the Roman Empire's influence on modern Western governments?

The Romans invented a law code detailing the rights and duties of citizens and defined the legal process.

Senate

The Senate was the central governing body that made the laws and decided policy for the entire empire. Senators were appointed for life. All 100 members of the original Roman Senate were patricians. The plebeians had little say in this early government.

Which best describes the religious differences between the Western Roman Empire and the Eastern Roman Empire?

The Western Roman Empire followed the Roman Catholic Church, while the Eastern Roman Empire followed the Orthodox Christian Church.

What is the significance of the Bill of Rights?

The amendments constitute the government's recognition of naturally occurring rights and liberties.

Troy, Phoenicia, and Carthage

The ancient Mediterranean region saw the development of several major civilizations. They included Troy in Asia Minor, Phoenicia in the Near East, and Carthage in Northern Africa, which later influenced the Greek and Roman Empires. Greek and Roman ideas then went on to shape later the governments, sciences, and cultures of later societies. We can see the effects of these great civilizations in modern culture. Much like cultural diffusion and borrowing is evident in the modern world, these different societies shaped their world and each other.

A Flowering Culture

While the rest of Europe entered the Dark Ages, Spain blossomed culturally under Moorish rule. The Visigoth kings had rejected many of the advances of civilization, but the Muslims embraced them. They respected knowledge and learning. Libraries, universities, and medical colleges fostered advances in science, mathematics, geography, and literature. The arts flourished. Mosques and palaces featuring distinctive Moorish architecture sprang up in the major cities. Through diplomatic efforts, the emirate became a principal player in Mediterranean politics. As Cordoba became a center of intellectual knowledge, its population swelled to an estimated 1 million people.

Who was Zheng He?

a Chinese admiral who explored the Indian Ocean during the Ming dynasty

Which best defines deism?

a belief that God does not intervene with the laws of the universe

line of demarcation definition

a boundary separating something from another thing

carbon-14 definition

a carbon atom that has been affected by neutrons, making it a slightly radioactive radiocarbon

Amendment definition

a change in the meaning or words of a law or document such as a constitution

Barometer

a device that measures air pressure; from Greek baros, "weight," and metron, "measure." - 1640s: Evangelista Torricelli invents the barometer while working with Galileo to study the principle of the vacuum. - Barometers detect changes in the weather and measure the altitude above sea level. - Wealthy homes were adorned with ornately carved wooden display cabinets holding mercury barometers. - 1860: Robert Fitzroy publishes the first regular printed weather forecasts based on barometer readings.

Thermometer

a device that measures temperature - Early 1600s: Several scientists invent the thermometer, including Galileo Galilei, Santorio, Daniel Fahrenheit, and Olaus Roemer. - Each improved on the thermoscope. - 1714: Fahrenheit adds mercury and a numerical scale of degrees. - 1742: Swedish astronomer Anders Celsius creates the Celsius scale. - Celsius's scale became the standard temperature measurement for the scientific community.

meroitic writing

a form of hieroglyphs based on Egyptian writing that was adapted by Meroë scribes

Salon definition

a gathering of intellectuals at which free discussion was encouraged

ethnic enclave definition

a geographic area containing a concentrated population made up of a particular culture or people

longitude definition

a global measurement of degrees expressed by an imaginary line drawn from north to south

theocracy definition

a government based on a religion; divine inspiration claimed by authority figures

monastery definition

a house or group of houses where monks live and work

catapult definition

a large mechanism with a movable arm for hurling heavy objects over city walls

common law definition

a legal system that depends on established custom and previous rulings

frontier definition

a line or border between countries; uncharted territory (in terms of land, or in a field of knowledge)

panhandle definition

a long, narrow strip of territory that projects from the border of a larger territory, so named because it resembles the handle of a pan

Saracens definition

a medieval term for nomadic people from the desert areas of the Middle East

Puritan definition

a member of a sect that aimed to reform the Church of England; term frequently associated with austerity, strictness, and purity of belief

Separatist definition

a member of a sect that broke away from the Church of England in the 16th century, also called Pilgrims

Quaker definition

a member of the Society of Friends, a Christian group that practices pacifism and equality

governance definition

administration of a group at any level from government to family

pantheon definition

all gods and goddesses worshipped by a culture

surplus definition

amount or quality greater than what is needed

emir definition

an Arab ruler whose domain is an emirate

avatar definition

an Earthly incarnation of a god

social contract definition

an agreement between a government and those it governs

totem definition

an animal, object, or idol with which a person feels a spiritual connection

draftsman definition

an artist skilled in drawing or designing plans

plantation definition

an estate where cash crops are grown, often housing the property owner and the land laborers

Utopian Socialism

an ideal society in which the working class will flourish first proposed by French philosopher Charles Fourier 1824: Scotsman Robert Owen creates New Harmony, Indiana, a communal farm settlement 1828: New Harmony fails due to disputes among villagers over government and religious differences

malaria definition

an infectious disease carried by mosquitoes; marked by fever and chills

communicable disease definition

an infectious disease that can be spread between people

The Enlightenment Definition

an intellectual movement stressing individualism and the use of reason over tradition

Charter definition

an official document establishing a country's claim to territory

slum definition

an overpopulated urban neighborhood of old buildings, economic depression, poverty, and crime

Hysteria definition

an uncontrollable emotional state characterized by frenzy and mania

salutary neglect definition

an unofficial British policy under which the colonists acted with little economic or political oversight The British government adopted a policy of salutary neglect toward its American colonies. In exchange for the loose enforcement of English laws, the colonies would remain loyal to England. It was also an economic policy to promote the growth of the colonies. 1607 to 1696 - England had no specific policy regarding the colonies. 1697 to 1763 - The Navigation Acts were passed but not enforced. 1763 to 1775 - End of salutary neglect; efforts to exert economic and political control over the colonies.

Which identifies a science whose study allowed Renaissance artists to produce more accurate and lifelike paintings of humans?

anatomy

flying buttress definition

arched support structure on the outer wall of a Gothic building

Judaism (Monotheistic Religion)

began in Near East around 2000 BC traditions and history recorded in the Torah, known as the Old Testament in the Christian tradition first large religious movement to promote idea of monotheism nomadic culture; frequently faced expulsion and persecution by other cultures exchanged advances with other cultures promoted literacy and scholarship created concepts of equality under law established court system to uphold Torah and secular law

Zoroastrianism

began in Persia in 550 BC; based on philosophy of Zoroaster (Zarathustra) focuses on duality of human nature, ethics, and nature of good and evil influences physical plane and cosmic plane linked; both planes affected by earthly behaviors precursor to Islam; state religion of Persia from 550 BC to AD 642 now practiced by less than 200,000 believers in isolated areas of India and Middle East, with followers in Britain, Canada, and the United States

reincarnation

belief that a person's soul is reborn into new bodies to live multiple lives

Leonardo da Vinci, artist (1452-1519)

brought human element to painted portraits, becoming the master artist of Renaissance era devised new formula of paint using linseed oil instead of egg white to bind pigments layout of Last Supper demonstrated advanced knowledge of linear perspective his 1506 portrait Mona Lisa regarded as most famous painting in history

What was a primary source of conflict between France and Britain that led to the French and Indian War?

control of natural resources and the fur trade in North America

Mercantilism definition

economic theory that says a nation can build wealth by maximizing the export of goods while minimizing the purchase of imports

due process definition

guarantee that legal procedures will be fair and correctly carried out according to the law

penance definition

hardship imposed as a penalty

Which term is defined as the worship of religious images?

idolatry

Unalienable definition

impossible to surrender or have taken away (as spelled in US Constitution; typically spelled "inalienable" today)

William Tyndale

in 1522, produced an English-language translation of the Bible in Germany that was published and widely distributed English Church authorities condemned the Tyndale Bible and burned copies of it in public ceremonies was betrayed, captured, and tried and convicted of heresy, then strangled to death and burned became a martyr for the Protestant cause Tyndale Bible formed the basis for the King James Bible

representatives definition

in a representative democracy, those who are elected to be the voice of citizens from their districts to the government

Extrinsic motivation Definition

means the reason you want to do something is a reward (like money or praise). Memory tip: "ex" refers to the exterior, or something outside of you People with extrinsic motivation do something for a reward such as money or praise. For instance, when Tyrell sells the most product, he is named Employee of the Month and receives a cash bonus. But money isn't the only extrinsic motivator. Example: You want to earn the extra day off the company is offering to the salesperson who schedules the most sales meetings.

feudalism definition

medieval political hierarchical system with a king at the top level, then his vassals, and serfs on the lowest level ~~~~~~~~~~~~~ For centuries, both Japan and Europe used a socioeconomic system called feudalism. In Europe, feudalism lasted from about AD 300 to 1400, except in Russia, where it began in the 11th century and continued through 1850. Japanese feudalism lasted from the 12th century to the 19th century. Historians and economists have identified several things characteristic of a feudal system: use of servient tenement elevated status of a specialized warrior class bonds of obedience tying individuals together, from tenant to warrior to noble lack of centralized authority

Sextant definition

navigational tool used to determine longitude and latitude by calculating the angle between the horizon and a celestial body such as the moon, sun, or a star

Astrolabe definition

navigational tool used to determine time of day and geographical location by the position of the stars

secular definition

not connected with religion or a church

Annulment definition

official ruling that a marriage is invalid

Diplomat definition

one who practices diplomacy (the skill of managing international relations)

idolater definition

one who worships an idol (an image of a divine being or a pagan deity)

meritocracy definition

organization or system in which leadership is based on intelligence and ability

Faith in the Arab (Islamic) Empire

originated in the seventh century AD served to unite tribes; as the empire spread, so did the religion centralized in the Middle East and North Africa combined faith and state as one institution

composition definition

overall design of writing or images; the placing of elements to create mood or meaning

Ephoroi definition

overseer officials in Sparta and other Peloponnesian states who were elected and shared power with the kings

compensation definition

payment (typically money) for work done Compensation is payment—typically money—that is given to a person for completing assigned work. Compensation is an example of extrinsic motivation because the reward—the money—comes from outside the person getting paid. Salespeople are usually compensated based on the number of sales they make for a company. Compensation based on sales offers a powerful incentive to sell. An incentive is something that motivates or encourages a person to perform a desired behavior. In the sales world, an incentive can result in both the salesperson and the company making more money. Sales-based businesses must decide which compensation model best meets their needs—and which will best motivate their sales team. A lucrative compensation package can also be an incentive that attracts salespeople to a business. Successful salespeople will want to work for a company that offers the chance to make a lot of money.

A French intellectual of the Enlightenment period was known as a _[blank]_.

philosophe

Which option most accurately describes the writing system of the Phoenicians, in which one symbol represented one sound?

phonetic

Anarchism

political philosophy that maintains government is unnecessary and that individuals have complete freedom believes voluntary cooperation between citizens are sufficient to maintain society not a violent philosophy, though some adherents connected to riots and bombings

dynastic cycle definition

political theory that a Chinese dynasty would remain in power while providing good government, but if it abused power, it would decline and lose its Mandate of Heaven, or favor of the gods

charismatic definition

possessing a compelling look and manner with which people identify and immediately trust

checks and balances definition

powers used by the three branches of government to limit the actions of each other

Which geographic locations did the Arab Empire control up to the year AD 750?

present-day Spain North Africa Middle East

skepticism definition

questioning or doubting attitude; philosophy that knowledge requires proof

vassal states definition

regions acquired by alliance or treaty that owe allegiance to a central ruler

patent definition

registered status for a product or process that grants government protection to prevent others from copying and selling an invention

civic definition

related to a city; from the Latin "civis," meaning city, the root word of civilization and civil

Mosaic definition

relating to Moses, a Jewish lawgiver

funerary definition

relating to funerals and rituals involved in attending to the dead

Neolithic definition

relating to the New Stone Age from around 9000 BC to 3000 BC

monotheistic definition

relating to the religious theory involving the existence of only one god

Abdicate definition

renounce a throne; resign from office

mandatory definition

required by laws or rules

seppuku

ritual suicide of samurai in feudal Japan (also known as "hara-kiri")

Rite of passage definition

ritual that marks an important life event

Minoans

rose around 2200 BC on island of Crete; considered first advanced European civilization capital of Knossos possibly destroyed by Santorini volcano eruption in 1650 BC extensive trade with Greeks due to Crete's strategic location in Eastern Mediterranean heavy Greek influence in engineering, architecture, and government of city-states Crete conquered by Roman Empire in 69 BC; later became Byzantine possession

The policy of relaxing the enforcement of laws meant to maintain economic control in the colonies is called _[blank]_.

salutary neglect

Pilgrims

separatists from the Church of England, established their own practices and belief systems 1607: fled to Netherlands to avoid persecution from Church of England 1620: 102 members sailed to Virginia colony December 1620: navigation mistake led to landing at Plymouth Rock, Massachusetts almost wiped out by harsh conditions but aided in survival by Wampanoag tribe land acquisition sours relations with American Indians, causing King Philip's War

satrap definition

a term for a provincial governor, from the Old Persian language

British East India Company

charted by royal decree in 1600 joint-stock company traded primarily in India and China established the beginnings of the British empire in the region forced the English language and religion on the indigenous population

Dutch East India Company 2

chartered in 1602 first, largest, and most powerful multinational corporation Dutch government was an investor granted extensive economic and political powers: minted its own money, had a standing army and navy, established own judicial system

Dutch West India Company

chartered in 1621 by the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands given a trade monopoly in the Americas, Africa, and the West Indies given jurisdiction over the Atlantic slave trade clashed violently with indigenous populations

granary definition

communal structure built for the storage of grain

In which political system does the government own all businesses and control the economy?

communism

crossdating definition

comparing environmental data and tree-ring patterns to judge when a wooden artifact was felled

heliocentric theory definition

concept of the solar system with the sun at the center and planets orbiting it

excommunication definition

forbidding someone to participate in the services and sacraments of a Christian church

tyranny definition

form of government in which political power is held by a single ruler

democracy definition

form of government in which political power is held by the people

Diet definition

formal legislative assembly

Buddhism (Nontheistic Religion)

founded in Northern India by Siddhartha Gautama (b. 566 BC), who became Buddha principles of Four Noble Truths and Eight-Fold Path lead to spiritual enlightenment focus on moderation, mental discipline, reincarnation, spiritual balance via meditation built elaborate temples and schools promoted ethics, culture, learning practiced in India until the Muslim era major religion in Tibet, China, Vietnam

Romanesque (Medieval) Style

less classical Roman architecture, more Byzantine features include domes, rounded barrel vaults, and semicircular arches solid and heavy Byzantine design thick walls, small, deeply recessed windows dimly lit buildings with a somber and heavy look

settlement definition

location where groups ceased roaming and built permanent dwellings

Louis XIV (1638-1718)

longest reign in European history (72 years) was known as the Sun King ushered in a golden age for French culture; Louis established academies for the arts, architecture, and science and also patronized authors and playwrights the opulent palace he built at Versailles reflected the Sun King's extravagant tastes strengthened the French military and centralized the French government

Industrial Revolution: Inventors and Inventions

During the First Industrial Revolution, innovation ruled the day. Advances in engineering and design led to more efficient devices. Everyday people with mechanical skills were inventing groundbreaking tools for accomplishing various tasks. Some of the devices these innovators created are still in use over 200 years later.

Which accurately describes historical events of the Han Dynasty?

During the Han Dynasty, trade prospered across Asia, Europe, and Africa because of the Silk Road.

Ancient Cultures - Asia

- A variety of political powers vied for control of Asia. - Only the Mongols were able to subdue the majority of Asia and Europe. - Trade connected many of these civilizations to each other. - The process of island hopping brought humans to the South Pacific, including Australia and New Zealand.

Which accurately describes the Middle Passage of the triangular trade?

During the Middle Passage, European nations transported slaves from West Africa to the Americas in exchange for goods and resources.

Agricultural Revolution

- Agriculture was limited by local climate and geography. - Trade provided humans the opportunity to expand and vary their diets. - Domestication of plants and animals for food production was the first way in which humans began to engineer their environments to meet their needs. Foodstuffs were brought into new climates and regions. - They adapted and often developed into modified forms. ~~~~~~ The agricultural revolution started a chain reaction did not end in the Neolithic age. The way we grow food continues to shape human culture and society, as well as the lives of many other organisms. With more and more genetically modified organisms and other advancements being added to the food supply, the agricultural revolution continues today. Throughout the human family timeline, humans have interacted with their environment to produce a greater yield of crops. Today, our understanding of chemistry and biology affect our agriculture and animal husbandry. The invention of artificial fertilizers in the 1900s helped fuel an explosion in food production. This in turn helped fuel and an explosion in the human population. For example, herbicides and pesticides protect and promote the growth of crops. In the short term, the protected crops produce more crops in each growing season. However, the long-term effects are still being chronicled by scientists. The pesticides and herbicides can push some plants or insects toward extinction, disrupting the environment. In addition, whatever is placed on crops may end up in the food. Some conditions in livestock and in people have been linked toxic or overused chemicals. Communities, businesses, and activist movements have all formed around how these technologies should be used. For thousands of years, most people had to be farmers of some kind to produce enough food. As technology advances and the modern world becomes more stratified, more and more individuals look at farming as an extinct occupation. Fewer and fewer individuals go into farming or animal husbandry each year. Large companies have bought up these traditional family farms and turned farming from agriculture to agribusiness. Corporations now treat agriculture as a global industry rather than the ancient practice of seasonal and regional agriculture. Debates over the safety of food technology, the shift toward corporate farms, and the struggle to keep reducing world hunger keep show that humans are still navigating the consequences of the first agricultural revolution. Doubtless, there are still more changes to come.

Sir Francis Bacon (1561-1626)

- British scientist, statesman, humanist, and scientific philosopher - established empirical scientific methods based on verifiable evidence - worked to reform outdated systems and wrong ideas in science, society, politics - died of bronchitis after working with ice and measuring decay rate of meat Bacon rejected the idea that scientists should rely on abstract theories. Instead, he urged his scientific peers to perform experiments to draw their conclusions. This method of gaining knowledge through experimentation was called empiricism. Bacon solved problems by inductive reasoning. He moved from one element of a scientific question to the next, proving each one true or false before moving on to the next one.

Babylon

Around 2300 BC, the small city of Babylon arose on the site of the fallen Sumerian Empire. In 300 years, Babylon became a city-state. Neighboring Amorite kings moved in and established a dynasty, declaring Babylon the capital of the Babylonian Empire. The Babylonian Empire covered Southern Iraq from the Persian Gulf to present-day Baghdad. The Babylonians continued worshipping the Sumerian gods, but the Amorites abolished the rule of the priest-kings. Priests still ministered to the people, but they no longer controlled the economy or government. Society became less restrictive, trade thrived, and the empire prospered. At the core of its economy was the Babylonian farmer.

Which most accurately describes the Qin dynasty's lasting impact on Asia?

During the Qin Dynasty, China earned its name and Emperor Qin Shi Huang began construction on the Great Wall.

Which identifies the political reformer whose challenge of Mexican President Porfirio Díaz began the Mexican Revolution?

Francisco Madero

René Descartes (1569-1650)

- French scientist, philosopher, mathematician, music theorist - invented system of analytic geometry that bears his name, the Cartesian system - considered father of modern philosophy; expressed existence as "I think; therefore, I am" - broke down the essence of truth through logic and mathematics. - wrote books on geometry, algebra, physics, philosophy, and scientific principles Descartes preferred abstract thinking over experimentation. He confirmed his hypotheses through deductive reasoning. He also saw a serious need for a standardized way of experimenting. Descartes laid out the principles of what would become the scientific method.

Ancient Cultures - Oceania

- Human civilizations in Oceania were primarily seafaring. - New discoveries challenged the traditional ideas of the earliest oceanic travel. - Cultural dispersion across islands explains shared traits and practices among island inhabitants. - The islands were unknown to European civilization until the 18th century. - Oceania includes the continent of Australia and the smaller Pacific islands surrounding it, including those of Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia.

Thomas Alva Edison - America

1878: patents a workable light bulb nicknamed the "Wizard of Menlo Park" designs laboratory complex staffed by inventive immigrants whom he calls his "muckers" guides invention of the phonograph, electric generator, alkaline battery, motion picture, and other technological advances designs power plants and encourages nationwide electrification receives total of 1,093 patents, gaining wealth and influence

World of the Khans

Around AD 1162, in a yurt on the windswept steppes of Mongolia, a child was born. Young Temujin grew up regarding savage violence as a way of life. As an adult, he was responsible for the deaths of millions of people. By then, Temujin was known as Genghis Khan. His name would inspire terror, but he would establish an empire larger than any the world had ever known.

Trans-Saharan Trade

- Mali emperor Mansa Musa made a pilgrimage to Mecca, brought back Muslim scholars, and transformed Timbuktu into center of Islamic Sub-Saharan Africa. - Trade routes connected the Mediterranean world with goods and ideas from central and southern Africa. - The most-traded items were gold from the Sahelian Kingdoms and salt from the Mediterranean (North Islamic States). - The practice of slavery was permitted as part of the Islamic religion.

Tensions Reach the Flashpoint taxing the nobility

Desperate to solve the debt crisis, Louis suggested taxing the nobility, who rose up in opposition. One representative of the commoners, Maximilien Robespierre, begged for reforms. The morning of June 20, 1789, Robespierre and Third Estate delegates created a constitution and renamed themselves the National Constituent Assembly on July 9, 1789. King Louis XVI would not recognize the assembly; a coup was imminent.

Analyzing Images: Jacob Riis Photography 2

- Old House on Bleecker Street Riis described how real estate investors took over buildings, like this clearly decrepit house on the edge of a deep hole, to turn a profit while making no renovations for safety. - Hell's Kitchen and Sebastopol Many urban landlords got away with charging high rent for run-down and dangerous living quarters, since housing was in such high demand but limited supply. The construction of such homes was often quick and shoddy, also due to the demand. Running water and sewer systems were frequently inadequate, if they existed at all, and garbage often lay in the streets. - Lodgers in Crowded Bayard Street Tenement Tenement houses were built to accommodate multiple families, but like many houses at the time, most tenements were quickly and poorly constructed. Room was also scarce. Tenants were often charged per bed or spots in a room. At times, there could be as many as 20 people living in one room. - Bohemian Cigar Makers at Work in Their Tenement The entire family was employed to help with the business. Riis reported that the cigar company head owned the tenement house and his renters were his workers. Families worked in sweatshop conditions "from [when] they can see till bedtime"—about 17 hours a day—for seven days a week. - The Man Slept in This Cellar for Four Years Limited space and housing, along with the poor condition of existing living conditions, drove many to seek shelter underground in cellars. Cellars were cold, dirty, and uncomfortable, but were usually free from the high rent amounts that landlords charged their tenants. It was not uncommon for rent to be nearly as high as wages. This, combined with little time or opportunity to get an education or learn new skills, often meant that immigrant tenants were trapped in a cycle of poverty.

African Genesis and Exodus

4.4 million years ago - earliest remains of humanoid ever discovered, in East Africa 600,000 years ago - largest migration of humanoids out of Africa into Asia and Europe 60,000-50,000 years ago - earliest humans reach Australia and surrounding islands 50,000-40,000 years ago - earliest humans reach Northern Asia/Siberia 20,000-15,000 years ago - earliest humans reach the Americas across land bridge linking North America and Asia 15,000-12,000 years ago - earliest human habitation of South America along the Andean cordillera

Pericles definition

495-429 BC; famous orator, general, and statesman during the Golden Age of Athens

Five characteristics define a civilization

- advanced cities - specialized workers - a source of authority such as government , law, or religion - a writing system - advanced technology

Roots of the Scientific Revolution

During the European Renaissance, a series of events would pave the way for science as we know it today. These events, collectively called the Scientific Revolution, drew influence from many different sources, including Greek philosophers, Jewish and Muslim scholars, and the Age of Discovery.

George Stephenson - England

1829: Stephenson designs the Rocket; wins five- locomotive race, and establishes record-breaking land speed of 36 mph train travel becomes major means of transportation locomotives open American West to settlement at rapid pace

Alexander Graham Bell - Scotland

1876: patents the telephone his mother and his wife are both hearing impaired teaches at school for the deaf in Boston

The Invasions Begin (Rome)

Around AD 370, Germanic tribes fled into Roman territory seeking protection from fierce raiders known as the Huns. Among them were the Visigoths, who appealed to Emperor Valens for permission to settle near the Danube. Valens placed the Visigoths under the control of two inept provincial governors. The governors mistreated their new subjects, leading to a violent backlash. In AD 376, the Visigoths allied with other tribes of Goths and began a vengeful rampage throughout the eastern empire. In AD 395, the Visigoths rebelled against Roman rule. They proclaimed their leader, Alaric I, king of the empire. Over the next 15 years, the remnants of Rome's army fought against waves of Visigoths, Ostrogoths, Vandals, and other invaders. In AD 409, Alaric's forces arrived at the gates of Rome. Alaric was prepared to negotiate and demanded a ransom of gold and silver, plus pepper. The Roman Senate would not yield. The Visigoths laid siege on Rome for a year. Finally, in August of AD 410, the Visigoths sacked Rome. After one thousand years of rule in the Mediterranean region, the western Roman Empire fell. However, the eastern Roman Empire continued its success as the Byzantine Empire.

Early African Civilizations

African civilization began in Egypt. While much of humanity was living in Neolithic huts, the pharaohs of the great Egyptian Empire were creating the pyramids to enshrine their bodies once they left this world. The effects of Egypt's advanced culture traveled up the banks of the Nile to the region of Nubia in present-day Sudan. The source of much of Egypt's gold, Nubia was an agricultural area of fertile floodplains dotted with small farming communities. Following the Egyptian model, grains like wheat and barley were Nubia's predominant crops. Two varieties of rice also were grown there. The agricultural bounty of Nubia rivaled the value of its gold. Nubia was where the next center of African civilization appeared around 2500 BC. Even under the rule of kings, few truly centralized states existed in early Africa. For the most part, small groups of people lived in scattered communities which were united in a loose confederation. The independent groups only came together for brief periods to resolve region-wide issues. This disunity allowed the Egyptian culture to infiltrate the area and take advantage of its resources. Around 1070 BC, the power of Egypt declined, and the area became the Kingdom of Kush. Kush grew powerful enough to seize the throne of Egypt. Kushite pharaohs established the century-long 25th Dynasty of Egypt. The Kushite pharaohs' cemetery, containing more than 200 pyramid tombs, still stands in the deserts of Sudan. Assyrians conquered Egypt in 663 BC, ending the Kushite dynasty. In the eighth century BC, a new Nubian capital arose south of Kush. The city of Meroë endured for several hundred years. Meroë's artifacts showed Egyptian influence, and its buildings followed Greco-Roman forms. The region's frequent summer rainfall gave Meroë an agricultural advantage that ensured wealth and a thriving trade.

The Northwest Territory

After the French and Indian War, colonists believed they would now be free to settle territory gained from the French. This was called the Northwest Territory. It included most of modern-day Ohio, Michigan, Wisconsin, Illinois, and Indiana. However, in hopes of avoiding conflicts with American Indians, the British issued the Proclamation of 1763. This prevented colonists from settling west of the Appalachian Mountains. American Indian tribes in these territories were allowed to keep the land they had inhabited before the colonists' arrival.

Rise of Islam

After the Roman and Byzantine Empires fell, the next major force in Western civilization stepped onto the world stage. The Arab-Islamic culture rose from the same region that gave birth to Judaism and Christianity. While Islam shared some traditions and beliefs with these two religions, Muslims had long been locked in conflict with followers of both faiths. In the seventh century AD, Muslims expanded their civilization across the known world, bringing their religion with them.

Mediterranean Heritage

After the rise of the Mesopotamian civilizations, the next site of active civilization-building in the Western world grew around the Mediterranean Sea. In this relatively small region, some of the most powerful human civilizations rose and fell. Of all of them, the Greek and Roman empires had the greatest influence on the cultural growth and development of the Western world. The future republics of the New World would base their governments and codes of law on Greek and Roman principles. The contributions of these two ancient civilizations would have a lasting impact on the development of science, culture, and government throughout the world, even into modern times.

Which accurately identifies events in the life of Alexander the Great?

Alexander the Great founded the city of Alexandria in Egypt after defeating the Persian army.

Seeking Peace amid Chaos

Almost every region in Europe was touched by civil conflict and strife with no end in sight. Violence, famine, and disease killed untold thousands. In some places, religious hysteria gripped the land.

Which best describes the beginning of the American Revolutionary War?

American colonists fought the British at the Battles of Lexington and Concord.

Athens

Ancient Athens was one of the first city-states to alter the way government addresses the needs of the people. King Solon ruled ancient Athens starting from around 594 BC. During his reign, the citizen soldiers of the city began to demand more rights from their government. To avoid a civil war, Solon made changes to the government to allow for a fair exchange of power between the government and its people. He abolished slavery, gave back land to those who had been swindled, and created criteria for Athenian citizenship. He also established a court system based on a trial by one's peers. The smallest cases were tried with a jury of 501 jurors, and trials involving treason had juries of 1501 men. Once democracy was established, Pericles supported the involvement of all Greek citizens in the government. Part of this involvement included support of the arts and education. Unfortunately, these reforms did not last long. In 431 BC, Athens entered the Peloponnesian War against several Greek city-states, led by Sparta.

What were ancient religious practices of Oceania cultures?

Ancient Oceanic religion was based on polytheism and animism. Ancient Oceanic religions used shamans to communicate with spirits. Ancient Oceanic religions had ritual taboos concerning menstruation and reproduction.

caliph definition

Arabic term for "successor," a leader who rules over a caliphate

Which best describes the capital city of the Byzantine Empire?

Constantinople, a major center of culture and commerce, was the capital city of the Byzantine Empire.

Humanist Ideals Spread throughout Europe

As Italians journeyed around the European continent, they brought elements of the Renaissance with them. The Greco-Roman discipline of rhetoric made the Italians skillful social ambassadors. They also brought books, which were easy to transport. This is how many humanist works wound up in the hands of foreign printers. They translated the writings of humanist scholars into a variety of languages and disseminated books throughout Europe. Renaissance culture also was spread by other means. Travelers from other parts of Europe visited Italy, where they were immersed in the cultural essence of humanism. The painter Doménikos Theotokópoulos, who was Greek by birth, spent time in Italy working with the Renaissance's master painters. He then took his craft to Spain, where he became known as El Greco (the Greek).

Restoring Catholicism

As Protestantism gained power in Europe, the influence of the Catholic Church eroded. The Church hierarchy realized something had to be done to stem the flow of people leaving the Catholic faith. In Rome, Catholic reformers began working to rebuild the Church's power base. The Church convened the Council of Trent in 1545 to examine how to reimpose papal authority, polish the Church's soiled image, and lure disillusioned Catholics back to the Church. These debates continued for 18 years. The counter reforms were meant to neutralize Protestant criticisms. The Council condemned the practice of indulgences, which had made Martin Luther write his 95 Theses, but the theology of the practice remained the same. In 1563, Pope Pius V finally abolished the sale of indulgences. However, many of the council's reforms changed little while reaffirming Church policies. The Church stood by the doctrine of transubstantiation. The council also approved the traditional Vulgate Bible as the Church's sole biblical source. The Vulgate was free of humanist influence and supported Catholic doctrine. The Church also reinforced the concept of free will instead of the Calvinist doctrine of predestination. Further, the council established that faith alone could not ensure salvation; good works and charity gained the favor of God. This notion was directed at Luther's teaching that faith alone saved a Christian's soul. The Council of Trent adjourned in 1563 with little change in Church policy.

Political Turmoil Tests Rome's Government

As Rome's territory expanded through military conquest, corruption and unrest at home led to a period of anarchy. In 60 BC, the generals Marcus Crassus, Gaius Pompey, and Julius Caesar established a triumvirate and effectively governed Rome for the next decade. However, the alliance weakened, and Caesar emerged victorious from a power struggle with Pompey. In 46 BC, Julius Caesar became dictator of Rome—and two years later, dictator for life. Despite grumblings from the Senate, the plebeians applauded Caesar's policies. He initiated building projects that employed Rome's poor. He raised soldiers' pay and extended Roman citizenship to conquered peoples. Resenting Caesar's kingly power, a group of senators stabbed Caesar to death in the senate building on March 15, 44 BC. Caesar's allies retaliated and regained control, but rivalry arose among them. Caesar's adopted son Octavian won out and took the name Caesar Augustus.

Greco-Roman Civilization Influences Early Europeans

As the Celts had no written history, what we know of them comes from Roman sources. Cicero, Caesar, and Tacitus wrote about the Celts. Their writings depict the Celts in a negative light. The Celts left no records describing how they felt toward the Romans. But despite the mutual antagonism of the two cultures, there is evidence of an extended period of cultural crossover in both directions. Metalworking and pottery traditions—and even some military tactics—crossed over from one culture to another, with modifications. For example, the Celts invented chain mail around 300 BC. Chain mail was a form of flexible body armor made from thousands of interconnected rings. The Romans soon adopted this new advance as their own. Another crossover occurred in the first century BC following Rome's conquest of Gaul and Britain. Because the poorer classes of Rome owned no land, they were socially and politically invisible. They began leaving Rome and heading for the occupied provinces, taking on Celtic identities along the way. Life with the "barbarians" gave them freedoms they could not share as lower-class Romans. The Greek writer Strabo lived during the time Rome took over Gaul and Britain. He reported that the conquered Celts accepted Roman ways more quickly than had been expected. In general, the Celts picked up the Roman traits that they considered useful or appealing. Romanization was not forced on the lower classes. They were still bound by Celtic codes of law. The upper class adopted Roman customs primarily to keep their social and political status while their country was under the rule of Rome. By degrees the culture began to turn Romano-Celtic. Roman gods and goddesses worked their way into the Celtic pantheon. Roman styles had an influence on Celtic art. Greco-Roman detailing began showing up in the elaborately engraved Celtic metalwork. Cities became increasingly urbanized along the Roman plan. Rome emerged supreme. Its enemy was vanquished, and the seeds of Greco-Roman civilization were transplanted into yet another region to flourish and influence other cultures. But there were other Germanic tribes roaming Europe, biding their time and waiting to strike. These would be the peoples who survived to pick clean the bones of the fallen Roman Empire.

Technology and Adaptations (Oceania)

As with the city-states of ancient Greece, island communities tend to be isolated, leading many small, independent communities rather than vast, unified empires. This was even more true in Polynesia—especially to the west, where islands were separated by hundreds of miles. To colonize such far-flung islands, Polynesian sailors had to find their course with no land in sight and no navigational instruments. Instead, navigators memorized patterns in the stars, the sun, the migrations of birds, and even the way that waves felt against the hull. Polynesian double-hulled canoes were capable crossing thousands of miles of open ocean, transporting whole communities of colonists and all the supplies they would need to start a new life. Likewise, Aboriginal communities in the deserts of Australia became exceptionally skilled at finding and making the best use of water sources, which could be rare and unpredictable. Maps describing dozens of different water sources could be carved into portable tools for reference. The islands of Oceana came in a variety of sizes, climates, and ecosystems. So, agricultural practices also had to be flexible, and varied from place to place. Because resources can be especially limited and fragile on small islands, farmers had to develop sustainable agriculture or risk losing their livelihoods. Techniques like irrigated terrace farming and growing trees alongside crops kept the soil healthy for longer than slash-and-burn techniques.

Assyrians, and the Invention of War

Assyria arose in central Iraq as Akkadia. The city-state of Akkad lay on a wide plateau, where it was open to attack. This geographic situation may partially explain why the Akkadians developed into such a warlike people. Like most Mesopotamian cultures, the Akkadians were farmers, but they also were an intellectual civilization. A thousand years later, their culture would give rise to great libraries.

The Moors Take Spain

At Cadiz, Spain, in July of AD 711, the Moorish army defeated the Visigoth forces in a bloody slaughter. This was a direct reflection of the poor organization and operation of the kingdom. The Moors were better organized and equipped than the Visigoths. The victorious Moors overran Spain. They had little trouble conquering the entire Visigoth kingdom. Muslim forces had the Visigoths on the run, and the peasants of the region put up no resistance. The local Jews were eager to aid the Moorish cause. For generations, the occupying Visigoths had cruelly persecuted the Jews, even subjecting them to forced baptisms. The Moors rewarded the Jews for their help by entrusting them with vital roles in the occupational government. By AD 718, the Moors controlled all of Spain except for the land of the Basques in the Andorran mountains. They called the territory al-Andalus. Andalus is believed by many scholars to be an Arabic corruption of "Vandals," the name of a tribe of nomadic European raiders. But friction between rival Muslim factions began to threaten the stability of the occupation.

Who served as chief editor of the Encyclopédie (Encyclopedia), one of the principal works of the Age of Enlightenment?

Denis Diderot

Native Tribes of North America

Before Europeans began to settle the North American continent, the various Native American tribes settled across the land. The tribes spoke several different languages, as shown by the colors on the map, but those whose languages were related usually managed to understand each other. Some tribes were agricultural while others were hunters and gatherers, depending partly on where they lived and what was possible on the land where they were located. Some tribes formed friendly alliances and traded with each other; the Iroquois Confederacy in the Northeast was one example of this. Other tribes developed historical rivalries, such as the Comanche and Apache. In any case, the arrival of European settlers permanently changed the way of life for all tribes.

social mobility definition

ability to move higher or lower in status and belong to a new social class

Romans Face a Cultural Challenge

Before the first Mediterranean civilizations rose, migrations and settlement were taking place throughout the world. Despite this mix of different peoples, the Greeks and later the Romans regarded all the European tribes as one. The Greeks may have called them Keltoi, which became the word Celts. The Celts spoke an Indo-European language that was related to Greek and Latin. The Celts had arrived in Europe in the second millennium BC, but little else is known about them. By 300 BC, the Celts had crossed the channel to settle in Britain. The Romans and Greeks had a long and tension-filled history with the Celts. Tribes of Celts had invaded Rome in 390 BC and Greece in 279 BC. Centuries later, this was still a bitter memory, especially for the Romans. No other peoples had managed to assault and sack the mighty city of Rome. Roman pride was still stinging 300 years later when Julius Caesar led an offensive against the Celtics of Gaul (modern-day France and northern Italy) in 58 BC. This was just before he went on to face the Celtic Britons in 55 BC. Though the various cultures in Northern Europe were progressing toward civilization, on the surface their lifestyles created the opposite impression. The Romans called the Europeans barbarians and looked down on the traits of the European tribes. As far as the Romans could tell, these peoples had no intellectual traditions like mathematics, philosophy, or written language. Though Celtic settlements had communal wooden longhouses more than 50 feet long and well-populated and fortified cities, these structures were made of wood and mounds of earth. The Celts built no lasting stone architecture and seemed unsophisticated to Roman eyes.

Warrior Class

Between the farming peasant class and the land-owning nobles, a specialized warrior class arose. Due to the lack of centralized authority in these lands, fighting was a regular part of life. Nobles often fought each other in land disputes. Sometimes, kings and emperors went to war with each other. In order for their battles to be successful, they needed dedicated warriors. The primary occupation of these individuals was to fight and lead armies. When they were not engaged in fighting, they were expected to train for battle. In Europe, these warriors were referred to as knights. In Japan, they were known as samurai.

What is another name for the first 10 amendments of the United States Constitution?

Bill of Rights

What best describes Simón Bolívar's revolutionary efforts in Venezuela?

Bolívar was able to free Venezuela from Spanish rule and abolish slavery.

How did the end of the French and Indian War lead to discontent among Britain's 13 colonies?

Britain imposed taxes on the colonists to pay for the cost of the war.

Buddhism

Buddhism also came from India. Born in Northern India in 563 BC, a man named Siddhartha Gautama became "the Buddha," which means "the awakened one." He taught that human suffering is a constant that people can rise above with acceptance and meditation. Hindus identify Buddha as an avatar of Vishnu, interweaving Buddhism within their own religion.

The Four Noble Truths

Buddhist philosophy focuses on gaining an understanding of the nature of suffering. The Four Noble Truths state that there is suffering in the world, what causes this misery, and how to move beyond it. These are the Four Noble Truths: - Life is full of suffering. - Suffering is caused by our desire to satisfy ourselves. - Suffering stops when the desire to satisfy ourselves is stopped. - The way to end desires is to follow the middle path (Eightfold Path).

Rome and Ancient Egypt

By 48 BC, the Greek Empire had declined, along with Egypt's fortunes. Cleopatra VII sought Roman aid to secure her rule. Julius Caesar used his military power to assist Cleopatra in regaining the throne of Egypt. However, Caesar's own political position was unstable. Back in Rome, enemies plotted his downfall. In 44 BC, fellow senators assassinated Caesar in the Senate. Rome erupted into civil war between rivals Mark Antony and Octavian. In Egypt, the Nile failed to flood, crops were unsuccessful, and famine gripped the land. Desperate, Cleopatra allied herself with Antony against Octavian. Octavian's forces defeated Egypt's navy at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC. With the deaths of Antony and Cleopatra, Egypt was no longer a sovereign nation. Rome annexed Egypt and moved in troops to maintain control. Egypt was split into smaller provinces under Roman governors and prefects. Roman legions controlled Egypt by force. The Egyptians chafed under the strict Roman rule. Frequent rebellions flared up in Egypt. After a decade of unrest, Egypt finally settled into its role as a prosperous colony of Rome. But it would not rise to the heights it had under Alexander. Egypt became the primary source of grain for Rome at the expense of Egyptian laborers. Egyptian trade and agriculture boomed under this system. But corruption of government leaders and exploitation of the working class by rich landowners caused a collapse. The poor demanded reforms during the reign of Diocletian and Constantine I, around AD 300, which improved the economy and productivity. The social structure of Egypt was complicated under Roman occupation. Social classes were divided among the groups of Romans, Greeks, and Egyptians. People living in larger cities paid lower taxes than those living in the rural areas. Egyptians paid the highest percentage of taxes, followed by the Greeks, and lastly the Roman citizens, who paid the least.

The End of the Moorish Empire

By AD 912, Christian holdouts began attacking the Moors. By AD 929, the Muslim factions began bickering again. Abd ar-Rahman had resisted calling himself caliph to avoid a harsh reaction from the Abbasids, but his descendant Abd al-Rahman proclaimed himself caliph of the Caliphate of Cordoba. The Moorish Empire hung on for another century before infighting over succession and civil war finally toppled it in AD 1031.

The Purpose of the Protestant Reformation

By the 15th century, the Church had grown until the Catholic clergy constituted about five percent to 10 percent of the people living in Europe. Quite famously, many medieval Church leaders became attracted to the money and power their positions could offer them. The sale of indulgences became commonplace. The wealthy could thus "buy" their way into heaven. This did not go unnoticed. Weak-willed and greedy administrators put the Church in danger of toppling.

Who was a dominant force in the humanist movement and took issue with much of the Catholic Church's doctrine that had no scriptural basis?

Desiderius Erasmus

The Battles Begin French and British

By the 1750s, the French and British were locked into a fierce competition over land and trade. In 1753, 21-year-old George Washington was sent to a French encampment to negotiate for land that was under French control. Washington's negotiations failed. Months later, he returned to reclaim the land for England. The British were defeated in a short battle. They lost again in 1755 at Fort Duquesne. This succession of battles ultimately led to war in North America. During the first few years, the French easily dominated the British due to alliances with American Indians. Tribes such as the Delaware and Shawnee were a big help to French forces. Many tribes allied with the French, in part, because they were less numerous and seen as less threatening than the British.

Carthage

Carthage, located on the tip of Tunisia in Northern Africa, was established as a Phoenician colony around 800 BC. Carthage had a large population ruled by a monarch with an established aristocracy. Understandably, much of Carthage's culture came from the Phoenicians. But its position as an established trade hub attracted traders from all around the Mediterranean, immersing Carthaginians in other cultures. Rather than remaining Phoenicia's base of operations, Carthaginians indulged in trade themselves. Carthage became wealthy enough in its own right to fund and equip its own navy. When Phoenicia fell, Carthage took over its colonies. Rome fought Carthage in a series of wars, known as the Punic Wars, beginning in 264 BC and lasting over a century until 146 BC. The first war began with a conflict over Sicily, which was under Carthaginian control. Rome's navy was inexperienced, so it lost its first few sea battles against the seagoing Carthaginians. Rome eventually won the war in 241 BC The Second Punic War began in 218 BC. In this war, Carthaginian commander Hannibal led his army and a company of elephants through Iberia and over the Alps to attack Rome from the north. Hannibal's forces almost took Rome but were defeated. Rome won the Second Punic War in 202 BC. The two ancient superpowers engaged once more in the third and final Punic War of 149 BC. In 146 BC, Rome laid siege to Carthage and burned it to the ground in a firestorm of vengeance. With this final victory, Rome replaced Carthage as the dominant power in the Mediterranean. The last remnant of Phoenician greatness vanished with the fall of Carthage.

Catholic vs Protestant Migration

Catholic Church - Spanish missions established in what are now the states of Florida, South Carolina, Texas, Georgia, New Mexico, Arizona, and California - French Catholic missions founded in Midwest and Gulf Coast between 1670s and 1720s Protestant Church - Protestants from England settled in North American colonies - some groups sought religious freedoms and oppression from Church of England - 20,000 Puritans settled in Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay Colony between 1630 and 1640 - tolerant Protestants established colonies in Rhode Island and Pennsylvania

Biblical Literacy

Catholic Church - The church limited literacy to monks, clergy members - priest could control the spread of favorable and unfavorable information - religious images within churches visual shorthand for illiterate peasants Protestant Church - encouraged all believers to study Bible for themselves - encouraged distribution of Bibles throughout Christendom - entire text of the Bible accessible without selective censorship

Purpose of Clergy

Catholic Church - priest required for administration of sacraments - prayers led by priest go directly to God - clergy could confer grace of God to believer Protestant Church - priest not necessary for interpretation of scripture - need for clergy not established by scripture - grace of God available to believer without intermediary

Differences in Doctrines

Catholic Church - saints are object of veneration - purgatory is a necessary step between heaven or hell - salvation through good works, maintaining sacraments - possible to affect salvation of those already dead Protestant Church - humans are not divine, so no prayer to martyrs or saints - no doctrine of purgatory - salvation possible through faith alone - salvation determined before birth (Calvinist concept of predestination)

Rituals in Worship

Catholic Church - seven sacraments must be celebrated by believer - belief in transubstantiation of Eucharist - indulgences could be granted or sold to absolve sins Protestant Church - differences among Protestants in acceptance of transubstantiation, most rejecting the basic idea - fewer sacraments followed - no indulgences; belief in active faith by believer

The Church in Medieval Times

Catholic doctrine stated humankind was born in sin. All Christians had a duty to do penance for their sinful natures by devoting their lives to the Church. The clergy later expanded the official Catholic theology to include the seven Catholic sacraments: baptism, Eucharist, reconciliation, confirmation, marriage, holy orders, and anointing of the sick. The sacraments of the Catholic faith became all-important acts of devotion. Catholics were instructed that they could escape the punishments of hell and rise to the kingdom of heaven by faithfully following the sacraments. The Church did much good for society. It provided comfort to its members and aid to the poor. But as the Roman Catholic Church had grown in power, it politicized religion and engaged in social control. One way it maintained its control of the people was by limiting access to higher education. Most of the citizens of medieval Europe were illiterate (unable to read and write). On occasion, when they needed help with the written word, they turned to the local priests. This dependency worked in two ways: it reinforced the Church's position as an all-knowing entity, and it enabled the clergy to shape information to fit their needs. Few alternatives were available for common folk who wished to become literate. Catholic universities were only open to monks.

Renaissance Catholicism vs Humanism

Catholicism - centralized authority - God as the center of existence - Church is authority on nature - ordered universe, predetermined - Church teachings not to be questioned - Church-controlled education Humanism - representative democracy, local governance the individual as the center of existence - science recognized as a way to understand nature - ordered universe, working like a machine - questioning encouraged to understand - state-supported and private education

Which option accurately distinguishes beliefs and practices of Catholics from those of Protestant Reformers?

Catholics believed the pope was a messenger of God, whereas Protestants did not recognize papal authority.

Spain (13th-15th century)

Catholics persecuted and slaughtered thousands of people considered heretics—mostly Jews and Muslims—during the Spanish Inquisition.

Biography of Plato

Check screenshots Greek philosopher Plato is best known for writing the most influential works of philosophy in history. Among his many ideas, he introduced the importance of considering the "forms" of Justice, Beauty, and Equality in life and in government. Ancient Greek philosophy sought to achieve deeper meaning and answers to life's burgeoning questions. The word philosophy itself is a Greek term; philo means love and sophia means wisdom. The impact of Greek philosophies on Western civilization can still be felt in the fields of politics, ethics, mathematics, and astronomy. Greek philosopher Plato (428-348 BC) was a student of Socrates and a mentor of Aristotle. Plato is well known for his works in mathematics, cosmology (study of the origins of the universe), epistemology (study of knowledge), philosophy of language, and politics. One of Plato's lasting contributions to modern government is his book The Republic. In this text Plato discusses five political regimes: aristocracy, timocracy, oligarchy, democracy, and tyranny. Some scholars believe that Plato's five regimes follow a natural cycle.

Chinese Innovations Affect the Western World

China's geographic isolation meant that it took a while for many of these inventions and ideas to reach the Western world. But the Far East opened up when traders began traveling the Silk Road. Traders brought Chinese paper and books to the Western world in AD 1150. These innovations spread the written word more widely than ever before. They made communication easier and spurred literacy, which in turn aided the circulation of new ideas and culture. Chinese innovations led to German printer Johannes Gutenberg inventing his own movable-type press. He produced the first printed books in Europe in 1456. Chinese inventions gave rise to modern warfare and the arms race. The compass finally came west in 1190. Compasses facilitated accurate navigation on both land and sea. Chinese gunpowder reached Western nations by the late 13th century. The Europeans refined the formula and made cannons and firearms which were even more powerful and deadly.

Traditional Chinese Medicine

Chinese doctors followed the notion that disease resulted from an imbalance of a person's inner forces of yin and yang. They believed that when these forces were in balance, inner harmony produced good health. To help achieve this, Chinese doctors prescribed medicinal herbs. A book written by Li Shizhen in AD 1578 listed almost 2,000 herbal drugs. Another Chinese medical treatment was acupuncture. This is a procedure involving the insertion of thin needles where inner energies are thought to flow. This treatment has proven to be effective for relieving certain kinds of pain, but its effectiveness for other medical uses is still being researched.

A Divided Continent - Christian Europe

Christianity Protestant Christianity divided into numerous denominations. One thing they all shared was dislike and distrust of the Catholic Church. Nomenclature The majority of the early Protestant denominations were named either after their founder or place of origin. Religion Many Protestant political leaders used religion as a reason for expanding their territories. Vatican The Vatican proclaimed Protestants as heretics after the Reformation.

Sub-Saharan Empires

Civilization was spreading slowly westward. A nomadic herding society developed in central sub-Saharan Africa. Its main food source was meat from cattle, sheep, and goats. Any farming was conducted at a level of subsistence: only enough food was grown to maintain survival. Since an excess food supply lures more settlers to an area, low agricultural production kept this region thinly populated. Farther west, Western sub-Saharan Africa's lakes and rivers made widespread irrigation possible. Here, the people lived a settled farming lifestyle. The kingdom of Ghana was established around the third century AD and flourished from about AD 750 to 1100, making West Africa a thriving center of commerce and culture. A network of trade roads linked Ghana to the rest of the world. Ghana's wealth came from rich veins of gold beneath the surface of its earth and the bountiful crops growing above it. The rich farmland produced several varieties of rice and millet, along with cowpeas, pigeon peas, melons, cassava, taro root, okra, coconuts, and sorghum. The region from the Ivory Coast to Cameroon was known as the Yam Belt. Several varieties of yams were cultivated in perfect growing conditions. These foods, plus meat from livestock, supported a large population. The Ghanaians exchanged surplus crops and gold for textiles and salt brought by roving traders in an elaborate trans-Saharan trading network. Goods from North Africa were traded with Bantu and other peoples in central and southern Africa. The salt-gold trade made the kingdom very rich. There are some accounts that Ghana was subject to raids by the Almoravid (Berber) people from Morocco beginning AD 1075. Whether or not this is true, Ghana did adopt Islam, and by 1200, the kingdom was in serious decline. Just south of Ghana, the Mali Empire had been founded around AD 1000. In the fourteenth century, Mansa Musa took the throne and made Mali a formidable empire. He was a Muslim who established Islam as the state religion, though it remained primarily the faith of the upper-class elite. Mansa Musa made the city of Timbuktu the center of learning for the Afro-Islamic world, and under his leadership, Mali became one of the richest states in Africa.

Greece versus Rome

Civilizations that flourished around the same time period often have similar achievements. At other times, they may vary greatly in their structures and what they accomplished. Here is a brief comparison of the major traits of two foremost cultures of the ancient world, the Greeks and the Romans. Greece - collection of allied city-states - originally ruled by kings, then an oligarchy (rule by few), and later a democratic government - known for its pottery, drama, poetry, music, and philosophy - artwork depicting idealistic human form mythology very diverse and colorful - produced wine and olive oil - developed aqueducts to transport water into city centers - watermills to grind grain; led to production of rice, flour, and cereals - created odometer to measure distances traveled; helped revolutionize roads and travel created Olympics, traced to 776 BC in Olympia (southwest of Greece) - discovered heliocentric theory (sun-centered universe) literature examples Homer: Iliad, OdysseySophocles: Antigone, OedipusHippocrates: Hippocratic OathPlato: The Republic, SymposiumEuclid: The Elements Rome - alternated between a republic and an empire - grew to one of the largest empires in the Ancient World - artwork depicting realistic human form used aqueducts to transport water into city centers developed cement and concrete; - allowed massive structures like Pantheon and Coliseum - created nearly 1.7 million miles of roads and highways effectively used arches for bridges and buildings; - improved structural stability - Julian calendar aligned with solar year: 12 months, 365 days - legal system with terms such as subpoena, habeas corpus, pro bono and affidavit - entitlement programs such as subsidized food and welfare for the poor literature examples Virgil: Aeneid Ovid: Metamorphoses

Why did the Proclamation of 1763 lead to colonial dissatisfaction?

Colonists were prevented from settling territory taken from the French during the French and Indian War.

Which belief system began in China and established a governmental model, defined leadership principles, and promoted scholarship?

Confucianism

Which most accurately describes a Chinese concept that influenced later civilizations?

Confucianism influenced the political theories of Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, Thomas Paine, and other Founding Fathers.

Meroë

Even while the Egyptian-Kushite Empire was declining in the north, the Nubian civilization in the south was undergoing changes. Those who had stayed behind in Nubia relocated their capital upriver. The new capital was called Meroë (mare-oh-ee). Its position on a different bend of the Nile that was easier to defend. Meroë became a center for trade. Nearby gold deposits and ebony wood, along with leopard skins, ivory from elephant tusks, and slaves were traded with Egyptian and Greek merchants. The artisans of Meroë were strongly influenced by the Egyptian culture. Yet, the unique culture of Nubia is important to recognize and differentiate from Egypt. Scribes developed a unique style of hieroglyphics known as meroitic writing. The artifacts and buildings of Meroë followed and modified Egyptian forms. When Romans conquered Egypt in the last century BC, the artisans of Meroë began adding Greco-Roman details to their designs. By AD 300, the decline of the Egyptian Empire had negatively impacted the economy of Meroë. Nearby, the rising Aksumite civilization posed another economic threat. Its traders began to siphon off much of the commerce Meroë had enjoyed. New African cultures were eclipsing the old ones. After almost a thousand years, the Nubian kingdoms finally passed into history.

Doubts Arise

For the first 100 years, the Crusades had targeted Saracens. But in 1208, the Church began declaring holy wars on European land. The Albigensian Crusade took place entirely within France against Christian opponents. The Albigensians, or Cathars, were a sect which practiced a form of Christianity that considered the material world evil and distrusted the Old Testament. The Cathars did not benefit the Church, which regarded the movement as a threat. Pope Innocent III labeled them heretics, and crusaders marched to the south of France to kill them. In the 12th century, the pope called for the Baltic Crusades, sending the Teutonic Knights from Germany to slaughter pagans in present-day Latvia, Estonia, and Finland. For more than three centuries, pagans and Christians battled over their religious views in northern Europe. The Catholic Church wanted to destroy pagan practices, advance the spread of Christianity, and protect Christians already living in those regions.

Genghis Khan

Founder and Leader of Mongol Empire1162-1227 Biography: Born Temujin, he became known as Genghis Khan, or "Great Ruler," after creating the largest contiguous empire in human history. He is considered to be the founder of modern-day Mongolia. Genghis Khan enforced religious tolerance and the political practice of meritocracy within the empire. He brought the Silk Road under a single, unified rule. Empire and trade under the Khans brought together Arab Southwest Asia, Christian Europe, and the eastern portion of Asia. Anecdote: Due to Genghis Khan's fearsome reputation, his final resting place is still a secret. Treasure hunters and archaeologists continue to look for it today. The Mongolian people continue to consider Genghis Khan as their father. Biologically, scientists estimate the one out of every 200 men around the world is biologically related to Genghis Khan. The Mongol Empire featured a remarkable degree of religious tolerance.

Petrarch

Francesco Petrarca, better known as Petrarch, was an Italian scholar and poet as well as one of the earliest Renaissance humanists. Petrarch rediscovered the letters of Roman philosopher Cicero. Scholars credit this accomplishment with helping to initiate the Renaissance in Italy. Petrarch is considered the "Father of Humanism" by some scholars. His poetry and letters shaped much of the thinking of his day. Petrarch was the first Renaissance thinker to celebrate beauty and love for their own sake. This coincided with his progressive political philosophy. Petrarch valued a person's enlightenment more than the nobility of their birth. This point of view borrowed heavily from Plato's idea of the philosopher-king. Favoring a government ruled by wise men, as opposed to an aristocracy or hereditary monarchy, fit in with the rise of the merchant class. Simply put, education and experience trumped birth.

The School at Sagres and the Tools of the Trade

From the Arabs, European navigators gained the knowledge of celestial navigation and geography needed to travel over oceans. This led to the establishment of a school specially designed for navigators. The school was founded in the 15th century by Prince Henry of Portugal, better known as Prince Henry the Navigator. Located at Sagres, Portugal, gathered some of the brightest and more well-known mathematicians, astronomers, and sailors to instruct pupils. Many believe that such famous explorers and navigators as Vasco de Gama, Ferdinand Magellan, and Bartolomeu Dias attended the school. - Tools of the Navigation Trade Students at Sagres became familiar with some of the more commonly used navigational tools at the time. These included the compass and astrolabe. These, and other tools, helped navigators calculate the location, direction, and speed of the vessel they were sailing on. Navigational instruments such as the mariner's astrolabe, and later, the sextant and octant aided navigators in sailing by using the stars and planets of the night sky as markers for determining location and distance. Navigators, in turn kept detailed records in their ships' logs to help cartographers create more detailed maps. Similarly, more accurate magnetic compasses were developed. These important advancements greatly assisted navigational technology during the Age of Discovery. One challenge for mariners and mapmakers remained for centuries. The question of measuring and marking longitude was not figured out until the 18th century. It was solved by a self-educated English carpenter and clockmaker named John Harrison. Harrison created the first chronometer, or clock, which was able to keep fairly accurate time given the motion of the ships carrying it. The evolution and adaptation of navigation during the Age of Discovery is exciting. Taking the classical learning preserved by Arabs and expanding upon it, several European kingdoms soon became world powers with colonial holdings all over the world.

Significance

Funding the Seven Years' War led to a large amount of debt for England. Since the war was fought, in part, to defend the American colonies, the English government expected the colonists to help repay the debt. The English Parliament—in which the colonists had no direct voice—passed several acts to collect money directly from the colonies. These acts, including the Stamp Act in 1765, were highly unpopular in the colonies. Most American colonists still considered themselves British subjects and understood the reality of England needing to repay its debts. But the creation of new colonial taxes without their consent or power to object, much less intervene, shifted their opinion. Conflicts between England and the colonists also developed over westward expansion. Angry about what they viewed as unfair taxes, the inability to settle the Northwest strengthened colonists' animosity toward England.

Gamification

Gamification uses the competitive nature of a game to motivate a sales staff. For it to be effective, managers must create a game with clear and specific rules, and then award a winner. Lou and Darshana created a game to help track which salesperson had the most repeat customers in a month. The prize: a paid day off from work! Gamification has become an increasingly popular sales motivation tool. While the possibilities are endless, here are a couple of examples that companies have used: Pair Selling and Snooze Button

Ruling by Blood, Fire, and Fear (Genghis Khan)

Genghis Khan's tactics in warfare were fearsome. He targeted a kingdom, then he offered its people the chance to surrender peaceably and submit to his rule. If they refused him, he was merciless. His mounted raiders would sweep down upon the town with slashing swords and put the entire city to the torch. The Mongols killed as many as 40 million people, although exact figures are elusive, given the shortage of primary sources from that time. The Mongols may have killed 10 percent of the world's inhabitants and reduced the population of Persia by 75 percent. However, Genghis Khan was also a highly effective ruler. His accomplishments included - religious tolerance in the empire - establishment of the first international postal system - adoption of a writing system - institution of a system of laws to maintain order and regulate behavior in occupied territories - expansion of the Silk Road to connect Europe and China

Albrecht Dürer (1471-1528)

German printmaker; accomplished draftsman with sharp eye for natural details and anatomy engraved images on copper plates to print numerous copies studied painting and brought Greco-Roman ideas back to Germany The German mindset shaded the Italian Renaissance principles in dark tones. German art maintained a stern focus on religious themes. The work of German artists slowly became more realistic, but the emotion conveyed in German paintings was heavy with pathos. Where the Italian Renaissance model tended to be colorful, airy, and full of light, the German look was somber and dark.

Questioning the Catholic Church

Germany was the birthplace of the Protestant revolution. When Martin Luther posted his 95 Theses challenge to the Roman Catholic Church, it was like lighting a fuse. He pointed out the Church's unethical money lending and other acts of corruption, especially the selling of indulgences. These practices were widespread and commonplace, and for the first time, they were being criticized in a public forum. Luther's action shook the foundations of Europe. The old and new factions competed to capture the hearts and minds of European Christians, as well as their souls.

Gothic Painting

Gothic paintings still had a medieval, flat look but featured more detail. Human figures were shown straight on or in profile. Figures in Gothic art were exclusively biblical characters and were never depicted nude. The Roman Catholic Church had control over religious depictions. All works of art followed a similar format.

Islam as a Unifying Force

Government under Islam at the time was a theocracy. This is a government based on religion that recognizes no separation between church and state. A leader of an Islamic state is called a caliph, a word meaning "successor" or "deputy." An Islamic state ruled by a caliph is a caliphate. Nomads like the Bedouins not only nurtured Islam as a major religion, but also provided a powerful vehicle for its spread. With the spread of Islam, the Arab world became more cohesive linguistically, artistically, and culturally. Arabic is the only language in which the Koran is to be written, as it is believed this is the language spoken to Muhammad by the archangel Gabriel communicating Allah's teaching. For this reason, Arabic came to be read and spoken throughout the Muslim world. As Muslims invaded and conquered more territory, especially in Europe, this language continued to spread, along with Islamic art and architecture.

Which best describes the ideas of government found in the Declaration of Independence?

Governments are created by people, and they derive their powers from the consent of those being governed.

Spread of the Plague

Historians believe that the plague came across the Silk Road. Mongol armies and traders traveling along the route spread the plague to India, Persia, and North Africa. Approximately 30 percent of the Persian population was killed by the plague in the mid-1300s. The plague eventually spread throughout the Middle East, devastating major cities like Constantinople, Cairo, and Alexandria. By 1347, it crossed into Europe through the major ports of Pisa and Genoa in Italy.

Rising Empires of Europe

Great Britain entered the Middle Ages in economic ruin. An extended period of cold weather caused centuries of crop failures and famine. Unrest grew among the scattered kingdoms. Then sixth-century monks from the Benedictine order established monasteries in the British Isles. The Christian church had a civilizing influence on the Britons, providing a unified belief system, shared rituals, and shared scripture and teachings. The Britons slowly became a unified people with a shared cultural identity. Other influences improved life in Britain. The Medieval Warm Period began around AD 900, bringing 400 years of warmer weather. Agriculture boomed, and the abundant harvests revived Britain's economy. In September, 1066, William of Normandy invaded England and took control by winning the Battle of Hastings. The Norman Conquest jumpstarted British culture as it is recognized today with language, customs, and religious beliefs. Construction began on Canterbury Cathedral and the Tower of London. These buildings represented the great leaps made in cultural advancement as well as social and political unity by the Britons. In Spain, the Middle Ages were marked by the Reconquista. With the backing of the papacy, Christian missionaries and military troops sought to drive the Muslim invaders of the Moorish Empire from Spain. The last Muslim-held Spanish stronghold of Granada fell in 1492, ending Moorish rule and making Spain a Roman Catholic kingdom. Spain would grow into an empire over the coming centuries.

What are some reasons that the Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain?

Great Britain had an abundant amount of natural resources, including coal and iron ore. Parliament passed Enclosure Acts, displacing many rural peasant farmers and their families.

A New Church is Formed

Henry was upset that Catherine could not give him a son. He wanted to cancel his marriage so he could take a wife capable of producing a male heir for him. He was also infatuated with one of Catherine's ladies-in-waiting, Anne Boleyn. But Henry was a member of the Roman Catholic Church—a church in which divorce was not allowed. He claimed the marriage should never have taken place since Catherine had been married—briefly—to his older brother Arthur, and asked Pope Clement VII to declare his marriage legally invalid so he could be free to marry again. The pope ultimately refused to grant Henry the annulment. Henry used this as a reason to split from the Roman Catholic Church. Thomas Cranmer, the Archbishop of Canterbury, pronounced Henry's marriage to Catherine illegal, and Henry was free to marry Anne Boleyn. These events marked a final and lasting break between England and Rome. The new Church of England was established. According to some historians, the break was inevitable anyway. Many bishops, including the Archbishop of Canterbury, wanted to have more say in Church governance and to keep tax revenues local instead of sending them to Rome. According to some historians, the break was inevitable anyway. Many bishops, including the Archbishop of Canterbury, wanted to have more say in Church governance and to keep tax revenues local instead of sending them to Rome.

Which accurately describes life events of explorer Hernando de Soto?

Hernando de Soto helped conquer the Inca Empire in Peru before exploring the Mississippi River.

Hernán Cortés

Hernán Cortés was instrumental in the first phase of Spanish colonization. In 1519, Cortés led an expedition to Mexico with 11 ships, over 500 men, and 16 horses. The expedition arrived and encountered the Aztec Empire and its ruler, Emperor Montezuma II. Cortés used political divisions among the Aztecs to recruit local allies, then attacked the empire. After a bloody massacre of the Aztecs, Cortés became the supreme ruler of the empire on August 13, 1521. His dominion, New Spain, covered all of Mesoamerica. The Spanish plundered tons of treasure from the Aztec capital, often by melting down the cultural artifacts that the Spanish saw as insults to Christianity into precious metals. This destroyed not only a people but its legacy as well.

India Belief Systems and Religions

Hinduism - It began around 1500 BC during India's Vedic Period. - Some Hindus recognize many gods and goddesses, while others believe that they are all manifestations of one god. - Many Hindus based their faith on a trinity (trimurti) of three main gods: Vishnu, Shiva, and Brahma. - Avatars also play roles in the Hindu traditions. - Central to Hindu doctrine is reincarnation Buddhism - It was created in India by Siddhartha Gautama in the 500s BC. - Siddhartha is called Buddha: "the awakened one." - Human suffering is overcome through acceptance, moderation in actions, and meditation. - A person is reincarnated until reaching nirvana, "perfect form." - It's popular in China, Japan, and Korea, and became the chief religion of Tibet and Vietnam.

Religion in India

Hinduism was the predominant faith during the Vedic period and shaped almost every aspect of India's future culture. Hindus believe in a trinity of three main gods: Vishnu, Shiva, and Brahma, as well as many other lesser gods, demons, and avatars. Hinduism was the predominant faith during the Vedic period and shaped almost every aspect of India's future culture. Hindus believe in a trinity of three main gods: Vishnu, Shiva, and Brahma, as well as many other lesser gods, demons, and avatars. The Bhagavad Gita and the Ramayana are written accounts of the Hindu gods Krishna and King Rama, two of Vishnu's many avatars. Hindu social structure was rigid and determined at birth by a strict hereditary caste system. A person's caste, or place in society, was inherited. It was forbidden to marry someone of a different caste. The untouchables were at the bottom of the caste system and were shunned by members of the other castes. The only way out of a low station in life was reincarnation. People who did well in this lifetime could be reborn as members of a higher caste. Leaders like Mahatma Gandhi spoke against the caste system in the 20th century. Even though it has been officially outlawed, traces of the caste system can still be found in the modern society of India.

Chaos and Order in Rome

Historians trace the beginning of the decline of the Roman Empire to AD 180 with the reign of Commodus. He dealt with Rome's problems by staging bloody gladiatorial games to distract the populace from Rome's troubles. A wave of assassinations and replacements marked AD 193 as the Year of Five Emperors. Ultimately, Septimius Severus seized the throne. But Severus could not halt the economic decline. He tried decreasing the silver content of the denarius coin. As the value of money dropped, prices kept rising, creating runaway inflation. Rome's economy was in collapse. Severus died in AD 211. Over the next 73 years, Rome had 24 emperors, all of whom died violently. Panic, corruption, and paranoia reigned until AD 284 when Diocletian became emperor. Strong-willed and ruthless, he restored order and instituted reforms that set fixed prices on goods. His most significant act was to divide the Roman Empire in two: the Greek-speaking eastern empire and the Latin-speaking west. However, this step did not completely ease the threats to the throne and civil unrest. After Diocletian's reign ended in AD 305, civil war raged between rival factions. In AD 306, a Roman general named Constantine seized the throne and restored order. In a surprise move, Constantine converted to Christianity, and through the Edict of Milan, proclaimed religious tolerance for all Christians. He then moved the imperial capital east to Asia Minor, near the Black Sea. With its emperor installed in the new capital of Constantinople, Rome was no longer the center of its own empire.

Which option most accurately describes the settlements of Protestant French Huguenots in the New World?

Huguenot settlements in present-day Caribbean, Florida, and South Carolina were destroyed by the Spanish, until they finally settled in present-day Quebec and Newfoundland

Huguenot French Protestants

Huguenots endured 30 years of horrific persecution, massacres by French Catholics 1560s: Huguenots established colonies in Brazil and Florida; colonies failed August 24, 1572: thousands killed in Saint Bartholomew's Day massacre in Paris Huguenots settled in eastern coastal states including New York 1685: French revocation of protective edict prompted further emigration from France

Which accurately describes the origins and principles of the humanist philosophy?

Humanism originated in Italy and spread through Europe, promoting lost Greco-Roman ideals.

Humanist Revolution in Education

Humanism placed great emphasis on learning and self-improvement. Due to the Gutenberg printing press, access to knowledge through books encouraged the spread of literacy and provided information to a population hungry to learn. Throughout Europe, the publishing and distribution of books made knowledge more widely available. Libraries sprang up in major population centers. Book publishing also strengthened the economy because related industries such as papermaking benefited from the demand for more books. The drive for learning resulted in the establishment of colleges and universities. In the past, a university education only had been available to monks or the Catholic clergy. Now it was open to aristocratic Europeans—at least the males. The idea of women becoming educated was still not a part of the new way of thinking. Girls from wealthy families mostly took private lessons in subjects considered suitable for them, like art, dance, needlework, and poetry. The involvement of women in more aspects of life was not a humanist goal. But compared to the rigid and restrictive old ways of the feudal age, the new social codes were markedly more relaxed.

Which option best describes a difference between the ideas of humanists and those of the Catholic Church during the Renaissance?

Humanists believed in a revival of Greek and Roman educational practices for the masses, whereas the Catholic Church kept education exclusive for monks.

A Crisis of Faith Ends Complacency

In 1347, a deadly outbreak of bubonic plague, also known as the Black Death, swept through Europe. Many people believed the Black Death was sent by God. They had no understanding of human biology and believed the epidemic was a divine punishment. Consequently, continuing a pattern of anti-Semitism in European history, some blamed Jews for the plague. In 1348 and 1349, thousands of Jews were massacred by Christians who were seeking God's forgiveness. The Black Death had run its course in the 1350s and is believed to have killed an estimated 60 percent of the European population. In 1378, another division within the Church had grown so deep that the Western Schism erupted. Two popes were elected, one installed at Avignon and one in Rome. This meant two papal governments, two systems of taxation, and both popes calling the other "the anti-pope." Confusion reigned until 1417 when, once again, a single pope presided from Rome. However, this event damaged the image of the pope as an unquestionable authority. The Western Schism and the Black Death had eroded the respect some people had for their spiritual leaders. Yet, following the papacy's return to Rome, a succession of corrupt popes further stained the character of the Church. Discontent began to rise among the Christian believers of Europe.

The Plague Strikes Europe

In 1347, a party of Italian merchant ships returned from the Black Sea. When the ships pulled into port at Sicily, most of their crew members were dying. The symptoms included painful swellings on the body, vomiting, and blackened blotches on the skin. People called this unknown disease "the Black Death." After they landed, their illness immediately began to spread. The progress of the disease was relentless and horrible, killing almost everyone it touched. It soon took on the proportions of a plague. This was not the first time that a plague had ravaged the Western world. In AD 541, a similar contagion had devastated the Mediterranean region. It had wiped out 25 million people over the course of 200 years. The expansion of trade and travel after the Crusades meant that this new outbreak would reach farther and take even more lives. Rats carrying fleas could not account for how rapidly the plague tore through a medieval human population, though. This disease was so infectious that another method of transmission had to be involved. In 2014, researchers studying the Ebola virus discovered a means by which Yersinia may have traveled through the body. The bacteria in the swollen lymph nodes could have traveled to the lungs and the blood by piggybacking on immune cells. Infectious body fluids would explain how this plague quickly reached pandemic levels, killing off entire communities. To ordinary people living in the 14th century, the plague's contagion gave it horrific power. A single infected person entering a city could kill everyone within its walls. So many people died that mass burials took place in huge plague pits dug outside of towns. The devout prayed for deliverance from this deadly sickness, but the Black Death continued taking thousands of lives year after year. Fear gave rise to superstition as desperate people turned to folk remedies or magic charms to protect themselves from the plague. Doctors were helpless too. Medieval doctors lacked much of the medical knowledge that is today considered basic. They did not know much about things like anatomy, hygiene, and antibiotics. Their treatments included bleeding patients with leeches and having them drink poisons like arsenic. These treatments usually made the patients die faster. The European plague remained at pandemic levels for seven years before it finally ran its course around 1353.

The Transatlantic Slave Trade and Henry's Legacy

In 1441, several crewmen from a ship outfitted by Prince Henry landed on a west African shore. They returned with several captured African people who were taken back to Portugal for labor. As suddenly as that, the transatlantic slave trade had begun. Prince Henry had no problem with the human trafficking—as long as the slaves were converted to Christianity. Henry also insisted on trading for slaves instead of kidnapping them. Each trip came back with more and more slaves. Along with the human bounty came enormous wealth. Portugal explored and plundered the west African coast not only to acquire slaves, but also to trade for gold and spices. The wealth began flowing out of Africa and into Portugal. Portugal again was able to mint gold coins. The riches of Africa financed Portugal's rise as a world superpower.

Giovanni Caboto

In 1496, Giovanni Caboto finally convinced King Henry VII of England: Caboto would sail to find the western passage to the Indies that he thought was north of Columbus's landing, and Henry VII would finance the voyage. Caboto, an Italian by birth, had already asked King Ferdinand of Spain and King Manuel of Portugal to finance his voyage, but both had refused. Now Caboto sailed under the English name John Cabot. This first voyage failed; bad weather and rough seas turned him back. On his second expedition in 1497, Cabot reached Newfoundland, claiming the land for the king of England. However, Cabot thought he had found the shores of northeastern Asia. In 1498, John Cabot sailed with five ships to North America a third time. He never returned; all five ships and their crew disappeared.

What were the first battles of the American Revolution?

Lexington and Concord

Newton's Laws: Gravity and Motion

In 1687, Isaac Newton wrote his greatest work, the Principia. The book, written in three parts, used empirical evidence from observation and tests to break down force, mass, and motion into three simple laws: 1. A body at rest will stay at rest until external force is applied to it. 2. Force is equal to mass times acceleration, and a change in motion is proportional to the force applied. 3. For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. With his Principia, Newton explained the law of gravity, how moons orbit planets, how the gravitational pull of the sun holds the planets in line, why planetary orbits are elliptical, and how the gravitational pull of the moon and sun create earth's tides. Newton's work made him a wealthy and powerful man. He was knighted by Queen Anne in 1705. Today's scientists regard the Principia as the greatest physics book ever written and Sir Isaac Newton as one of the most influential figures in the scientific revolution. Newton's theories helped future scientists understand the natural laws of how the universe works.

The English Bill of Rights

In 1688, the English Parliament asked William III, a Dutch noble, and his wife Mary II, the Princess of England, to give military aid to England to stop the tyranny of Mary's father, James II. James was a Catholic who was strictly imposing his religion on England. The English Parliament was composed of Protestant members.

James Madison and the Bill of Rights

In 1787, after lengthy debate, the Philadelphia Convention finally drafted the Constitution. James Madison recorded all that was discussed. However, individual rights and civil liberties were missing from the Constitution. Many of the Convention delegates wanted to ensure that the rights and liberties that Great Britain refused to acknowledge were protected in the United States. Madison believed in a strong central government. However, the Virginia Declaration of Rights and political pressure from several states made Madison increasingly concerned about the absent individual rights and liberties in the Constitution. Taking cues from the Magna Carta, the English Bill of Rights, and various Enlightenment philosophers, Madison set down a list of individual rights and liberties that the government should recognize and protect. Madison's original draft contained 17 individual rights and liberties. Once the House of Representatives had debated and deliberated over this list, the 17 rights were whittled down to 12.

Analyzing Images: Jacob Riis Photography

In 1890, Jacob Riis, an immigrant from Denmark, published How the Other Half Lives. Riis used words and photographs to describe and display the reality of slum life in New York City. His images and revealed the squalor and hopelessness of the city's poverty-ridden immigrants. Riis documented issues faced by minorities like Czechs, Jews, African Americans, Chinese, and Italians. Many higher-class members of society were unaware of the living conditions that immigrants and minorities often had to endure. Riis's book helped raise awareness of these conditions. His book spurred reformers to change the system that allowed such misery. Significance How the Other Half Lives was a powerful book. Jacob Riis enlightened many people about the horrors of how the urban poor lived. Social reformers began movements to change the living conditions of the poor. Between 1900 and 1930, workers demolished most New York City tenements. In their place, newer and better-built residential buildings rose. The city also began improving sewer systems and garbage collection. Over time, labor laws also regulated working hours and settings. Modern manufacturing spaces replaced the sweatshops in the city. Mandatory safety improvements led to better working conditions

Alexander's Hellenic Egyptian Culture

In 332 BC, Persians occupied Egypt. Alexander the Great and his conquering forces drove the Persians out and annexed Egypt. The Egyptians were accommodating to the occupying Greek forces. The young and charismatic Alexander was already regarded throughout the Mediterranean as a hero. Greek traders had settled in Egypt for centuries. Greek culture was familiar to them. Alexander's Greek cultural ideals revitalized Egypt. He established the capital city of Alexandria and ordered a great library built there. The highly literate Egyptians had already maintained libraries since the Old Kingdom. The library of Alexandria became the greatest storehouse of knowledge in the ancient world. Its architecture and art styles were a blend of Greek and Egyptian forms.

Christendom Goes to War

In AD 1095, the Byzantine emperor asked for help from Pope Urban II. The Byzantine Empire had lost significant territory to the Saracens, and the emperor wanted help retaking what he had lost. The pope called the Roman Catholic Church to wage war, and Christendom responded. In August of 1096, the First Crusade had officially started. The crusaders had sworn to defend Jerusalem and make it safe for pilgrims. They went to the Holy Land to accomplish this mission and gain the salvation that the pope had promised them for their service. Religion was the main social and political force for Catholic Europeans, Eastern Orthodox Christians, and Muslim Arabs. These three large and powerful faiths possessed similar motivations. The most critical factor was that all three considered Jerusalem sacred. To all sides, the holy war represented a monumental struggle between good and evil.

Which accurately describes origins and outcomes of Latin America's fight for independence during the 19th century?

Many parts of Latin America were fed up with the dictatorial rule of the Spanish Crown and consequently fought for and won independence.

The Renaissance and the Age of Discovery

In the 1400s, Italians began fueling the Renaissance by promoting the rebirth of Greco-Roman ideals. The rebirth of ancient principles about learning, the arts, and scientific inquiry inspired humanist literature. Humanist books provided blueprints for building a society that reflected classical values. These values included unrestricted scientific inquiry. Meanwhile, the Protestant Reformation divided Europe religiously and politically. By the 17th century, the Renaissance and Reformation together created perfect conditions for a major cultural shift. A weakening faith in the Catholic Church reduced organized opposition to these new schools of thought. The Scientific Revolution could not be stopped. The shift of power from the Church to secular rulers left room for radically different models of government and scientific pursuits to bloom throughout Europe. The Age of Discovery posed problems that fueled further scientific advancement. Sailors needed new and improved instruments to find their way across the seas. Scurvy, a common disease among sailors on long voyages, required a cure from medical science. The American continents had unfamiliar flora and fauna. The future was filled with uncertainties, but this was a new era of rational thought. European explorers would not leap out blindly into the unknown.

The Renaissance Expands Outward

In the 14th century, the new humanist directions taken by the Italians revived Greco-Roman ideals. The Italian Renaissance was the modern, "cutting-edge" movement of its day. Its philosophies represented greater knowledge and new possibilities for people and the society they inhabited. When Renaissance culture began to spread outward from the Italian Peninsula, it was accepted with enthusiasm by most other Europeans.

Legacy of the Reformation

In the 16th century, the changing political and religious climate in Europe became tense and, at times, violent. Persecution reigned on all sides of the issue. In this charged climate, people made the decision to find a new land where they could worship in peace. This led to a stream of emigrants leaving Europe for the unknown environment of the New World.

Muhammad and the Rise of Islam

In the Arabian city of Mecca in AD 570, a child named Muhammad was born. He was a member of a high-ranking clan called the Quraysh. The Quraysh were a non-roaming group based in Mecca who were entrusted with the upkeep of a shrine called the Kaaba. Most Arabs at this time practiced a polytheistic religion based on nature. Over 300 deities were represented at the Kaaba. Mecca was a main trading center through which many other cultures passed, including Jews and Christians, adding to the available influences in the region. Muhammad would often meditate while sitting alone in a cave outside Mecca. According to Muslim tradition, he began to experience visions in which the archangel Gabriel commanded him to create a monotheistic religion. Muhammad's religion would be called Islam; its followers would be called Muslims. Muhammad announced that he was the messenger of God, whom he called Allah. He began preaching a message that there was one god. At first, other Arabs persecuted him for his beliefs. Muhammad was forced to flee Mecca for Medina. This flight to safety was called the hegira. In Medina, Muhammad began to flesh out his tenets. The book Muhammad wrote was the Koran. Though the Koran draws a definitive line between other religions and Islam, its original words frequently point to a deliberate connection with Judeo-Christian teachings. One passage in the Koran describes it as a "confirmation of previous scriptures" (12:111). Muhammad accepted Moses and Jesus as earlier prophets who had preached an incomplete view of the true religion. He, Muhammad, was the final prophet in this long-term process of revelation. Old Testament Semitic patriarchs such as Adam also appear in the Koran, and Muslims believe they are descendants of Abraham. Jerusalem is regarded as a holy site. Muhammad turned from seer to statesman as Islam gained acceptance and became the instituted religion. Muhammad and his followers seized Mecca in AD 628-629. They emptied the Kaaba of the idols representing other gods and replaced them with shrines to Allah. The death of Muhammad in AD 632 produced heated disputes over his successor. One faction believed a member of Muhammad's family should be selected, while others maintained it should be one of his close assistants. This led to a schism within Islam between the Shiites (pronounced she-ites) and the Sunnis (pronounced soon-ees). This conflict still divides Muslims to this day.

Born on the Banks of the Indus River (Harappans)

In the early Paleolithic Age, migrating humans made their way into the Indus River Valley in present-day eastern Pakistan. Some groups settled about 800 miles inland in a farming settlement called Harappa, a society that would thrive and expand to cover much of southern Asia. Like the Fertile Crescent and the Nile River Valley, the Indus River Valley had annual floods that washed new topsoil over the floodplains. On their migration through Mesopotamia, the Harappans had picked up irrigation techniques. They cultivated fields of barley and wheat as well as peas and cotton. They domesticated a variety of animals, including cats, chickens, and even Indian elephants! The Harappans possessed a complex written language that archeologists are still trying to translate. Paleontologists learned much about the Harappans from their art. Harappans made small stone cylinders covered with carvings. When a cylinder was rolled over moist clay, the design would emerge in relief. Many designs featured depictions of real or fanciful animals, warriors, or gods. Harappan religion was polytheistic. As Harappa grew, other settlements spun off. By 1750 BC, the Indus Valley was well populated with humanity. Deforestation possibly led to the region's decline, leading to mass migration into the Indian subcontinent.

Capitalism Triumphs in the West

In the end, the competing radical philosophies of socialism and communism did not succeed in the West. Capitalism emerged as the primary economic system of Europe and America. British workers were not active in reforming their government. this left them with little power. They also lacked the revolutionary fervor of the French. But the inhuman working conditions and the widening gulf between rich and poor would remain social ills. Well into the 20th century, labor disputes would erupt into periodic violence.

Europe Reawakened

In the fifth century AD, after the collapse of the Roman Empire, the intellectual lights of Europe dimmed. This era is referred to as the Dark Ages. The steady upward progress of knowledge suddenly slowed to a crawl. With the rise of the Roman Catholic Church, inquiring minds of scientists seemed to close down. The Church suppressed scientific inquiry. The sun was said to revolve around the Earth. In Europe, innovation and invention were scant for 800 years.

Pennsylvania, A Land of Tolerance

In the late 1600s, following the English Civil War, the Church of England attempted to stamp out radical Protestant sects. This included the Quakers and one of its most famous members: upper-class Englishman William Penn. Due to religious persecution, Penn and his fellow Quakers were looking for an opportunity to leave Europe. Penn had his eye on North America, where some Quakers had already settled. In return for a debt owed to Penn's deceased father, the king gave Penn a colonial charter in North America. Shortly after, the duke of York also gave Penn the three lower counties that now constitute the state of Delaware. Pennsylvania's history of religious tolerance attracted new immigrants and provided the state with a plentiful labor force. Shortly before the American Revolution broke out, a state government was established in Pennsylvania. Its focus was something that William Penn instilled in the colony's charter: religious tolerance, including Catholicism and Judaism.

US Constitution

In the summer of 1787, a group of delegates met in Philadelphia to establish a permanent form of American government. Many of the Revolution's leaders had suspected the Articles of Confederation would only be a temporary measure. They didn't realize they'd actually be a disaster. True, America was rid of a king and Parliament who had refused to follow their own laws and had oppressed the citizens instead. However, as conditions—including an armed rebellion in Massachusetts!—had recently shown, America's pre-constitutional liberty was inadequately protected and the country would not prosper. The country needed a more powerful government, though comprised of those who would use that power wisely rather than abuse it. The new nation's leaders needed to be willing to follow their own laws and extend rights to all people. To create a system that would do this, the founders looked to the past—including the Magna Carta—as well as the future. Several of the nation's founders were familiar with Sir Edward Coke's work on the Magna Carta. The founders likewise agreed that the law should be the supreme ruler, not the monarch or Parliament. They also believed that government should protect the rights of the people in a fair and just way. King John had tried to use the people he'd ruled over for his own ends. The nation's founders saw it as only fair and right that a monarch's power be limited. Instead, the people should have rights to change anything they thought was unjust, as the nobles of the Magna Carta had done. In the 1770s, the Crown and Parliament attempted to unfairly tax the colonies amid Britain's economic crises. The colonists used Coke's thinking and others as they defended their rights and fought for their independence. In 1787, the founders intended to establish a new permanent system of government. They turned to legal precedents, including the Magna Carta. The Magna Carta had established a social contract between the 13th century English throne and its most privileged citizens. These rights had included some protection from government interference with religion, limits on excessive taxation, and rights for those suspected of committing crimes. Starting in 1787, the Constitution then extended the social contract for all citizens, including freedom of religion, protection from excessive taxes, and rights of due process and jury trial. Though there was work to be done before all citizens could enjoy all these rights, at least the guarantee had been established.

What was the capital city of the Ottoman Empire?

Istanbul

What was the significance of Patrick Henry's "Give me liberty, or give me death" speech?

It raised support for rebellion in the colonies.

Which best describes the origins and spread of the bubonic plague in the 14th century?

It started in the Mongol Empire and spread via trade routes to all corners of Asia and the Middle East.

Italian City-States and the Renaissance

Italian peninsula The Italian peninsula was a set of city-states, kingdoms, and principalities that were not united as a nation until the mid-19th century. Roman Collapse After the collapse of the Roman Empire, many of these city-states developed on their own. They alternated between fighting each other and forming confederations. Pride Art, architecture, and intellectual accomplishments became a source of pride as city-states competed with each other. Trade Trade drove the majority of political decisions in the city-states at this time.

Mediterranean Renaissance

Italian peninsula The Renaissance began in the Mediterranean kingdoms of Europe, primarily on the Italian peninsula. Trade A long history of trading with other nations made Italy the prime spot for the Renaissance to blossom. Government The governments of the Italian peninsula were more open to Arabs than were Spain and other European powers. Learning This area had the greatest access to classical learning from the Arab world through trade.

Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)

Italian scientist from Pisa, professor of geometry and astronomy at Padua performed experiments in physics of falling objects by dropping items off Pisa tower established scientific method of evaluating observed phenomena free of personal opinion perfected telescope; used it to confirm Copernican theory that Earth revolves around the sun

Jainism

Jainism began with a man known as Vardhamana, who may have lived around the 6th century BC. As the son of rulers, he was born into a life of luxury. But, left at age 30 he left to follow a religious path of meditation and poverty. After twelve years, he had a spiritual breakthrough. Today, Vardhamana's followers are known as Jains. Jains believe that all things—not just people and animals—have souls that reincarnate. They are strict vegetarians and try to use as few resources as possible. Jainism involves practicing nonviolence, truthfulness, and poverty to escape the cycle of reincarnation.

Which English inventor revolutionized the textile industry with the "spinning jenny"?

James Hargreaves

What governmental practices led to the writing of the English Bill of Rights?

James II created a standing army that killed hundreds of Protestants. The Crown had tortured the accused to receive confessions for crimes. James II had created laws restricting the right of Protestants to bear arms.

Cesare Beccaria (1738-1794)

Jesuit-educated Italian aristocrat dedicated to reforming the criminal justice system wrote an essay titled "On Crimes and Punishments" condemning the corrupt Italian prison essay revealed ugly secrets about misuses of judicial power and abuses of the prison system exposed tolerated bribery, glaring inequalities in sentencing, and instances of judges delivering death sentences for minor offenses promoted the idea that punishment should fit the crime opposed capital punishment and that it should never be practiced inspired others and led to some judicial and prison reforms

Who invented the first movable-type printing press in Europe?

Johannes Gutenberg

Which identifies the French Protestant theologian who taught the principle of predestination in salvation?

John Calvin

Which most accurately describes expeditions and colonization efforts of explorer John Smith?

John Smith led the colony of Jamestown and explored the Chesapeake Bay.

Which accurately describes life events of explorer John Smith?

John Smith managed relationships with native Powhatan tribes in Jamestown.

Which 14th-century theologian and reformer spoke out against the principle of transubstantiation?

John Wycliffe

Final Crusades

King Louis IX of France calls for Crusade against Muslims in Egypt in 1248. Muslims defeat King Louis's forces within two years. Mongols invade Holy Land in 1260, led by descendants of Genghis Khan. Muslims known as Mamluks are able to hold off Mongols. In 1291, Muslims lay siege to Christian capital of Acre (in present-day Israel), marking end of Christian military presence in Near East.

Which person was emperor of the Yuan Dynasty who welcomed the Italian traveler Marco Polo to his court?

Kublai Khan

Famous paintings created during the Renaissance include:

Leonardo da Vinci's Mona Lisa and Last Supper Michelangelo's Creation of Adam and Last Judgment Raphael's School of Athens and Madonna del Prato

Greece (c. 800 BC-146 BC)

Location: Peloponnesian Peninsula; coastline of Mediterranean Sea Population: around 5 million-6 million Government: democracy and system of law adopted by numerous other cultures Religion: polytheistic pantheon of gods and goddesses Agriculture: - grew wheat, millet, barley, olives, chickpeas, figs, and lentils - livestock included sheep, goats, pigs, chickens, and geese - limited agricultural space - few advances in irrigation, soil improvements, or animal husbandry - established farming colonies to increase agricultural stores Highlights: Greeks were known for their olives, olive oil, and sheep. Many Greek dishes are based upon these two agricultural products, which thrived in the rocky terrain.

Maya Culture (c. AD 250-c. AD 900)

Location: from Yucatán Peninsula down into El Salvador and Guatemala Population: around 2 million Government: dynastic god-king ruling over local kings who oversaw smaller states Religion: polytheistic; gods appeased by animal and human sacrifice Agriculture: used slash-and-burn method to renew nutrients in soil; grew squash, chili peppers, avocados, maize, pumpkins, tomatoes, vanilla, avocados, tobacco, and cotton; the soil in the Mayan Empire was rocky, but vegetation thrived due to abundance of rain; built cisterns to collect rain water; used basic stone tools and flint axes to clear fields; domesticated animals such as turkeys, ducks, and dogs; Spanish introduced cattle, pigs, and sheep Highlights: The Mayans continue to influence modern culinary habits with their cultivation of chili peppers, now synonymous with Latin American cuisine. Like other Mesoamerican cultures, the Maya were heavily dependent upon corn.

Britannia (AD 43-AD 410)

Location: island of Great Britain Population: around 3.5 million by end of Roman occupation Government: provincial democracy and laws based on Greco-Roman concepts Religion: polytheistic pantheon of gods and goddesses Agriculture: fertile land in the eastern lowlands; grew wheat, barley, celery, leeks, apples; livestock Highlights: Britain is still known for its unique agricultural products, such as indigenous breeds of cattle. Farming flourished during Roman times and became the mainstay of Britain's exports during Roman occupation, along with metals and aquaculture products (like oysters and salt). Its location and geography make Britain fertile for a meat-and-potatoes diet.

Aksumite Empire (c. 100 BC-c. AD 650)

Location: present-day Ethiopia Population: unknown; large empire with wealthy capital city Government: monarchy with viceroys appointed to oversee provinces Religion: polytheistic until Christian ruler in fourth century AD Agriculture: extensive cultivation of wheat and barley and groves of fruit-bearing trees; livestock included sheep, cattle, and camels; hunted for ivory and rhinoceros horns; empire rich in gold, iron, and salt, which were heavily traded with India and Rome Highlights: The Aksumite Empire was known for its animal husbandry and herding in the expansive pastures and rolling hills of the area now known as Ethiopia. Aksum was the home of the Queen of Sheba and is the purported resting place of the Ark of the Covenant.

Gaul (181 BC-c. AD 200)

Location: present-day France Population: around 5 million Government: Roman provincial governor who oversaw smaller local chiefs; laws based on Greco-Roman concepts Religion: polytheistic religion influenced by Roman pantheon, with inclusion of Celtic pagan deities; Christian by second century AD Agriculture: excellent land for farming; grew wheat, barley, grapes for wine; invented first grain reaping device Highlights: Gaul was the primary wine-producing region in the Roman Empire after Rome became too populated to support itself agriculturally. Today, France remains known throughout the world for its wines and viniculture.

Aztec Culture (AD 1325-AD 1522)

Location: the Valley of Mexico; central and south Mexico Population: around 5 million-6 million Government: god-king ruling over local kings who oversaw outlying states Religion: polytheistic; gods responsible for agricultural fortune; frequent and high-volume human sacrifice Agriculture: extensive farming of maize, beans, avocados, squash, guavas, tomatoes; latex, cotton; used chinampas (shallow lake beds) to grow crops; used terracing (placed walls of stone in hillsides and filled with soil) to provide more land for farming Highlights: Aztec agriculture is renowned for utilizing raised beds between the water canals of Tenochtitlan. As in other Mesoamerican cultures, corn, beans, and squash were staples of the Aztec diet.

North American Tribes (varies)

Location: throughout North American continent Population: large overall population (estimates range from about 1 million to 10 million), but split among small tribes Government: tribal government with chiefs and intertribal councils Religion: polytheistic nature religions involving appeasement rituals, guardian spirits, and interpretation of visions as divine messages Agriculture: very little agriculture; some tribes grew squash, corn, and beans; most tribes maintained hunter-gatherer lifestyle (wild game plus gathered berries and roots) Highlights: Native American tribes had a varied diet dependent on the geography of their region. One of the mainstays of their diet throughout the continent was meat jerky. Game meat, such as venison, bison, and even fish, was slow-smoked and cured for storage to be consumed later.

Which ruler of France was known as the Sun King, led the golden age of art and literature, and presided over the court of Versailles?

Louis XIV

What accurately describes major events of Ferdinand Magellan's exploration efforts?

Magellan's slave Enrique is more accurately described as the first man to circumnavigate the world. Magellan is credited with naming the Pacific Ocean Mar Pacifico, meaning "peaceful sea." Magellan died in the Philippines and did not complete his journey around the globe.

Sailing under a Foreign Flag

Magellan's voyage was financed by the Spanish king, but Magellan was originally Portuguese. He had renounced his Portuguese nationality over a request that King Manuel I of Portugal had refused to grant. (What the request was, unfortunately, has been lost to time.) Spain and Portugal were bitter rivals during the Age of Discovery. They adopted the 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas to settle their territorial disputes. A line of demarcation at 46 degrees longitude separated their claims. Any unclaimed land east of the line was Portugal's, and anything west was Spain's.

Asian Religions

Major Beliefs Major Asian belief systems include Buddhism, Hinduism, and Confucianism. Beliefs and Culture Many Asian religions and beliefs are identified with a particular culture or nation. Confucianism Confucianism is a philosophy, not a religion. Buddhism Buddhism grew out of the foundation of Hinduism.

Africa

Major crops: barley, sorghum, wheat, yams

Selected Provisions of the English Bill of Rights

Many provisions of the English Bill of Rights were designed to address the injustices of James II. James II had created a standing army, which went on to kill hundreds of Protestants. - The Crown could not raise a standing army unless agreed upon by Parliament. - The Crown could not make war without the consent of Parliament. - The Crown could not raise taxes without the consent of Parliament. - The Crown had no royal power to enforce the law. The Crown had typically tortured the accused to receive confessions for crimes. - The Crown could not appoint or punish judges. - Citizens had the right to request action from the Crown without punishment. - Cruel and unusual punishment could not be imposed on those imprisoned. James II had created laws restricting the right of Protestants to bear arms, while allowing Catholics to be armed. - The Crown could not interfere in elections. - Parliament decided the next individual who could be crowned. - Roman Catholics could not be crowned. - Individuals crowned must take an oath to maintain the Protestant religion. - Citizens had the right to bear arms.

Asian Empires

Marco Polo The famous journey of Marco Polo occurred during the great age of the Khans. Khans Under the Khans, there was unprecedented exchange between Europe, Asia, and the Middle East. Khans Rule The rule of the Khans lasted into the Renaissance. The Mongols The Mongols under Genghis Khan created the largest empire in the world.

Southern Colonies

Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia Cash crops: tobacco, rice, and cotton Plantation system to produce these crops required immense physical labor, which prompted involvement in the emerging slave trade

Who was the radical leader of the French Revolution, in a position of power in the National Convention and the Committee of Public Safety, responsible for mass killings during the Reign of Terror?

Maximilien Robespierre

John Smith

Meanwhile, England had established its first permanent settlement. In 1607, Jamestown was built on the banks of the James River in Virginia. Hunger stalked the colony long before the first harvest. One of the colonists, Captain John Smith, became their leader. Smith had distinguished himself as a soldier in Europe and the Middle East. Now he kept the colonists alive by searching the Chesapeake Bay area for food. According to legend, the local Powhatan tribe captured him during one of these journeys, and the chief's daughter Pocahontas begged her father to spare Smith's life. Afterward, the Powhatans helped feed the colonists and taught them survival skills. It is theorized that the Powhatans saw John Smith as a resource to facilitate trade with Europeans to acquire new weapons. Ultimately, Smith returned to England and wrote about his North American experiences. Smith's books were very popular. People enjoyed reading information from an eyewitness who had seen the New World for himself. The more Europeans read about this untamed land, the more people became interested in the idea of starting new lives across the ocean.

New Ideas Create Hope and Conflict

Medieval scholastic tradition, controlled by the Church, promoted learning by repetition and discouraged further questioning of the material. According to Church doctrine, the world held no mysteries because God understood everything. Divine intervention caused events great and small, and the Earth stood at the center of the revolving universe. Philosophy, however, was also taught in Church-supported universities. Philosophers built the foundation of the humanist movement. As Christians became disillusioned by the corruption within the Catholic Church and hostility grew among Protestant denominations, philosophical principles born of reason and intellect became more compelling than faith. People began leaving their religions to seek new ways of thinking. As their memberships decreased, both Catholics and Protestants considered the rising scientific movement a threat to God. Other people of faith, however, were not alarmed. They could see the perfection of God reflected in the consistent principles of scientific law. Francis Bacon interpreted the practice of science as an extension of Genesis 1:28, in which humankind was given dominion over the Earth. René Descartes, a devout Catholic, felt no conflict between his belief in God and his philosophical and mathematical studies. Mathematics, the language of science, requires complex equations that remain constant. Many religious people could look at the consistency of numbers and perceive a divine truth.

Mesoamerican Cultures

Mesoamerican Definition: Central America from Mexico to Nicaragua; home of Aztec, Maya, and Olmec cultures The ancient Olmec civilization was the first culture to rise in Mesoamerica. Around 1200 BC, the Olmecs settled along the Gulf of Mexico near present-day Veracruz, Mexico. The Olmecs were a major influence on the Maya and Aztec cultures. The Olmecs are best known for their colossal sculptures of stone heads. Ritual sculptures from this polytheistic culture reveal a pantheon of animal gods who were sometimes melded with humans. By the sixth century AD, the Maya civilization rose from the Yucatán Peninsula down into El Salvador and Guatemala. The Maya had a hieroglyphic language and produced elaborate books called codices. Millions of Maya populated great city-states where 300-foot-tall stepped temples towered over wide paved plazas. The pyramid of Chichén Itzá is a renowned example of monumental Mayan architecture. The Aztec civilization arose much later. According to legend, the Aztec people had lived in Aztlan, the source of their name. It is still unclear whether Aztlan was a real-world location or legend only. The Aztecs entered the Valley of Mexico around AD 1325, a fertile area with mountain springs and lakes. Here, the party of wanderers encountered an eagle sitting atop a cactus. They took it as a sign from the gods telling them to settle there. The settlement became the great city of Tenochtitlán (now Mexico City).

Peter the Great, Czar of Russia (1672-1725)

Peter the Great of Russia began his rule at 10 captured the Black Sea from the Turks in 1695 in 1697, he spent a year on an undercover investigation of Europe's advanced technology, culture, and economy modernized Russian culture, outlawed beards, and encouraged Western dress eliminated the boyars his new "Table of Ranks" reclassified citizens, both military and civilian, according to 14 levels of status abolished the antiquated Russian government and convened a new Russian senate centralized the government and divided Russia into manageable regions adopted the Julian calendar so that Russia no longer lagged 10 days behind Europe created an armed navy to face Sweden's forces in the Northern War founded his new capital, St. Petersburg, in 1712 the Northern War ended; victorious Russia gained a new Baltic coastline in 1721

The Development of Printing

Monks being the ones who wrote books meant that the Roman Catholic Church could ensure that the manuscripts aligned with Church doctrine. Ideas that the clergy considered heretical could be suppressed. But in the mid-1300s, the Black Death depleted the ranks of monks. The loss of scribes seriously impacted book production. It was the East-West trade that had brought the plague from Asia. This trade was also the source of the Chinese inventions of papermaking and printing technology. The Chinese had invented paper and woodblock printing nearly a millennium before, but it took a long time for these innovations to make their way to Europe. The secret of papermaking traveled first through the Arab world. The knowledge reached Europe around 1200. Papermaking became a boon to the Europeans. The demand for paper created economic opportunities. The lack of scribes and the abundance of paper spurred the development of printing. Various inventors throughout Europe tried different methods. The Chinese printing process used woodcuts. Craftsmen carved pictures and letters in reverse on wood panels. The finished panels were coated with ink and pressed onto paper with a heavy paper press. The pressing ensured that the ink was absorbed evenly. This process became the origin of the term "printing press."

The Constitution of the United States

More than anything else, the Constitution of the United States of America represents the ideals of the nation. It established the rule of law, defined the federal government, and listed and protected the rights of each American citizen.

Which best describes the purpose and outcome of the Third Crusade?

Muslim leader Saladin lost territory, but a treaty with British King Richard I the Lionheart allowed Muslims to keep control of Jerusalem.

Third Crusade (AD 1189-1192)

Muslim leader Salah al-Din, or Saladin, controls Arab Empire. Saladin is forceful warlord, but displays chivalrous behavior. England enters Crusades; crusaders massacre hundreds of Jews in Britain. British king Richard I, the Lionheart, defeats Saladin's forces at Arsuf, north of Jerusalem, but does not take city. Saladin loses territory, but treaty with Richard allows Muslims to control Jerusalem. Many people in Europe viewed this Crusade as another loss for the papacy.

Which accurately describes the Arab Empire's impact on the Scientific Revolution?

Muslim scholars preserved discoveries and philosophies of the ancient Greeks and Romans.

Council of Trent to the Thirty Years' War (1618)

New monastic orders and societies form to promote Catholic reform policies (for example, the Jesuits were formed by Ignatius of Loyola in 1534 and received papal recognition in 1540) The Council of Trent (1545-1563), called by Pope Paul III, addresses Reformation issues such as the selling of indulgences, clerical corruption, and other abuses. The council stands by practices such as venerating saints, pilgrimages, and sacraments that were opposed by the Protestant Reformation. New emphasis was placed on a personal relationship with God and revival of spiritual interests, movements, and practices. The emphasis on education for children and laypeople increased; publication of The Roman Catechism, which is the forerunner of today's Catechism of the Catholic Church. The importance of art and music in churches and worship services experienced a renewal. A competitive pressure encouraged people to spread Catholicism in the New World and Asia. The Inquisition against Protestants began.

Origins of the Revolt

News of the American and French revolutions had reached the colony's shores. On August 1791, colonists began a slave revolt. Countries that practiced slavery feared that the revolution would spread. The origin of slavery in Saint-Domingue mirrors its development in other Caribbean and Latin American nations. The indigenous people were quickly reduced by diseases that arrived with Europeans. Living in close quarters and laboring in hot and humid conditions exposed more of the natives to tropical diseases. Soon, slaves from West African countries were introduced to work the plantations. The slaves on the western side of the island quickly figured out that they outnumbered the white overseers and slave owners. Cruel treatment on top of harsh living and working conditions added to the resentment. Revolution was only a matter of time.

Which accurately describes one of Sir Isaac Newton's advancements in astronomy?

Newton invented the reflecting telescope, which greatly improved the telescope's functionality.

Which accurately describes the origins of Buddhism?

Northern India is the birthplace of Buddhism, started by a man named Siddhartha Gautama.

Mexican Revolution Timeline

November 20, 1910: Francisco Madero challenges President Porfirio Diaz in the election. Diaz arrests Madero and stays in office. Revolution begins. May 25, 1911: Madero gets support of rebel leaders Pancho Villa, Pascual Orozco, and Emiliano Zapata. Together they overthrow Diaz. November 6, 1911: Madero becomes president. Political disagreements begin soon after among revolutionary leaders. 1913-1920: Various leaders fight for power, and focus shifts repeatedly. Most historians feel that 1920 marks the end of the revolution, with the election and presidency of Alvaro Obregón, a farmer and revolutionary general who was the last of the major military leaders of the Mexican Revolution.

Ancient and Classical Oceania

Oceania covers a vast expanse of the Pacific Ocean and contains thousands of islands spread out across thousands of square miles. Oceania is divided into subregions of islands: Micronesia, Melanesia, and Polynesia. The largest island in the southwestern Pacific is New Guinea, the second largest island in the world after Greenland. Oceania includes the continent of Australia, plus nearby Tasmania. Both islands of New Zealand are also considered to be part of the Polynesian group. The early humans who colonized the far-flung islands of Oceania had their origins in Southeast Asia during the Paleolithic Age, long before the civilizations of Asia began to form. The first wave of migrants began settling Melanesia and the Australian continent between 40,000 and 60,000 years ago. It was another 30,000 years before the most distant islands of the Pacific became populated.

Influence of China

Often, one group's success in a certain area inspires others to imitate its methods. This was true of China. Its empire was great, and so were its effects on the cultures in East Asia. Korea was attached to the East Asian mainland to the north east of China. The two cultures came into regular contact over trade and frequent invasions by Chinese forces. In the seventh century AD, the Koreans saw how the Tang Dynasty governed a vast empire of millions. They also admired the Tang's system of taxation. Having one, centralize emperor with absolute power also appealed to them. So the Koreans followed the Chinese pattern and adopted the Confucian system of government. They established a bureaucracy based on merit and divided their lands into provinces and districts. The Japanese also noticed how well the Chinese system of government worked. They too adopted the merit-based bureaucratic structure, taxation, and Confucian values. Taoism, Confucianism, and other enduring philosophies continue to shape the world today. Both classic and modern Chinese architecture reflect Taoist ideas about simplicity and nature. Confucianism would play a role in the rise of Mao Tse-tung and Chinese Communism. That same moral philosophy of Confucius would exert a different effect on America. Confucianism influenced the political theories of Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, Thomas Paine, and other Founding Fathers. Its philosophies shaped American ideals such as individual rights, the common good, and the role of the citizen.

The Mongol Empire Expands

On the death of Genghis Khan, his Mongol Empire stretched from the Caspian Sea to the Yellow Sea. Kublai ascended to Great Khan in 1260. He finally conquered the entire Chinese Empire in 1279, expanding the Yuan Dynasty and reigning as the first Mongol emperor of China. Kublai ruled China in the Confucian tradition. Kublai kept the Silk Road secure, which meant that trade continued unabated. He also welcomed the Italian adventurer Marco Polo. Polo, with his father and uncle, paved the way for increased trade between the East and West. Goods from Asia, especially silk and spices, flowed westward through the Khan's Empire. Likewise, ideas and innovations flowed east. Kublai welcomed outside ideas. Under his rule, Mongolia underwent a cultural, scientific, and economic transformation. Historians speculate that ancient Greek and Roman thought mixed with classical Chinese wisdom, and Buddhist mixed with Hinduism, Islam, and animism. In fact, Kublai Khan was fascinated by Christianity and requested priests from the Vatican to come to his court. The descendants of Genghis extended the borders to the Middle East and Central Europe, until Mongol territory covered nearly 12 million square miles, making it the largest empire in the world. But because of infighting and power grabs, the massive empire held together for only a century after Genghis's death. By 1368, it collapsed and split into three large empires—Chinese, Persian, and Russian—and several smaller Central Asian states. The Mongol Empire featured a remarkable degree of religious tolerance.

Egypt's 3,000 Years of History

One important crop was papyrus reeds. Fibrous sheets peeled from the stalks were used as paper. Egyptians had developed a means of writing called hieroglyphics that used pictographs to convey meaning. Egypt's recorded history began around 3100 BC with the Old Kingdom. During this period, the basic social, political, economic, and religious traditions of Egypt were established. Egypt's government was centralized under a single ruler called a pharaoh. The pharaoh was succeeded by a family member. This royal family was a dynasty. The dynasties of the Old Kingdom possessed great power. They built the towering pyramids of Giza in less than a century. Around 2050 BC, the Middle Kingdom began. This is regarded as Egypt's Classical Period. But famine left Egypt vulnerable to Syrian invaders called the Hyksos. They occupied Egypt until Pharaoh Ahmose I expelled them in 1558 BC. The New Kingdom followed. Pharaoh Thutmose initiated a policy of imperialism as payback for the Hyksos invasion. Egyptian forces poured into Syria and conquered the Near East. As Egypt's empire expanded, temple complexes and gigantic monuments were built in Karnak, Luxor, Abu Simbel, and the Valley of Kings. When the New Kingdom ended around 1200 BC, Egypt's epic grandeur passed with it. Egypt dissolved into civil conflict for 500 years. The eras following 664 BC were short and marked by foreign occupations and power struggles among dynastic royal houses.

Sixth Crusade (AD 1229)

Organized by German King and Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II, who had vowed to go on Crusade when he was crowned, the Sixth Crusade is delayed many years. Frederick negotiates with Al-Malik al Kamil to bring Jerusalem under control of Christians. Crusade is only partial success; Muslim forces retake Jerusalem not long after.

Which accurately describes the differences between Orthodox and Reform Jews?

Orthodox Jews strictly follow Mosaic Law, whereas Reform Jews do not follow all ancient laws.

New Concepts of Religion

Other people needed to replace their religion with a Protestant faith that was tailor-made for the modern age. Englishman John Wesley, an Anglican minister, started a movement in which groups of people met to pray, read the Bible, discuss their spiritual lives, and collect money for charity on a weekly basis. He did not set out to start a new religious denomination, but Wesley's movement evolved into an evangelical religion he called Methodism (although he remained an Anglican the remainder of his life). Methodists aimed for a perfect state of Christian harmony with their environment. Methodism was a disciplined religion, but it allowed its faithful to seek a personal relationship with their God. The Methodist Church was inclusive of its membership. Methodist ministers focused on the poor and other overlooked members of society. It was one of the first Protestant denominations to include African Americans. Methodists became principle organizers of abolition movements and other social reforms. The Anglican Church viewed Methodists as heretics and persecuted them. This persecution persuaded many Methodists to immigrate to the New World. The Methodist Church reorganized in America to evangelize the people living in the colonies. The Methodist Episcopal denomination became a unifying and civilizing force in early America. Traveling circuit riders regularly visited settlements in remote areas, bringing the Gospel to settlers and connecting them to the outside world.

How did geography contribute to European nations' desire to expand and colonize during the Age of Discovery?

Ottoman Muslim control of Constantinople prevented Europeans from trading with parts of Asia and Africa.

Song (Sung) Dynasty - AD 960-AD 1279

Paper currency begin to circulate. Literature and arts flourish.

Which ruler in the late 17th century is best known for spearheading extensive reforms of Russia, including the creation of a centralized government and navy?

Peter the Great

Alexander Takes the Reins of Power

Philip had a son named Alexander. As a teenager, Alexander had been tutored by the renowned Greek philosopher Aristotle. This instilled in him a respect for rhetoric, science, medicine, and philosophical thought. Alexander also was adept at military tactics. Alexander was only 20 years old when his father died. He took the Macedonian throne as Alexander III, but he would soon earn the name by which he is remembered: Alexander the Great. After Philip's death, rebellions flared up in Macedonian-held Greece. Alexander's first military action as king was to suppress the revolts. The swiftness and strength of his armies overwhelmed the Greeks and brought them into his expanding empire. Alexander then took up his father's goal of conquering Persia. In 334 BC, he sailed across the Aegean with a force of 40,000 men.

Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797)

Philosophy Leads to Actionwrote a long essay on women's rights based on reason and logic overriding theme was the basic principle of the Enlightenment: Reason exists within all human beings. Wollstonecraft extended this argument: Since women are human beings, they have reason. Therefore, women should possess the same rights accorded to men. argued for women's equality as well as equal rights in education in 1792 wrote A Vindication of the Rights of Women women applauded it, but the male establishment reacted harshly

Plato's Democracy

Plato believed that an oligarchy could devolve into a democracy that could potentially be ruled by mob mentality. In this form of government, rulers who mistreat the masses are replaced through open rebellion. The government then becomes a system in which the lower classes, or the poor, directly vote for how the government should be run. In Plato's democracy (also known as a mobocracy), citizens experience extreme freedom and equality. People can choose to live as they want and have no concern for the law, very similar to anarchy. The best producers in this society rise to become part of the leadership. There have been few historic examples in which government decisions have been made by large crowds of citizens. In the United States, the Salem witch trials in 1692 is one case in which the beliefs of a town's citizens swayed the decision of the courts. Another example can be found in the hangings and lynchings that occurred in the South with escaped slaves and in the West with horse and cattle thieves. These examples may best illustrate Plato's interpretation of a mobocracy. Large crowds can also influence government policy peaceably. For example, Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. led 200,000 people in a peaceful march to the Lincoln Memorial in Washington, DC, in 1963. It was here that Dr. King gave his famous "I have a dream" speech that helped pass the Civil Rights Act the following year.

Plato's Tyranny

Plato believed that the freedom of a mobocracy would lead to tyranny, in which one leader came to power to bring order to the chaos. This leader would initially seem selfless. Unfortunately, to bring about order, the tyrannical leader will commit unlawful acts, including murder. Perhaps the most famous modern example of tyranny is the takeover of the Weimar Republic. After World War I, the German government was operated under the Weimar Republic, a one-house legislature where all members had a vote in how the country was run. Laws were difficult to pass under this system, and Germany began to deteriorate due to expensive war reparations after World War I. When the Great Depression hit Germany, its currency became worthless, unemployment rose to 70 percent, and the economy collapsed. One man rose to bring order to the chaos. He provided soup to the unemployed and starving. His name was Adolf Hitler.

Fourth Crusade (AD 1198-1204)

Pope Innocent III, disappointed by Third Crusade, orders a fourth. Crusaders seize Constantinople, kill Byzantine Christians, destroy library, sack city for three days. Sack of Constantinople permanently alienates Eastern Church and paves way for its eventual return to Muslim control. Goal of Crusades begins to evolve from control of Holy Land to war against enemies of Roman faith.

Repercussions Spread through the Western World

Pope Leo X condemned Luther's action as heresy. After Luther refused to take back his statements, Leo excommunicated him. This event affected the Christian faith and the European understanding of government in two major ways. First, with the break from the governance of the Roman Catholic Church, the Protestant churches established local governing bodies, or councils. These governing bodies were composed of members elected by the congregations. Councils made decisions about everything from construction and expansion to the calling of clergy as pastors. Second, Luther believed that the average person could form a relationship with God without the help of clergy. Churchgoers were enabled to study and interpret the Bible for themselves. People understood this concept and applied it to government. They believed that they should be able to directly petition a monarch. This evolved into the idea that people could in fact govern themselves—without a monarch, nobility, or aristocracy. In this sense, the foundation of modern democracy can be found in the Protestant Reformation. In 1521, Luther was ordered by an ecclesiastical council to retract his statements at the Diet of Worms. He refused. As the council began to cry for his blood, Prince Frederick the Wise of Saxony arranged for Luther to take refuge in his castle in Wartburg. Luther remained there for 10 months, translating the Bible into the German language, which was illegal. A compromise appeared to be reached in 1526 when the Church allowed each state to choose Catholicism or Lutheranism, as Luther's philosophy was now called. But in 1529, the Diet of Speyer reversed that decision. The Lutheran representatives in attendance rose up and lodged an official protest to the Church's reversal. This labeled them with the term Protestants.

Which most accurately describes a major impact of the Roman Catholic Church in Europe during the Middle Ages?

Pope Urban II issued a call known as the Crusades throughout Europe for Christian warriors to defend the Holy Land.

A Religion Born in Conflict

Prejudices based on religion were a rarity in the Classical Era. The Romans demanded that occupied peoples assimilate Roman language and culture, but they were surprisingly tolerant when it came to foreign religions. Strange gods were not a threat. Romans even adopted the gods of other cultures into their own traditions. In turn, they expected the same regard for their beliefs. However, the Jews of Roman-occupied Palestine presented unique problems. They considered the Romans pagan. Augustus Caesar made sacrifices on the altar of the Jewish temple of Jerusalem in what he felt was a politically wise move. But because Augustus also worshipped Jupiter, the Jews condemned the Romans as idolaters. Revolts became frequent. The occupying Romans responded with savage force. Punishment by crucifixion became common. In this heated atmosphere, the first stirrings of Christianity took place. Based on the philosophy of a man called Jesus, Christianity was rooted in Mosaic law and Jewish tradition. The occupying Romans saw no difference between this new religion and Judaism. After Jesus was crucified in AD 33, Christians went underground. The Christians sought to distance themselves from the Jews. They formally rejected Mosaic law and appealed to the Romans for mercy. The Romans recognized the fact that Christians were not Jews and gave their consent. This earned the Christians the contempt of the Jews, who considered them traitors.

The Legacy of Prince Henry the Navigator

Prince Henry's ships had explored as far as Sierra Leone when Prince Henry died in 1460. The Slave trade had begun as an unintended and incidental part of Henry's venture. Its devastating effects would have a lasting impact on human society.

France (16th-18th century)

Protestant Huguenots were considered heretics and killed by the Catholics until most fled to other countries.

Protestants on the Move

Protestant congregations were taking over traditional Catholic churches. Some denominations, especially the Calvinists, opposed the use of images in worship. Calvinists believed religious art suggested idolatry. In taking over a Catholic church, the first task usually was to take down the icons and other representations of Jesus, Mary, and the Catholic saints.

Roger Williams (Puritan, Baptist)

Protestant immigrant 1631: settled in Massachusetts Bay colony rejected policy of taking Native American lands, expelled by Puritans promoted religious tolerance, separation of church and state 1636: founded Providence in Rhode Island Rhode Island became a shelter for other religious dissidents

The English Civil War and Its Aftereffects

Puritan outrage increased when Charles I succeeded James in 1625. Charles was also a tyrant. He was an Anglican, but his wife was Catholic. Ongoing political tensions escalated into the bloody English Civil War. Charles angered his fellow Englishmen by fielding an army of Irish Catholics. Puritan leader Oliver Cromwell led the opposing forces. Cromwell defeated Charles, who was found guilty of treason and beheaded. Cromwell abolished the monarchy and took control. Cromwell ruled the Commonwealth of England as a Puritan nation. His five-year rule was marked by repression, rigid social morality, and brutal military action. Cromwell's armies slew thousands in Ireland. He purged Anglicans from the clergy and even outlawed the celebration of Christmas. Oliver Cromwell was despised. When he died in 1658, Anglicans were jubilant. Besides the loathed Catholics, the Puritan occupation had given them a new enemy. Charles II, the exiled royal heir, returned to Britain and reinstated the Church of England. He also ordered gravediggers to dig up Cromwell's body. In a grisly spectacle, Charles put Cromwell's remains on trial for treason. The court declared Cromwell guilty, and the body was hanged from a gallows. Later, Cromwell's severed head was put on public display as a warning to traitors.

England

Puritans believed the Anglian Church, established by King Henry VIII, was still too similar to the Catholic Church. Thus, most Puritans renounced the Anglican Church. Fearful for their safety, many Puritans migrated west. Millions of disenfranchised Europeans began turning their attention to the Americas, toward the dream of a new life in a new land far across the Atlantic Ocean.

The Foundations of Roman Government

Rome's enduring legacy was the highly workable model of government that Romans adapted from Greek principles. Their democratic system was capable of governing multitudes of citizens of varied classes. Yet it ensured that each individual had a voice in political matters. The Roman systems of government and law clearly defined the rights and duties of a citizen living within a democracy. Roman government was divided into three sections: the magistrates, the Senate, and the assemblies and tribunes.

Rome's Economic Woes

Rome's wealth was concentrated in the cities. The upper classes made up 1.5 percent of its population, yet they controlled Rome's money and political power. The economic gap between classes widened until the middle class was almost nonexistent. Teeming, crowded slums sprang up in the shadow of Rome's majestic temples. As the number of poor increased, so did the depths of their poverty. The government distributed small handouts of grain to the hungry masses in the cities. But, this measure was not enough. Rome's empire covered about 2.5 million square miles. But the great size of the empire came with its own problems. More territory meant longer frontiers to defend and more lands to control. This huge civilization required a complex bureaucracy to function. The existing infrastructure required upkeep, as did the empire's temples and public buildings. The army's ranks dwindled. Roman commanders had to hire mercenaries, whose loyalty depended on regular pay.

Historical Evidence of Alexander the Great

Some of what we know about Alexander came from a historian, Callisthenes of Olynthus, who actually traveled with Alexander. Some of Alexander's officers also wrote histories of their campaigns with him. Roman philosopher and historian Plutarch of Chaeronea used many of these sources in his Life of Alexander, written in the first century AD. Plutarch, Diodorus, and other classical historians enshrined Alexander forever in the vault of the written word. Alexander also left physical evidence in the lands he conquered. Some 20 cities bore his name. Artisans built scores of monuments and statues of Alexander the Great. His face adorned coins from numerous nations. The British Museum has a fragment from a Babylonian clay tablet on which the death of Alexander was recorded in cuneiform. But beyond the tributes, Alexander brought a higher degree of civilization to the Hellenic world. Countless peoples absorbed the influences of Greek culture. Science, philosophy, mathematics, and art blossomed in Alexander's wake. His achievements also would inspire the fantasies of empire in the minds of future leaders. But none of them would equal the magnitude of Alexander the Great.

A Hard Life in the Urban Slums

Rural life in America also was changing. America's largely agricultural economy began turning to manufacturing. People migrated from the countryside to urban centers in search of work. In the 1800s, thousands of jobseekers poured into New York City. Every decade, the city's population increased by about 75 percent. This influx put a strain on housing. Members of the working class were forced to live in unhealthy and dangerous conditions. Tenements were narrow brick buildings five to seven stories tall. Tenements were crammed close together. Landlords subdivided large living quarters into multiple apartments and rooms. Workers with families had little choice but to live in crowded tenements. They could not afford decent housing. New York's slums were noisy, filthy, crowded places. Sometimes a dozen people occupied a single room in a tenement. They worked different shifts so they could take turns sleeping on the floor. Overcrowded housing generated massive amounts of waste. People dumped garbage out their windows. Garbage built up in the streets and in the narrow, enclosed spaces between the buildings. The garbage situation was compounded due to a lack of sanitation services. Rats and cockroaches thrived. Few buildings had indoor plumbing. People dumped raw sewage directly into the rivers. Poor sanitation increased the spread and severity of communicable diseases. Deadly disease outbreaks happened often. In 1849, one cholera epidemic claimed 5,000 lives in the poverty-stricken Lower East Side. Summer heat made slum life even more miserable. The close-set tenements blocked breezes. Sunlight baked the brick buildings. Many rooms had no windows. The air inside the unventilated tenements was stifling. People slept on fire escapes to escape the relentless heat. A large percentage of lower-income residents were immigrants. Many immigrants settled in ethnic enclaves where they shared the same languages and customs. This made it difficult for some immigrants to assimilate into American culture. With people living so close together, tensions increased. Hostilities brewed over ethnic prejudices and competition for jobs. Some factions formed gangs to protect their interests. Other gangs engaged in violent territorial disputes.

Actions in Middle East Impact Europe

Salah al-Din, or Saladin, was born around 1138 in Tikrit in present-day Iraq. His Kurdish family was politically connected. At 31 years old, Saladin was appointed vizier to the caliph of the Fatimid caliphate in North Africa. By 1171, he was powerful enough to end the Shiite Fatimid dynasty and institute Sunni Islam as Egypt's religion. Saladin saw how old rivalries between Arab tribes had sapped their passion for war. He immersed himself in scriptural study of jihad, or the waging of holy war. Saladin became consumed with the dream of reunifying the Muslim forces. He used his Egyptian wealth to finance the conquest of Syria, becoming ruler of the Arab Empire. Muslims were united under a single banner once again. In 1187, Saladin and his victorious Muslim armies recaptured Jerusalem. Instead of slaughtering Jerusalem's Christian inhabitants as the crusaders had done to the city's Muslim residents in 1099, Saladin spared them. The recapture of Jerusalem was mostly peaceful, and the occupying Christians were spared. The downside of this—for Saladin—was that the crusaders were able to regroup and reorganize.

Salary Plus Commission

Salary plus commission means that a person is paid a base salary plus extra for closing sales. The base salary is a predetermined amount of money received on a regular basis. It is usually a smaller amount of money than straight salary because the salesperson also receives a commission. A commission is a percentage of a sale that is paid to a salesperson when the sale is closed. This is the most common kind of sales compensation. Why is it used so often? If a salesperson has a good sales month, he or she earns a bigger paycheck—the base salary plus the commission for closing sales. If a salesperson has a poor sales month, he or she will still get paid the regular salary with little to nothing extra. Pros - guaranteed base salary - extra pay based on sales Cons - reduced motivation because salary is guaranteed - less motivation if commission is small

Purpose

Sales reps who really believe in the products they sell have a strong sense of purpose. This sense of purpose pushes a salesperson to succeed. A sense of purpose could motivate someone to master presentation skills as a way to build confidence. Managers should share positive customer feedback with these salespeople to further motivate them. Tyrell really believes in the products he sells, so this type of motivation works well for him.

Capitalism Characteristics

Scottish philosopher Adam Smith regarded as father of modern capitalism 1776: Smith writes book The Wealth of Nations to explore what he called the "political economy" well-run economic market can contribute to the support of a society describes a laissez-faire policy in which government does not interfere in commerce increases profit due to minimal government interference more economic opportunities for middle class free choice for consumers would make market balance itself out

Pennsylvania Quakers

Society of Friends, called Quakers; founded by George Fox fled to Massachusetts Bay colony to escape British persecution oppressed, tortured, executed by New England Puritans 1681: fled and settled in Pennsylvania, meaning "Penn's woods" in Latin William Penn, an early Quaker, founded the Province of Pennsylvania "city of brotherly love" Philadelphia became sanctuary of religious tolerance, equality for women

Advances in Botany

Some Chinese farmers possessed the same curiosity as scientists. Horticulture thrived in China. The Chinese also made major advances in the cultivation of food-producing plants. They were the first people to grow and harvest lemons, oranges, grapefruit, peaches, and apricots. Tea also became an important part of Chinese culture.

Xia Dynasty - 2100 BC-1600 BC

Some historians believe this to be the first Chinese dynasty; others claim the Xia Dynasty is only a legend. Kings ruled by meritocracy.

Leadership Opportunities

Some salespeople are natural leaders. They communicate well and can command attention. Managers who identify potential leaders and provide mentorship for them can boost intrinsic motivation. Ex: Tyrell has become a mentor to new team members and has worked to keep positive energy in the office, even when sales were down. Darshana noticed Tyrell's enthusiasm and offered him a new title: senior salesperson.

Which geographic locations did the Arab Empire control through the year AD 750?

Spain (Iberia), North Africa, and the Near East

12 Years of Revolution

Spain was busy fighting Napoleon in Europe and did not give its South American colonies much attention. This allowed for the rebellion to grow stronger. Bolívar returned to Latin America, where he mounted a revolution. Given the vast expanse of territory, Bolívar's revolution went from colony to colony. His revolution began in Venezuela and spread through the majority of South America, ending in Colombia. Beginning in 1813, Bolívar led the charge during 12 years of armed revolution. The revolution helped make Bolivia, Panama, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Venezuela free from the Spanish Crown. He also helped to abolish slavery in Venezuela. Despite the influence of Enlightenment ideas and philosophies, Bolívar wanted to be the leader of a united nation of South American states known as Gran Colombia. Bolívar has been referred to as the George Washington of South America, but he differs from Washington in many ways. Inspired by the British monarchy, Bolívar wanted to establish a lifelong presidency with a Parliament. Many Latin Americans today call Bolívar the Great Liberator. Successive revolutionaries, including Communist guerrillas, have claimed Bolívar as their inspiration. Almost two centuries after his death in 1830, Bolívar is still a powerful personality whose name and likeness can stir up support and sentimental passion among Latin Americans.

Which explains why the Latin American independence movements were allowed to grow unchecked?

Spain was preoccupied with fighting Napoleon in Europe.

Which option best describes events of the Spanish Inquisition?

Spanish inquisitors executed Protestants, Muslims, and Jews.

Sparta

Sparta illustrates another significant divergence from a monarchy. Sparta was a society based on always being prepared for war. The structure of its government was also based on this concept. Sparta's government had two elected kings who kept one another in check. These elected kings were the military and religious leaders of Sparta. The kings also served in one of the two houses of the Spartan legislature, which was composed of 30 men. The other section of the Spartan legislature was made up of all Spartan men 18 years or older. Finally, there was a council of five elders called the Ephoroi. This group provided oversight to the bicameral legislature and the two kings. The Ephoroi ensured that laws were being followed.

What is an effect of the Crusades on Sunni and Shiite Muslim factions?

Sunni and Shiite factions ceased their quarreling and united against Christian Crusaders.

Innovation Creates New Opportunities

Technological advances set into motion a cycle of new improvements. Scientists and inventors shared their ideas. These advances led to an economic boom as industries grew and trade increased. Commerce expanded as industries produced goods, and money flowed into Europe. Merchants joined the elite class. Wealthy people became even wealthier. They looked for ways to use their money to enhance their social status. Humanist philosophers wrote essays explaining that funding great works was a measure of a ruler's virtue. Ruling houses bolstered their images by being involved in large-scale civic projects, humanitarian efforts, and patronage. This practice was widespread throughout Italy. States were run by fiercely competitive nobles who vied to be the most generous in the region.

War and decline

Tensions between city-states brought an end to the Golden Age. Beginning in 431 BC, the Peloponnesian War cast Athens against its former ally Sparta. Athens suffered a great setback when plague wiped out one-third of its population. Athens lost to Sparta in 404 BC, but both sides were weakened, speeding up Greece's decline. In 338 BC, Macedonian king Philip II conquered Greece. His son, Alexander the Great, went on to establish an empire across the ancient world. As a student of Aristotle, Alexander spread the intellectual and cultural gifts of Greece as he went.

Britain's Growing Textile Industry

Textiles were an ancient invention. First came the process of spinning raw materials, like wool and cotton, into thread. Then came the weaving of these fibers into cloth. The weaving process remained much the same for thousands of years. Before the 1700s, most fabrics were produced in private homes. Weaving took skill and was labor intensive. In the early 1700s, mechanics adapted wind power and horse power to run mill machines in a factory setting. Industrial looms made wider cloth of a more consistent quality. This increased the demand for thread. More employees were hired to work more spinning wheels to increase thread production. The multi-spindled spinning jenny needed only one worker to spin eight spindles of thread. Later innovations increased the number of spindles to 120. In 1769, Richard Arkwright built a cotton-spinning mill that was powered with water wheels. Arkwright's mill created a sensation. Britain's laissez-faire economy allowed others to start businesses. Entrepreneurs established mills in northern England and Lancashire, where fast-running streams were plentiful. In 1775, James Watt took apart an existing steam engine. He redesigned a few components to make it more efficient. Watt's steam engine revolutionized manufacturing, particularly in the textile industry. Edmund Cartwright was inspired by Arkwright's spinning mill. In 1785, Cartwright invented a power loom that ran on steam power. Britain's textile production boomed. Soon, over half the exports of the British Isles were textiles. But as the economy improved, mechanization took the jobs of thousands of skilled weavers and spinners. Unemployed workers could not find work. Violence broke out among them. Angry mobs invaded mills to sabotage machinery and burn down factories.

Slave Revolt

The 1789 French Revolution weakened France and created an opportunity for revolt. The revolt began in the northern highlands of the island in 1791. Toussaint Louverture took lead of the revolt, and it spread across the island. Napoleon Bonaparte sent troops in 1802 to suppress the revolt. Slaves successfully drove the French out in 1804.

Islamic Influence Spreads

The Abbasid dynasty took control of the caliphate in 750, beginning a golden age of learning, culture, art and trade. As Europe struggled through the Dark Ages, the caliphate preserved and expanded on ancient and classical knowledge from Mediterranean. Islam forbids any picture of Muhammad or Allah. The influence of Islam on Arabic art can be keenly observed. Islamic art often uses intricate geometric patterns rather than focusing on human figures. Calligraphy, or artistic handwritten lettering, became treasured within the Arab world. Koranic law is followed today in many Muslim nations, such as Saudi Arabia, Iraq, and their neighbors.

The Explorers

The Age of Discovery was true to its name. It was a time of breakthroughs and first encounters. This included innovations in navigation, especially ocean sailing, and the meeting of different cultures. To Europeans, the world had doubled in size as they saw new continents and encountered new peoples. European powers vied for economic, political, and social status. Populations had boomed, and everyone wanted more—more wealth, more land, and more resources of all kinds. European countries sought new territory and expanded trade markets. In particular, when the Ottoman Empire seized control of Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul, Turkey), it blocked European trade ships traveling to Asia and parts of North Africa. This made trading for spices and silk harder. Unable to sail through these areas, European navigators wanted to find new trade routes. Exploration was the ideal way to seek all of the gains their sponsoring countries wanted. In the 15th and 16th centuries, Portugal, Spain, France, and England set sail to explore and dominate the world. They found and colonized the Americas, and they spread colonies throughout Africa and islands in the Pacific Ocean. Here are just a few of the adventurous and enterprising individuals who pursued this quest.

Which most accurately describes the Arab Empire's impact on religious practices?

The Arab Empire spread Islam across the Middle East and North Africa.

Arabian Life

The Arab peoples included those who settled permanently at trading centers along rivers and desert oases. Others, like Bedouins in Arabia, Syria, and Northern Africa, were seminomadic. These nomadic groups would tend sheep, goats or camels, moving herds in and out of the desert according to the seasons. A tribe consisted of individual families. A senior member called a sheikh was the principal leader of the tribe. From these traditions came the Prophet Muhammed and the religion of Islam.

The First Industrial Revolution Begins

The British Isles would become the setting of the First Industrial Revolution. Before the 1700s, the way of life for most Britons had been rural and agricultural. There was little real industry. Local craftspeople worked at home producing one item at a time. However, this changed in 1750. Parliament passed the Enclosure Acts. These laws forced thousands of farmers off their lands. The private landlords evicted peasant farmers and their families. By 1860, the Enclosure Acts would put half of public land into private hands. Evicted farmers were desperate to support their families. Many displaced farmers gained employment in the new iron foundries and textile mills, as well as their wives and children.

Which accurately describes the religion of the Byzantine Empire? Byzantine Empire religion

The Byzantine Empire belonged to the Eastern Orthodox Church.

Which accurately describes a major architectural achievement of the Byzantine Empire?

The Byzantine Empire constructed the Hagia Sophia, the world's largest church of the time.

Stepping Stones to a New Empire

The Byzantine Empire had been weakened by an extensive 26-year-long war with Persia, plus outbreaks of the bubonic plague. It could not defend its possessions. Soon the caliphate had conquered Syria, Persia, and northwestern India. The Umayyad caliphate moved its capital from Arabia to Damascus, Syria. The caliphate then turned its attention to the conquest of Egypt. Once they occupied northern regions of Africa, Muslim forces began moving westward, conquering territories and converting many populations to Islam. At this early stage of the Arab Empire under the Umayyads, the drive to convert was not as violent as it would later become. The people of Northern Africa had chafed under Byzantine rule, and some inhabitants welcomed their new rulers. By degrees, the Christian lands on the southern shores of the Mediterranean Sea became Muslim. By the early eighth century AD, the Muslims had seized the former Roman colony of Mauretania, located on the coast of present-day Morocco. Soon, Mauretanians made up much of the conquering army. The word Moors is a corrupted word referring to people from Morocco. Soon, it would begin to be reserved for Muslims from this area. Lying directly north of Mauretania across the Mediterranean was the Iberian Peninsula, the site of present-day Spain. Between the two landmasses was the western entrance to the Mediterranean Sea. In this spot, little more than a dozen miles of ocean separate the continents of Africa and Europe. At this time, Spain was held by the Visigoths, another barbarian people who had contributed to the fall of Rome. Conspiracies and internal squabbling had made the Visigoth kingdom politically unstable.

Impact on Other Continents, Other Civilizations Byzantine and Arab

The Byzantine and Arab empires influenced the cultures of faraway civilizations. From the Byzantine Empire came a greater tolerance for other societies and civilizations. Byzantine society was used to hosting diverse cultures, peoples, and languages. The capital city of Constantinople was the major crossroads of East and West. The Silk Road, the spice trade, and other valuable routes of commodities passed through this labyrinth of a city. In a similar way, the Arab Empire had substantial power and influence on the regions of North Africa and the Middle East. As Christianity had united Rome and Byzantium, Islam united North Africa and the Middle East. The disparate and feuding tribes that had occupied these two regions for a millennium or more came together as one. At this point, the term Arab became a political identity as well as a cultural one. Religion was not the only unifying force of the Arab Empire. Ancient trade routes and commodities which had once been overseen by the Romans were now solely controlled by Arab rulers. One of the best examples of this is the trans-Saharan salt trade. Salt is vital for life. It is essential for muscle contraction and proper digestion. It can preserve meat, and it adds flavor to foods. West Africa does not have natural salt deposits and harvesting salt from the sea is both labor-intensive and time-consuming. Arab traders brought salt, as well as gold, ivory, and other commodities, from central and southern Africa across the desert to trading outposts and cities. The Arab Empire's dominance over this trade made it rich. The trade also increased Arab influence outside of the Empire's borders. Arab goods had always been prized, but the collapse of the Roman Empire meant that it could no longer tax the Arabs. The money was wholly in their hands.

The Eastern Empire on Its Own

The Byzantine emperors considered themselves rulers over all Christendom. They felt a destiny to rule all Roman territory, even after the dissolution of the Western Roman Empire. In 533, Emperor Justinian began an ambitious campaign to recapture Roman lands in Northern Africa, Italy, and southern Spain. Justinian's western conquests were successful, but over time the territory was lost again. Justinian also oversaw major building projects like the construction of the Hagia Sophia, and he made important contributions to law. To help oversee his empire, Justinian studied the law codes of the ancient Romans. He then consolidated them into one law code, known as Justinian's Code. It included thousands of Rome's old laws, as well as legal opinions written by some of Rome's greatest scholars. Justinian's Code established a standardized universal system of law for everyone. This is considered the most important and lasting Byzantine contribution. Justinian's Code still serves as the foundation of civil law in many modern countries.

Which accurately describes religion's influence on the feudal system in Europe?

The Catholic Church's hierarchical structure inspired the organizational structure of the feudal society.

Chinese Words and Numbers (History)

The Chinese developed their written language in 1700 BC. Chinese characters originally were pictographs, but the language expanded into thousands of complex and stylized characters. One of the oldest Chinese books yet discovered is the I Ching, a fortune-telling guide that historians believe was written around 800 BC. The Chinese discovered how to weave silk from silkworm cocoons, and for centuries they used silk for writing. Many famous early writings by the Chinese were originally inscribed in silk, including the works of Confucius, who was known for his teachings on morality and ethics. His writings later became the official philosophy of China. Another famous text, The Art of War, written by Sun Tzu in 300 BC, provided an in-depth analysis of military tactics, and is still revered today by many scholars and military leaders. Then in 105 BC, a court official named Ts'ai Lun perfected papermaking. The Chinese also invented movable-type printing 800 years before the Western world did. In other ways, Chinese culture lagged behind other cultures. They did not develop written numbers until around 1500 BC.

Tranquility and Discipline

The Chinese inventions of ink and paper facilitated writing, and the Chinese had developed a way to mass produce books by the ninth century, which promoted literacy. Chinese books had previously taken the form of long silk scrolls. Words printed on paper made scrolls obsolete. This was a revolutionary cultural breakthrough. A single book could contain great amounts of information. The availability of paper encouraged other innovations. The movable-type press was invented around 1049. This style of printing press employed separate blocks with a symbol carved on each one. These blocks were arranged in lines and set into a grid that held them. Ink was applied to the lettered grids with a roller, and then the paper was pressed down onto the letters. The process was repeated to make multiple copies. This was a complicated procedure, but it was much faster than writing out the page with a pen or carving each lettered page by hand.

The Classical Period of the Hellenic World

The Classical Period was marked by substantial achievements in art, science, and politics. Pericles was a skilled politician and orator who worked to improve Athenian democracy. Athens became the center of culture and learning for the Western world. - The famous philosopher Socrates devised the question-and-answer approach to learning, called the "Socratic method." - Plato, a pupil of Socrates, explained the principles of an ideal civilization in the Republic. - Plato's student, Aristotle, worked on logic, mathematics, ethics, medicine, and the arts. - Herodotus wrote an account of the Persian Wars which is considered the first book of history. - The playwrights Aeschylus and Sophocles were known for their tragedies, while Aristophanes produced popular comedies. - Euclid, Pythagoras, and Archimedes developed mathematical disciplines and established the principles of geometry. Advanced geometry helped architects design massive structures. The proportions of Classical Greek buildings were based on mathematical formulas. Rows of columns called colonnades supported heavy roof beams while allowing in light and fresh air. Most columns had vertical grooves. The column's top, called the capital, could be carved in three different ways: the plain Doric style, the Ionic style with a double-scroll shape, or the ornate Corinthian capital featuring curling acanthus leaves. The Greeks also laid out an extensive system of roads to connect their cities. They built aqueducts to channel water to regions that needed it. After more than 2,000 years, many of these structures are still standing.

What effects did the Crusades have on European markets?

The Crusades created an increase in the demand for Near East spices. The Crusades increased trade between Europe and the Middle East.

End Results of the Crusades

The Crusades ended in a stalemate. However, their influence reshaped European society. The Crusades and their aftermath were important for paving the way for the eventual European Renaissance.

Which accurately describes the purpose and history of the Dutch East India Company?

The Dutch East India Company was granted a monopoly of the spice trade by the Dutch government and subsequently owned its own military and colonies in the Pacific.

Which identifies a main cause for the schism between the Roman Catholic Church and the Church of England?

The English king wanted to end his marriage, but the pope would not annul the union.

Urban Growth and the Social Impact of Industrialization

The First Industrial Revolution brought sweeping changes. For the first time in history, populations migrated from rural areas to cities. Heavy industry also changed the landscape, polluting the land and water. Smoke from factory furnaces created a steady rain of grimy soot particles. Major iron-smelting regions were clouded with smoke so thick it blocked the sunlight. Chronic coughs and lung disease became commonplace, even in young children. Along with great changes in technology, large-scale social changes also were occurring. Some of these changes created conditions of appalling human misery. The new science of photography would document this horrible truth and expose it to the public. The visual evidence of this unseen side of human life would shock citizens. Awareness of these miseries would lead reformers to correct some of the problems of their modern society.

The French and Indian War

The French and Indian War, as it was known in America, was part of a multinational conflict called the Seven Years' War. France and England both wanted to expand their global empires. In North America, they were fighting for control over the continent's rich natural resources, including the fur trade. Both nations lined up allies to help them fight. Prussia fought with the British; Russia and Sweden backed France. Various American Indian tribes fought on both sides. The war contributed to rising tensions between the colonists and England. The French colonies consisted of only about 60,000 people. The British colonies along the East Coast had a population of about 2 million. Despite their small numbers, the French proved to be formidable foes.

Slavery

The French decided to use their side of the island to cultivate sugarcane and tobacco. African slaves were brought to the island in the early 1500s. The population of African slaves vastly outnumbered the French.

The Reign of Terror and Rise of Napoleon

The French king Louis XVI spent the late 18th century ruling poorly. His support of the Americans in their revolution depleted the royal treasury. The extravagant lifestyle of Louis and his queen Marie Antoinette left France nearly bankrupt. The common people paid all the taxes, even when they were starving. Widespread hunger caused bitter unrest and food riots.

Which best describe how natural features and geography impacted the wealth of the Ghana Empire?

The Ghana Empire had fertile farmlands to produce a variety of crops. The Ghana Empire had an abundant amount of gold beneath the earth.

The impact that fell on Egypt culture

The Greek and Roman occupations affected Egyptian culture differently. In each case, Egypt was conquered by a foreign military force. These similar circumstances yielded differing outcomes. This is because the Greek and Roman cultures regarded Egypt from different perspectives. The Greek occupation of Egypt benefited both sides. The key point was that these two cultures held each other in mutual regard. The Romans, however, saw all non-Romans as barbarians. Rome had no intentions of influencing Egypt's culture. Rome considered Egypt a conquered possession to exploit. Under Roman rule, Egypt entered into the new millennium as a mere ghost of itself. It continued fading as the Roman Empire split in two, and the western half fell to the Goths. Egypt became a Byzantine possession, and then part of the Muslim Empire. Ancient Egypt's cultural identity faded further away as it intertwined with the Arab culture. But Egypt's majestic monuments endured. Some, like the Great Sphinx, already lay beneath 2,000 years of windswept sands. Almost that much time would pass before Egypt's glories would come to light again. Present-day archeologists would see the visible traces of Greek and Roman influences left on remnants of Egypt's past.

Hellenic Civilization

The Greek name for Greece is Hellas. The word Hellenic refers to the Greek culture. Archeological remains suggest that Greece was inhabited as early as 6000 BC. The geography of Greece defined its development. Much of the mainland is mountainous, and its territory includes more than 1,400 islands. These mountains and islands created barriers that made Greece hard to invade, but they also isolated the Greek settlements and left less room for farming. Because of this, cities became politically independent rather than following a single ruler. The Greeks became expert sailors and navigators as they turned to outside trade and colonization to ensure a steady food supply. Greek colonies sprang up along nearby coastal areas with better farmland.

Mining and Iron Production in Britain

The Industrial Revolution created a constant hunger for raw materials and sources of power. Britain was rich with both. Mining had been practiced in Britain since ancient times. Huge deposits of iron ore lay in Western Britain. Wales had a legendary abundance of coal to fire furnaces. From Iron Ore to Steel - Once dug from the earth, iron ore was shipped to mills. - Ore went through the first smelting process to make pig iron, which was brittle and needed to be refined further. - Molten iron was mixed with carbon allowing for shaping, creating wrought iron. - In the mid-1800s, ironworkers discovered burning coke increased the temperature of blast furnaces. - Higher temperatures meant different forms of metal could be compounded. - In 1856, Sir Henry Bessemer created the Bessemer process, which created steel. Bessemer had discovered a remarkably cheap solution to steelmaking. This process created 30 tons of steel in 20 minutes. The phenomenal increase in bulk steel production made Britain a leading steel exporter. By 1882, Britain would become the world's largest producer of pig iron. British mills produced 3 million tons of pig iron a year.

Which most accurately reflects the development of agriculture in early African civilizations?

The Kingdom of Ghana exchanged surplus crops and gold for textiles and salt brought by roving traders.

The Showdown with Persia Begins

The Macedonians swept through Asia Minor, laying siege and conquering cities as they went. Alexander left occupying forces and went south to claim Persian lands in Tyre and Gaza. After lengthy sieges, the victorious Macedonians then marched south to take Egypt. At the arrival of Alexander's armies, Egypt's Persian governor immediately surrendered. The Egyptians, chafing under 200 years of Persian occupation, rejoiced and proclaimed him the son of a god.

Which option accurately compares the ideology that influenced Europe during the Middle Ages with the growing ideology of the Renaissance?

The Middle Ages was dominated by Catholic thought, whereas the Renaissance was inspired by humanism.

The Directory

The National Convention approved a new constitution on August 22, 1795. The French Parliament elected five men to hold power as the Directory. Any dissent was silenced by the army, which was under General Napoleon Bonaparte. After four years of crises and corruption under the rule of the Directory, Bonaparte led a coup d'etat. He seized power and declared himself dictator. The coming Napoleonic Era would change Europe forever

A New Empire Takes Control

The Ottoman system of government granted the sultan absolute power. The sultan had a grand vizier, a high-ranking official who acted as a mediator between the sultan and his administration. The government consisted of a large bureaucratic structure with members of his inner circle at the next level. They, in turn, controlled the administration of provincial governments, and so on down. The empire's citizens could to appeal to any level of higher authority. The Ottoman governmental model was adopted by kingdoms throughout Europe. The Empire Declines Though the Ottomans controlled southeastern Europe, they continued to expand. By the late 16th century, they had pushed north into Wallachia, a Romanian territory, and were on the borderlands of Transylvania when their movement was halted. The empire had begun to stagnate. Internal struggles were disrupting the system. The empire lost territories as other nations around it rose in strength. Its domain shrank until it no longer had the power to threaten Europe. But this decline did not mean the end of the Ottoman Empire. It would continue to exist into the modern era.

Phoenician

The Phoenician civilization began its rise in Lebanon around 3200 BC. Its major cities Tyre, Sidon, and Byblos were coastal, fitting for a seagoing people. Phoenicians focused on trade. They first traded with the Greeks, bringing Near East products such as pottery, glass products, and dye. While Phoenicia supplied the needs of cultures throughout the Mediterranean world, its most lasting contribution was a written language. Phoenicia's language was the first one (that we know of) to be phonetic. This means that in the Phoenician language, each symbol corresponded with a sound. The Phoenician language was initially made up of 22 consonants, but the Greeks later added vowels. This created the world's first alphabetical system of writing. The Phoenician alphabet eased communication and trade among a diverse population of empires and kingdoms. It led to the modern alphabet system used by most of the Western world today. In turn, the Greek civilization helped mold and shape the principles of Phoenician culture. Phoenicia would pass these influences down onto its colonies, the greatest of which was the city-state of Carthage.

Which accurately describes historical events of the Qin Dynasty?

The Qin Dynasty began building the Great Wall of China and left tombs filled with terracotta warriors.

Renaissance Spreads through Europe

The Renaissance The Renaissance started in Italy and spread through Europe over the next 50 years. Northern Renaissance The Northern Renaissance focused on the learning and pious living of everyday people. The Plague Reoccurrences of the plague affected how the Renaissance ideas were accepted, including humanism and new understandings of religion and the Bible. Larger Kingdoms / Empires Rulers of larger kingdoms and empires were not as welcoming of some of the Renaissance advances, especially in politics and government. Art Some major differences between the Italian Renaissance and the Northern Renaissance can be seen in the art and architecture that survives. Classic Revival The Italian Renaissance focused on revival of classics and the achievements of the upper classes.

Legacy of the Renaissance

The Renaissance affected the Western world in virtually every aspect of life. The wave of humanism that swept through Europe raised the standards by which people lived. Science - launched a scientific revolution and encouraged examination of the natural world - improved medical science with study of anatomy and invention of microscope - advanced astronomy with use of telescope Art - led to discovery of new materials and techniques that brought greater realism in art - aided scientific research of natural world with detailed, accurate illustrations - encouraged greater experimentation, leading to new styles Education - moved from passive, rote recitation to active analysis - shifted focus from religious to secular education - spread literacy, which increased knowledge and led to more innovation Social Structure - erased rigid feudal system and allowed upward social mobility - encouraged individuals to be proactive in achieving personal goals - allowed social freedoms and active participation in culture by common folk Government - drew humanist ideals from Greco-Roman traditions of government - laid the foundations for establishment of democratic republics - defined rights and duties of citizenship Philosophy - encouraged critical thinking among all classes of people - brought better understanding of human nature and humanity's place in the natural world - allowed questioning of roles and methods of society, government, and faith Industry - drove invention of Gutenberg printing press, which led to the spread of literacy - reengineered basic machine components for adaptation to other devices - developed crank-operated mechanisms that led to labor-saving advances in machinery Mapmaking - fostered interest in travel, which increased understanding of other cultures - expanded worldview of common people without the means to travel - aided navigation to New World for later explorers Commerce - benefited seagoing trade between Europe and New World through innovations in navigation science - made faster ships with greater cargo capacity possible through advanced shipbuilding techniques - improved economy and further raised standard of living The Renaissance made European civilization flourish. The transfer of ideas throughout Europe resulted in an overall raising of cultural standards. Humanist philosophy fostered dialogues between people of other lands. However, a situation was developing in northern Germany that would interrupt this upward progress. The explosive tensions of the oncoming Protestant Reformation would threaten to tear the Western world apart.

Out of Italy

The Renaissance did not occur all over Europe at the same time. The movement first became firmly established in Italy. Near the end of the 15th century, Italian travelers began spreading the humanist ideas of the Renaissance as they traveled the ancient Roman road systems. These travelers brought with them the Greco-Roman ideals of culture, government, learning, science, and philosophy. These concepts took root along the way, prompting a great change that would spread throughout Europe.

The Start of Exploration (Renaissance)

The Renaissance helped cause this Age of Discovery. The Renaissance had encouraged discovery and curiosity. Wanting to know what lay beyond the horizon gnawed at the collective curiosity of Europe. Many of these early voyages were also motivated by the need to find new routes to the spice markets of Asia. Whoever managed to control a part of the spice trade would become very wealthy.

The Italian Renaissance and the Roman Catholic Church

The Renaissance was a period of radical changes. As the new ways of humanist thinking spread, some segments of society resented giving up the old ways. The previous system had been their source of wealth, power, and prestige. The Catholic Church viewed humanists as enemies intent on pulling down the sacred institutions of the Western world. The Church had put down uprisings of heretics before. This time, however, a large percentage of Europeans had begun holding secular beliefs.

Geography, Economics, and the Italian Renaissance

The Renaissance was an era of social, political, cultural, and economic change. As Europeans began to act on humanist ideals, they experienced wide-ranging benefits of this new way of life. Trade increased, education became valued, and life was improved in many ways by innovations and advances in technology.

Assemblies and Tribunes

The assemblies and tribunes developed to serve the plebeian classes of Rome. Common citizens elected tribunes to represent their interests. Tribunes had veto power over the measures that the senators passed. Some wealthy plebeians gained Senate appointments. This meant it was possible for a plebeian tribune to become a consul. There were several assemblies in which males who were full Roman citizens could vote to elect magistrates. With very few changes, this basic Roman model of representative government is still used today, particularly in many western democratic countries. The government of the United States and other democratic republics around the world are based on the Roman system of government. However, some details differ. For example, Rome only allowed its free male citizens to vote. American government expanded to include all its citizens.

Tragedy in the Pacific

The battered ships emerged from the strait in November 1520. Magellan broke down and wept at the sight of the serene blue ocean before him. He named it Mar Pacifico, meaning "peaceful sea." Magellan was so sure their goal lay just over the horizon that he saw no need to waste time going ashore to search for food. It was a fatal mistake. The Pacific was not the tiny ocean Magellan thought. It was greater than the Atlantic and Indian oceans combined. Polynesia's many inhabited islands lay to the west. Instead, Magellan had plotted a course through the emptiest part of the South Pacific. The crew quickly grew desperate. All the food was gone, so sailors resorted to catching and eating all the rats on board. Then, they ate sawdust. They reached the Philippines in March of 1521, landing on the island of Cebu. There, Magellan provoked Chief Lapu-Lapu of the neighboring island Mactan. The ensuing fight saw Magellan die to a poisoned arrow and the rest of the crew retreat to the ships. On September 6, 1522, three years after the Magellan expedition had pulled out of port in Spain, its last remaining ship returned. The ship carried 18 men from the original crew and was laden with spices.

Changes in Church and State (Byzantine Empire

The citizens of the Byzantine Empire had a mixed cultural identity. Though they were predominantly Greeks, they called themselves "Romans." However, Greek culture had greatly influenced the eastern Mediterranean region. Even under Roman occupation, many peoples living near the Aegean Sea spoke Greek. When Byzantine emperor Theodosius II updated the Roman law code in AD 438, he ordered it translated from Latin to Greek. This was a major change. For centuries, Latin had been the official language of the Roman Empire. All official Roman documents—laws, edicts, treaties, etc.—had been written in Latin. Moreover, Latin was the ecclesiastical language of the Roman Catholic Church. Christianity took hold earlier in the Eastern Roman Empire (which was closer to the Holy Land) and developed differently in each part of the dual empire. The Byzantines belonged to a branch of Christianity called Orthodoxy, while the Christianity of the Western Roman Empire developed into the Roman Catholic Church. By AD 600, Greek had become the official language of Byzantium and the Eastern Orthodox Church. Latin fell into disuse in the East, though it remained the primary language of western Christianity. Missionaries spreading Orthodox Christianity to Eastern Europe adapted the Greek alphabet for the native Slavic peoples. This new alphabet became the Cyrillic script now used in modern Russian and related languages.

What best describes tactics used by the Arab Empire when it captured a region?

The conquerors forced the populace to convert to Islam.

Byzantine Government

The empire had an efficient tax system and a bureaucracy-based administration. Rulership was inherited along bloodlines and then justified by the church. An emperor or empress ruled the state; a patriarch ruled the church. The governmental and ecclesiastical hierarchies were parallel; similar, but separate. Government was based on Greco-Roman ideas, and policies varied as rulers changed.

Arab (Islamic) Empire Government

The empire had an efficient tax system and administration. Rulers were chosen based on religious beliefs and connections to Muhammad. A caliph ruled both the faith and the empire. The governmental hierarchy was made up of the religious hierarchy. The Koran and Sharia law formed the basis of government, resulting in consistent policies.

Arab (Islamic) Empire Culture

The empire had great regard for science and mathematics. Portraits of Allah (God) and Muhammad are prohibited by the Islamic commandment against "graven images." Byzantine architectural details such as domes were borrowed for mosque designs. A widespread trading network included the early use of credit and banking systems. Koran standards dictated moral behavior on the personal, political, and business levels.

The Crusades and the Plague

The exotic plunder brought back by the First Crusades fascinated the people back home. Soon, Westerners acquired a taste for Eastern goods. The merchants of Venice, Genoa, and other Italian city-states scrambled to exploit this business opportunity. The Silk Road supported a thriving trade during the Crusades. This thriving trade route, however, brought to Europe a deadly plague.

Religion versus Education

The fact that religion was not a major part of education angered the Church. A further source of division came from science. Empiricist humanist scholars believed that scientific experiments must be based on verifiable observation and experience. This rift between the Church and the new intellectualism grew deeper as an increasingly secular society began exercising its new free will. The situation with the rising Protestant movement in Germany was threatening to boil over into rebellion.

Gutenberg's Printing Press

The first inventor to design a successful movable-type printing press was Johannes Gutenberg of Germany. Gutenberg drew on his skills as a goldsmith to innovate the process of printing. Instead of carving type from wood, Gutenberg used metal. He cast each letter of the alphabet in reverse on small metal blocks. By 1452, Gutenberg began an ambitious project to print the Western world's first movable-type Bible. It took him three years to print 200 copies of the traditional Catholic Bible in Latin. Gutenberg tried to keep his printing press secret, but the technology caught on. Other printers began crafting metal type. - Printing Enables the Flow of Ideas At last, the control of knowledge was not held by nobles and clergy. As information flowed throughout the Western world, widespread social changes followed. The public demand for works of humanist philosophers created a boom in the publishing business. Publishing inspired other scholars to write down their own knowledge and theories. The availability of books meant that literate people could learn about the world they inhabited. Literacy increased, and the education process was transformed. All over Europe, printers began turning out printed materials. Germany dominated the printing industry. By 1500, there were printers in about 60 German cities and more than 6 million books had been printed in Europe. Printing became so widespread that the Church could not suppress unfavorable books fast enough. The clergy tried to ban certain publications, but this only increased the curiosity among people to possess and read them. People began to be better informed. The open and uncensored dissemination of knowledge began having profound effects throughout Europe.

Feudalism Shapes European Society and Culture

The hierarchical structure of the Church inspired the organizational structure of feudal society. Feudalism was a government model based on a system of rigidly defined social classes. In the feudal hierarchy, the king's authority was above all others. The king divided his kingdom into fiefs, large tracts of land which he granted to nobles in exchange for military protection of his kingdom. Those who were granted fiefs in return for service to the king were called vassals. The land was the primary source of wealth in medieval times. A noble might be a vassal to the king, but to those beneath him, he was regarded as a lord, and his land was called a manor. Lords had vassals of their own, local knights and members of the nobility who owned the lord fealty, or loyalty, and pledged him military protection. The peasant class that worked the fields and harvested the crops were serfs. The serfs were expected to be as obedient to their earthly lord as they were to their spiritual one. This arrangement became the standard system of government in Europe.

Heritage of Captivity and Exile

The history of the Hebrews has affected their culture. Israel has wielded substantial regional power at various points in its history. But the Hebrew people often have been on the losing end of conquest and captivity. For millennia, their story has been one of maintaining an unwavering faith while suffering unbearable torment. Many times in their history, they have been forced out of their homeland and exiled to faraway lands. Such a major scattering of a people is called a diaspora. The biblical story of the Hebrews opens with Abraham, the founder of Judaism. Abraham is also a revered patriarch in Christianity and Islam, the two other major monotheistic religions. Abraham lived in Ur in Mesopotamia over 3,600 years ago. Though he grew up in a polytheistic society, the many gods of the local temples made him uneasy. Abraham had a vision of God instructing him to take his family to a promised land called Canaan. God directed Abraham to found a great nation there. Abraham obeyed. He led his family westward out of Mesopotamia and into the land of Canaan in present-day Israel. The 13th century BC was another defining era for Judaism. According to the Torah, a group of Jews had been the captives of the pharaoh. Moses led them out of Egypt on an extended trek called the Exodus. Their goal was Canaan. Along the way, while he was meditating on Mount Sinai, Moses received the Ten Commandments, a set of laws that became the foundation of the Jewish faith. Other Hebrew patriarchs, prophets, and kings built on the Mosaic tradition. The guidance of the two kings David and Solomon helped Israel grow to be a powerful state in the 10th century BC. King Solomon built a magnificent temple in Jerusalem to hold the Ark of the Covenant, a sacred relic. The First Temple would stand for 400 years. In 586 BC, Nebuchadnezzar II, the king of the Babylonian Empire, sent his troops to ransack Jerusalem and destroy the First Temple. Another diaspora occurred. The Babylonians marched 10,000 prominent Hebrew citizens back to Babylon as captives. Their long exile appears in the Old Testament as the "Babylonian captivity." Nebuchadnezzar died in 562 BC, but the Jews remained in Babylon. In 538 BC, when Cyrus the Great of Persia conquered Babylonia, he offered to return the Jews to Israel. Some 70 years after the First Temple had fallen, the Second Temple arose on the same spot in Jerusalem.

Which factors contributed to the success of Latin American independence movements?

The leadership of Simón Bolívar guided the revolutions. Rough terrain made it difficult for Spain to govern its colonies.

Magistrates

The magistrates were elected officials who served one year. This group included the consuls, the two men who held the highest authority in the government. Chosen by senators, the consuls ran the city of Rome and headed the military.

Which accurately describes a scientific innovation of the Renaissance and its impact?

The mariner's compass aided navigation and eventual discovery of the Americas.

Legacy of the Crusades

The medieval Western world dissolved into disorganized chaos after the fall of the Roman Empire. Conflicts and rebellions turned Europe into a patchwork of rival kingdoms and warring factions. The Crusades were what finally unified Europe again. The crusaders immersed themselves in the culture of the Near East and brought new influences and goods home with them. Meanwhile, the Crusades were transforming the Arab Empire on the other side of the battle lines as well.

Church of England

The newly created Church of England established the head of state as the head of the church. At the time, this was the monarch Henry VIII. He selected the bishops and received the tax revenues from the churches. Catholic monasteries were seized and their lands sold off or given to supportive nobles. The Archbishop of Canterbury became the highest-ranking official in the church. To prevent uprisings among the working classes, Henry ruled that only men and women of noble birth could read the Bible. Many of the same traditions and rituals found in the Roman Catholic Church were maintained in the new Church of England. Archbishop Thomas Cranmer incorporated Luther's understanding of the Fourth Commandment—that honoring one's parents extends to others in authority—to recognize and respect the nobility. Henry VIII actually ordered many radical reformers out of England under the threat of death. Politically, both church and state were vested into a single individual: the Crown and king. In the years following Henry's death, Catholics and Protestants struggled for control of England. Eventually a new brand of Protestantism emerged, whose followers wished to entirely purge all Catholic practices from the Church of England. Puritanism was both a reaction to and a result of Henry's establishment of the Church of England.

Which best describes the impact that the Haitian Slave Revolt had on European countries?

The resulting Haitian Revolution signaled the beginning of the end of the European slave trade.

Older Rings

The rings closer to the middle are older.

Alexander the Great and His Legacy

The rise of Alexander the Great set the stage for the Hellenistic Age, a period when Greek culture was dominant. As Alexander and his armies swept across the Western world, he brought Greek influences that reshaped the cultures of Egypt, the Near East, and South Asia. Through physical artifacts such as weapons, pottery, and architecture, as well as written historical records of the Mediterranean and Asia, scholars and historians have become more aware of the achievements and cultural impacts of Alexander the Great.

Puritan Persecution

The savagery of the official backlash against Cromwell fueled a wave of anti-Puritan persecution throughout England. By this time, the Puritans themselves had fractured into Presbyterians, Congregationalists, and the Separatists (or Pilgrims, as they became known). Puritan factions fled the violence in England for a safe haven in Europe. Some Puritans and Separatists had gone to the Netherlands, but its economy was still recovering from decades of war. The two groups made the decision to immigrate to the New World to seek religious freedom. Their quest would bring them to the uncharted shores of an unknown land. These Pilgrims and Puritans were the early travelers in a mass human migration. Untold numbers of Europeans would pour westward across the Atlantic Ocean in search of peace and freedom.

The Stages of Scientific Truth

The scientific process is broken down into three stages: hypothesis, theory, and law. (Hypothesis) - The scientist makes a guess (hypothesis) about something based on evidence. - The scientist tests if the guess is correct using experiments and observations. - The evidence is gathered and measured precisely. - Empirical data must be free of flaws, both in its content and the way it is collected. After several experiments that indicate that the hypothesis is true, the hypothesis becomes a working one. It is subjected to more testing by the scientific community. The hypothesis would need to go through a long process of experimentation and review before it became a theory. (Theory) - A scientific theory is a logical assumption, not a proven fact. - Like with hypotheses, scientists test theories to try to prove them wrong in attempts to prove it wrong. - A theory provides a foundation for further interpretation of a phenomenon. - A theory that has stood up to questioning does not necessarily become a scientific law. (Law) - A scientific law is a description of a natural process, such as Newton's Law of Gravity.

Scientific Revolution and Democracy

The scientific revolution had not only revived the hard physical sciences—it also gave rise to philosophers and social visionaries who considered ways to create the ideal society. The humanist ideas of the Renaissance blossomed into a movement called the Enlightenment. The philosophers of the Enlightenment placed great emphasis on the individual's natural rights. The scholars of the Enlightenment used this classical system as a guide to formulate ways in which citizens could govern themselves.

Impact on American Indians

The significance of these developments lasted long after Columbus, the Spanish Empire, and its colonies in the Americas. The greatest impact can be identified within American Indian cultures. Life for the indigenous people of the Americas were never the same after Columbus's arrival. European diseases, plants, government, and social practices decimated the lives and cultures of native tribes. The limited interaction between Europe and the Americas meant that American Indians did not have exposure to European diseases and vice versa. As a result, native tribes did not have a natural immunity to European diseases such as smallpox.

Religion and Politics Combine

The state and the Church were inseparable. The rules and rituals of the Church guided the administration of government in Europe. This intertwining of Church and state caused issues. It would later provide fuel to the Protestant Reformation, and even the American Revolution. Yet at this time in history, it was essential in unifying the different cultures and kingdoms of Europe under the umbrella of the Church.

North American Cultures

The various North American indigenous tribes left distinctive traces in the fossil record. However, because their migrations happened before recorded history, many unanswered questions remain about their lives. Knowing the specifics of early North American tribal spiritual practices is especially difficult. The many differences between North American indigenous peoples also make their spiritual practices difficult to discuss without oversimplifying. However, paleontologists do theorize that early indigenous North Americans believed that everything in the world had a spirit; this is a belief called animism. Tribal holy men led ceremonies involving dance, trance states, and rituals intended to appease angry spirits. Spiritual traditions included, but were not limited to - rite of passage ceremonies - protection by guardian animal spirits - recognition of visions as divine messages

What was a primary cause and result of the Mexican Revolution?

The widespread corruption in the government led to a new constitution.

Feudal and Religious Roots of Medieval Europe

The systems that defined the medieval period began with the Germans. A Germanic tribe called the Franks settled in Western Europe. Under the great Frankish king Charlemagne, the Frankish Empire expanded to cover almost all of Europe. Charlemagne was a combination of warlike ruler and Christian reformer, and under his rule the Catholic faith became the dominant religion in Europe. He advocated widespread literacy, established a system of laws, and unified much of Europe under his rule. The reforms instituted during his reign spurred a cultural and intellectual flowering known as the Carolingian Renaissance. It was the custom of the Franks to divide Charlemagne's empire between his heirs after the king had died. At the time of Charlemagne's death in AD 814, however, Louis the Pious was the only remaining legitimate heir. Louis was more interested in religious pursuits than military ones, and the empire barely held on until Louis's death in 840. In AD 911, the Saxon dynasty took over what would become Germany, and in 987 also took the territory that would become France. In AD 936, the Saxon King Otto I took the throne of East Francia, which eventually came to include all of Germany. Otto united the realm and became the most successful Saxon ruler. Otto was the first ruler to use the feudal system in Europe. Feudalism spread throughout Europe. Eventually some of these early kingdoms would transform into the first permanent European nations. King Otto's feudal government was working efficiently, but internal disagreements still led to problems. Otto longed to unify the German kingdoms and recreate the glories of the Roman Empire. He devised a way to do both by entering into an alliance with Pope John XII. The pope was involved in a conflict with an Italian prince. Otto intervened on the pope's behalf and defeated the difficult prince. Otto also made Christianity his kingdom's state religion. These efforts brought him the pope's favor. Pope John proclaimed Otto emperor of the Romans in 962, granting Otto authority over much of Europe. Otto the Great's large realm would become known as the Holy Roman Empire 200 years later. Otto's empire was unified at last, and his knights had a religious purpose to motivate them. The Roman Catholic Church's power over the Holy Roman Empire let the church wield major cultural and political influence over Europe the next several centuries.

Renaissance Scientific Advances

The telescope aided astronomers; Galileo modified the spyglass to 20x magnification. The microscope benefited physicians, revealing an unknown world of microscopic forms. The study of anatomy mapped out the interior of the human body, increasing medical knowledge. Gutenberg's printing press enabled the flow of knowledge and literacy throughout Europe. The heliocentric theory had immense impact on knowledge of the universe. The mariner's compass aided navigation and discovery of the Americas. The mechanical clock helped people accurately tell time, affecting science, mathematics, and exploration. Mathematic symbols such as equals, plus, minus, divided by, and multiplied by, as well as the fraction bar and decimal point, improved the ability to solve algebraic equations.

The Lasting Heritage of Rome and Greece

The term "fall of Rome" is misleading. Rather than suffering a sudden end, Rome's final glories slowly faded away. In AD 476, the last Roman emperor was ousted and the eastern empire became the Byzantine Empire. The Roman style of bureaucracy was adopted and adapted by feudal and parliamentary-style governments in Europe, and eventually the newly formed United States of America. The understanding and organization of government and laws the Romans cultivated serve as the foundation of the majority of the world's governments today. Similarly, Roman advances in science and technology—such as concrete, the catapult, plate armor, aqueducts, and other achievements—were quickly adopted by the invading Europeans. These inventions laid the foundation for Western civilization. Many of the achievements credited to Rome were founded upon advancements made by the Greeks, Egyptians, and other societies under Roman rule. Throughout Mediterranean history, and even today, each successive empire has been built upon the foundations of the previous ones. The glory of Rome was gone, but its cultural accomplishments lived on. Eventually, the principles of the Roman and Greek civilizations would spread throughout the world. Many present-day cultures, including our own, can trace their foundations of government, currency, law, democracy, voting, science, and mathematics to Greco-Roman influences.

Territory Volume

The territory model is a team approach to compensation. It's used when multiple people work in a specific geographic area. In this model, salespeople are not paid based on their individual sales. Instead, the money earned by all the salespeople in the territory during a specific time frame is split evenly among the team members. For example, imagine a team of 10 salespeople cover the city of Chicago. The commission from the sales made by the entire team is divided among them. If the compensation period is every month, the company adds up the total sales closed in that territory during that month and splits the commission 10 ways. Pros - encourages teamwork - protects team members who occasionally have low sales numbers Cons - can create negative feelings if team members have consistently poor sales numbers -may reduce incentive for high-performing team members who could earn more on their own

The New Working Class

The transition to the new industrialized world was sudden. The Enclosure Acts uprooted Britain's peasant class. Farming families became millworkers. But a textile mill was nothing like a workshop. Mills were huge buildings with hundreds of workers. Gas lighting increased the work day to as long as 18 hours. Workplace injuries were horrific. Laborers included women and children. Any of them could be maimed or killed by the machines they tended. Workers had no legal protections. Resentment among the workers caused workplace rebellions. An anti-technology movement called the Luddites swept throughout middle England. Mobs of English laborers broke into factories to destroy machines. Outbreaks of industrial sabotage continued into the 1830s. Between 1793 and 1820, Parliament enacted 60 laws designed to limit the collective action of workers. Such measures only increased worker discontent. The ones affected by these disruptions were the working class, most of them poor. Middle-class and wealthy people knew little about the lower classes. The gap between rich and poor widened. Citizens began debating various political systems, looking for the best one.

The Transatlantic Slave Trade

The triangular trade moved resources and goods between Europe, Africa, North America, South America, and the Caribbean. This system included the forced removal of Africans to the Americas as enslaved laborers. - Known as the transatlantic slave trade, it lasted about 400 years (16th century to 19th century) - Western European ships, primarily from England, Spain, Portugal, France, and the Netherlands, arrived in West Africa. They traded goods (such as guns, gunpowder, rum, and textiles) for slaves from African tribal leaders. - Slaves were transported across the Atlantic Ocean in horrible conditions. Known as the Middle Passage, about 15 percent of Africans died during the voyage. Upon arriving in the Americas, enslaved Africans were sold in public auctions or small trading venues to farmers, merchants, and plantation owners. Most slaves were purchased to provide agricultural labor. - Ships returned to Western Europe with American goods—mostly cotton, sugar, coffee, tobacco, and rice.

New Rules for a New Era

The word renaissance means "rebirth." The European Renaissance saw a renewed appreciation of the Greek and Roman cultures and a return to the values that had made these cultures great. Greek and Roman classical artists understood principles of anatomy, perspective, and composition. Their paintings, mosaics, and sculptures displayed ever-increasing refinement. In the Renaissance era's new way of thinking, virtually everything in European culture was reassessed and reevaluated. As the Church's authority weakened, scientists and artists felt free at last to make discoveries that redefined these disciplines. Science and technology once again blossomed. Nicolaus Copernicus showed that the Earth was not the center of the universe but revolved around the sun. Galileo Galilei confirmed Copernicus's heliocentric theory, formulated principles of gravity and motion, and perfected a telescope that showed him Jupiter's moons. Michelangelo Buonarroti painted rapturous religious art featuring nude figures. Some artists like Leonardo observed medical autopsies to study the interconnection of muscles and the structure of the human skeleton. The Dutch artist Rembrandt van Rijn experimented with light and dark to produce a technique called chiaroscuro. This was a way of using deep shadowing effects to change perspective and produce a lifelike quality. Where once the figures in a medieval painting had been flat and cartoonish, subjects painted by Renaissance artists teemed with vibrant life.

What was the purpose of the Knights Templar during the Crusades?

Their mission was to protect Christian pilgrims traveling to the Holy Land.

States Approve the Bill

These 12 rights were sent out to the state legislatures for ratification. Some of the rights sent out to be voted on were removed from the text. Eventually, 10 amendments were approved by the states. These came to be known as the Bill of Rights. The Bill of Rights constitutes the government's recognition of naturally occurring rights and liberties. These were the same rights and liberties that Jefferson had used as the foundation for the Declaration of Independence. He described them as "... certain unalienable rights." Unlike other constitutions before and after, the Constitution of the United States does not give citizens these rights. Rather, it recognizes these rights and ensures their safety through legal protection.

Effects of Chinese Exploration

This dynamic exploration and trading between the continents of Africa and Asia and the subcontinent of India resulted in some interesting events. The revered Chinese religious and philosophical text, the I Ching, arrived in the Middle East and India at this time. This book, whose title translates to The Book of Changes, is a divination or prophecy text that dates back possibly to the second century BC, making it the oldest of the Chinese classics. The sharing of the I Ching influenced many of the religions that China came into contact with during this era of exploration. The nature-based religious philosophy found receptive minds and cultures throughout much of India. The prevailing practice of Hinduism meshed well with the reverence of nature that forms the basis of the I Ching. Similarly, the identification of cycles and patterns, which is the majority of the I Ching, was complementary of the Hindu belief of the cycle of birth-death-rebirth. This exploration by China of regions bordering the Pacific and Indian Ocean resulted in major economic and cultural effects. However, there was little political change for the Chinese or the cultures with which they came into contact. The Age of Discovery changed the world. Both Chinese and Muslim communities were active in exploring the Indian and Pacific Oceans and expanding their influence as well as sharing their cultures.

Snooze Button

This game sets a specific sales quota for a day—perhaps $5,000. When a salesperson reaches that goal, he or she gets to leave early and come to work later on the following day, say at 10 a.m. instead of 8 a.m. The rules of this game are clear and easy to understand. And the game usually results in more sales for the salesperson, which benefits the company. Plus, who wouldn't like to sleep in a bit on a workday?

Roots of the Reformation

This movement for change, called the Reformation, is generally thought to have started with Martin Luther's 95 Theses. Luther was an Augustinian monk who was disturbed by the excesses of the Church. He created his 95 Theses, then nailed them to the front door of a church in Wittenburg, Germany. The theses harshly criticized practices of the Catholic Church, including - unethical money lending - clerics holding multiple offices - the selling of indulgences - general papal corruption Luther created a new interpretation of scripture. He (and the reformers that followed him) disagreed with the Catholic Church about the sanctity and infallibility of the pope and his direct connection to God. Luther believed instead that the Bible held sole authority when it came to Christianity. And the principle of a church controlled by a papacy does not appear anywhere in the Bible.

The Art of Navigation

This new kind of navigation measured the movement of stars to figure out the positions of distant places. Before, sailors had used things like the sun and knowledge of landmarks and local flora and fauna to find out their location. It was the Islamic world that helped advance navigation techniques for European explorers. The Arab world preserved and added to knowledge from the classical world (Greek and Roman cultures), and this helped to ignite the Renaissance in Europe.

Troy

Though some may assume the story of the Trojan War is fiction, Homer's epic poem the Iliad was based on fact. In the third millennium BC, the city of Troy was established as a trading center in Asia Minor. The original settlers came from the same migrating peoples who had populated Greece. Troy was ruled by a king, but how closely the government was shaped by Greek ideals is difficult to say. In the early 12th century BC, an invasion force of Mycenaean Greeks sailed across the Aegean Sea to attack Troy. After 10 years of fighting and a lengthy siege, the Mycenaeans won and sacked Troy. Not long after, the Mycenaean civilization itself fell. The Trojan War inspired Homer's epic poem the Iliad, written around the eighth century BC. Troy influenced the Mediterranean world in many ways. The extensive trade networks throughout the Mediterranean, Black, and Caspian Seas in ancient times spread Troy's culture throughout this part of the world. The Trojans' unique metalworking, pottery, and textile crafts influenced the majority of the cultures with which Trojans came into contact.

Byzantium

Though the Roman Empire was dissolving in the West, it remained strong in the East. The Eastern Roman Empire would thrive for another 1,000 years—as the Byzantine Empire. Its name came from Byzantium, an ancient Greek colony that the Roman emperor Constantine had chosen as the site of his new capital in AD 324. The Byzantine Empire became one of the most powerful military, economic, and cultural forces in Europe.

The Hard Road to Acceptance (Religion: Christians and Jews)

Though the Romans no longer regarded Christians as Jews, they were still suspicious of them. Christians were as rigid in their doctrine as the Jews had been. They rejected Roman ways and condemned the pleasures in which Romans delighted, such as public baths, deadly gladiator battles, and especially sacrifices to Roman gods and goddesses. Christians preached about a final judgment in which Christ would return and unbelievers would perish. When a devastating fire raged through Rome, Emperor Nero blamed the Christians and persecuted them. They were crucified or thrown to wild animals for sport. Many Christians submitted to these torments as a testimony of their faith. These Christians were referred to as martyrs. Anti-Christian persecution became even more severe in AD 303 under Emperor Diocletian. He vowed to end Christianity and began to destroy churches, burn scriptures, and imprison or put to death Christians who failed to renounce their faith. His successor, Galerius, continued the attacks but grew weary of the bloodshed. In 311, he issued the Edict of Toleration and ended the persecution. From the West, Constantine added the Edict of Milan in AD 313, which restored rights and property to Christians. Constantine himself became a Christian, and he declared Christianity the state religion of the Western Roman Empire. This resulted in the establishment of an organized church with a complex hierarchy and strict rules of behavior. Disagreements arose over which doctrines of Christianity should appear in the New Testament of the Bible. Synods met to debate the acceptability of certain doctrines. Sometimes the determinations of these various synods conflicted with what had been accepted previously.

The New World

Though the desire for spices started the Age of Discovery, other products soon supplanted spices. These products—tobacco, sugar, cotton, and others—came from the Americas and became very popular in Europe. Instead of finding new trade routes, explorers began looking for lands with rich resources that they could exploit. Europeans wanted colonies to exploit for land, labor (in the form of slaves), and power through imperialism. This desire increased the competition between European states. Europeans were quick to force their practices and philosophies on the newly discovered peoples of Asia and the Americas. European ideas of religion, capitalism, and government spread rapidly. Missionaries followed after explorers to convert indigenous American people and spread both Catholic and Protestant Christianity. Without trying to understand or even assimilate the indigenous beliefs and practices, the Europeans overwhelmed the native populations with their culture. The Renaissance and Age of Discovery were a time of sharing culture, ideas, practices, and beliefs by means of trade. However, it was the scientific and technological advances of the Renaissance which gave Europeans an advantage over their indigenous counterparts when the two met.

Germany (1550-1650)

Thousands of innocent people, most of them women, were burned at the stake after being accused of witchcraft. Witches were scapegoats for crop failures, famines, and plague.

Maritime and Terrestrial Trade Routes Map

Throughout history, several major trade routes have connected Europe with Asia and the New World. The most famous is the Silk Road, which was actually not one road but an ancient network of trade routes. With its beginnings sometime in the first century BC, it was important for centuries in trade and cultural interactions on the Asian continent. It helped connect the West and East from the Mediterranean to China. Examine the map for further facts about trade routes. Sea Routes Maritime trade routes were easier to use, but they also were dangerous. Europe European powers competed to control certain markets and trade routes. Land Routes Overland trade routes were controlled by local government and had their own dangers. Eastern Oceans The Atlantic Ocean and Indian Ocean were heavily traveled for commerce during this time.

New World, New Economic Opportunities

To maintain and expand its power, a kingdom needed funds. Spices, and later other commodities, were the primary means of accumulating wealth and cultivating control over lands and people. Europe had limited space and possibilities to produce any commodity. The newly discovered continents of the Americas were ripe with possibilities to renew the riches of Europe. This understanding sheds light on the commercial and political foundations of the Age of Discovery. In some ways, this historical era is an example of spending money to make money. The kingdoms and empires of Europe had to finance explorations to gain lands and natural resources that would in turn generate income for the government. From this point on, the kingdoms and empires of Europe would compete with each other on a global stage, set by the explorations during the Age of Discovery.

Medieval Europe, c. 1100

Trade Trade was difficult as routes were not well guarded or maintained between major cities. Religion Religion played a major role in conflicts between the Roman Catholic, Orthodox, and Islamic empires. Collapse of Rome The world would never again have a central authority to govern it after Rome collapsed. Separate Kingdoms The European and Mediterranean world was divided into feuding kingdoms, principalities, empires, and regions.

mercenary definition

a soldier, especially a foreign soldier, who fights for payment rather than in service to the state

spinning jenny definition

a spinning innovation using multiple spindles developed by James Hargreaves in 1764

Christendom

Trade Routes The control of essential and ancient trade routes by Muslims made commerce expensive and difficult for Christian nations in Europe.Control of these trade routes inspired European nations to find alternative routes to India and China, leading to the Age of Discovery. The Ottoman Empire The Ottoman Empire started in present-day Turkey and spread throughout parts of the Middle East, North Africa, and southeastern Europe.Islamic caliphates, and ultimately the Ottoman Empire, became the dominant force in the Mediterranean for centuries.Osman I was the Turkmen chief who founded the Ottoman Empire around AD 1300.The Ottoman Empire lasted approximately 600 years, coming to an end in 1922. Islam Islam was able to transcend languages and cultures to unite people the way Christianity had done in Europe for centuries.Islam quickly spread throughout the Mediterranean, Middle East, and North Africa. Control of the Mediterranean The Ottoman Empire defeated and replaced the Byzantine Empire as the dominant authority in the Mediterranean. This conquest let the Ottoman Empire take control of trade routes. The Byzantine capital city of Constantinople was conquered in 1453 and renamed Istanbul ("the city of Islam").The intermingling of religion and politics has proven volatile in this region. Jerusalem Jerusalem is considered sacred by Jews, Christians, and Muslims.European Christians fought to take control of the city from Muslims.Jerusalem is also where many major trade routes converged, including the Silk Road.Jerusalem continues to be a city claimed by the world's three major monotheistic religions.

Sailing Around Africa

Trade between Europe and Asia had stalled. Overland trade routes were under Arab control, and the Ottoman Empire held Asia Minor, cutting off European access to the Silk Road. Muslim rulers controlled trade routes along the Mediterranean, strangling trade between Europe and Asia. But this would no longer be a problem if Europe could find a naval trade route around Africa that led to the Indian spice markets. In August 1487, three ships led by Bartolomeu Dias pulled out of Lisbon Harbor to find an ocean passage to the Far East. The expedition planned to follow the African coast south, but storms soon forced it to turn into the open ocean to avoid being dashed on the rocky shoreline. They were off course. The crew began to panic. Shortly after they spotted the present-day Cape of Good Hope, the three ships turned back. Dias had unknowingly reached the southern tip of Africa, but the crew, starving and frightened, refused to go on. After 16 months at sea, Dias and his remaining crew limped into Lisbon in December of 1488. Dias had made it farther than any other European, but he still did not reach his goal.

Which accurately describes the actions of Hernán Cortés during the Age of Discovery?

Upon arriving in the Americas, Cortés conquered the Aztec Empire and gained control of Central Mexico.

Which accurately describes the significance of explorer Amerigo Vespucci during the Age of Discovery?

Vespucci led expeditions to the New World, and the Americas are named after him.

Expedition Companies

Wealthy Englishmen had the opportunity to invest in and fund colonial settlements in the New World through forming companies. The first of these joint-stock firms was the Virginia Company of London. In 1607, the first expedition under the charge of the company landed at Chesapeake Bay. Its members established Jamestown on the James River, with access to the mouth of the bay. Jamestown was named in honor of King James I, who had created a charter for the colony of Virginia. The Charter of 1606 established a 13-member council appointed by the king to govern the colony. The charter also established a future second council for the colony of Plymouth. During the early years of settlement at Jamestown, many colonists starved and died. In 1612, John Rolfe, who became governor of Virginia, began to grow tobacco. This supplied the colony with a cash crop. The cultivation of tobacco saved the colony from financial ruin. Jamestown also contributed to the formation of the first representative government in the New World, the House of Burgesses. The colonial government's powers were limited. Nonetheless, it was the first foothold of democracy on the continent of North America. The Plymouth Company was another joint-stock company created to profit from colonization in America. An expedition largely of Separatist settlers (also known as Pilgrims) and members of other religious groups arrived in Plymouth in 1620. The Separatists agreed to govern themselves by their own religious standards in a document known as the Mayflower Compact. A decade after the Pilgrims arrived, so did the Puritans, with the settlement of the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1630.

Effects of Renaissance Culture

Western and Eastern Europe embraced humanism and the Renaissance ideals. The French, Flemish, and Dutch were inspired by humanist philosophies and the new approach to artistic realism. With these new ideas came the Greco-Roman cultural principles of government, learning, and the rights and duties of citizenship. The Renaissance was transmitted as far as eastern Asia by the late 1500s. At this time, Matteo Ricci was a Jesuit priest who was influential in bringing the humanist culture and Christianity to China. By the 1670s, the Jesuits were seeking to inject Aristotelian philosophy into the Chinese educational system. However, tensions caused by a political transition of dynasties adversely affected the success of this bold cultural experiment.

scientific method definition

a standardized, objective procedure designed to ensure that collected data is accurate and free of bias

binary star system definition

a star system in which two stars orbit around each other

Magna Carta

When England's King John I placed his seal on the Magna Carta in Runnymede, England in 1215, he had no idea how much it would change government and law centuries later. John's nobles, weary of excessive taxes and various abuses of royal power, had rebelled. Still, they didn't want to overthrow John or seize the kingdom for themselves. They just wanted the king to acknowledge that they had rights and that he had to follow his own laws. They drew up an agreement with the king: They'd be loyal to the English throne if John would limit his own power—and sign and seal his promise. Reluctantly, he did. The Magna Carta wasn't finished in 1215—it went through several more revisions and even other kings—but this was the start. This document helped establish the English Bill of Rights and the US Constitution. This was an early form of what John Locke would later call a social contract. Sir Edward Coke, an English jurist who advised the courts of Queen Elizabeth and King James, was invaluable in this process. Coke had extensively studied English common law, including the Magna Carta. To him, this document bound the English monarch to follow his own laws—and Coke wanted to hold James responsible for doing exactly that. In 1616, James fired him for insubordination. Educated American colonists later came across Coke's work and applied these ideas during the crisis of the 1770s. These colonists joined together to hold King George III accountable to follow his own laws. Though the Magna Carta only granted rights to nobles, several key principles had enduring influence. Foremost among them was the notion that kings were also subject to the law. The law, not the monarch, was the supreme ruler. This created a social contract, under which a group of people would agree to obey the law and receive the benefits of freedom in return. The Magna Carta also helped establish the English legal system of law. The law was considered a set of established customs and common knowledge. Decisions were made on the basis of precedent, or what had been done in the past in similar cases. Finally the Magna Carta established that at least some citizens were entitled to religious freedom, limits on excessive taxation, and rights for those suspected of committing crimes.

The Brief and Glorious Revolution

When William and Mary landed in England, James II fled to France. He attempted to return by gathering together a French and Irish army based in Ireland, but he was quickly defeated. There was little loss of life, and this event became known as the Glorious Revolution because so little blood was shed. Since Parliament had only requested military support from William, no one knew how to proceed. William was not interested in being king, and Parliament had not extended the offer. Finally, a deal was struck that made William and Mary equal rulers of England. Parliament insisted that they rule according to the tenets of the Magna Carta, which had been ignored by previous kings and queens. The Parliament also strengthened the rights of citizens by passing new laws. In 1689, Parliament created the Bill of Rights of 1689, which would later be called the English Bill of Rights. As a result of the Glorious Revolution and the abused of power by James II, the English Bill of Rights would increase the power of Parliament and the citizens of England.

Asian Exploration and Expansion

When most people consider the Age of Discovery, the focus is primarily on Europe and the discovery of the Americas. Yet, the kingdoms and empires of Europe were not the only nations busy treading the seas and reaching new lands. In the Pacific, China was engaged in a dynamic era of exploration and expansion on the sea and land. Early Exploration Perhaps the most famous—yet little known in the West—Chinese explorer at this time was Admiral Zheng He. He navigated the Indian Ocean a total of seven times. Between 1405 and 1433, during the Ming Dynasty, Admiral He helped to not only strengthen the trade routes in the region of the world for the Chinese, but cultivated Chinese influence in the region of Southern Asia as well. Chinese and Muslim Interaction At the same time, the Muslim world was expanding its influence through the efforts of Arab explorers and traders. The Muslim and Chinese cultures met and exchanged not only goods like spices and foods, but ideas as well. In fact, historians have located evidence that Islam was first introduced to China in the late 1000s AD. As a result, a small but vibrant community of Chinese Muslims flourished for centuries.

Spiritual Beliefs of the Oceanic Peoples (Oceanic religion)

While Oceanic cultures developed in relative isolation, many cultures within Oceania had common threads in their religious practices. The peoples of Oceania had no written language. Instead, their religious beliefs were passed down from generation to generation through an oral tradition. Many ancient Oceanian religions had elements of polytheism and animism. The natural world was closely tied to the supernatural and the works of gods. This concept is very similar to ones found in the religions of ancient Mesopotamia, Mesoamerica, and even Rome. Gods were believed to control elements of nature, such as the sun and rain. Islanders had rituals connected with canoe building, hunting, birth, death, and other important happenings. Some Oceanian cultures had ritual taboos meant to respect the gods and the spiritual energy of important people, places, and objects. For example, the Maori believed that certain places like burial grounds or sacred mountains had such powerful tapu, or spiritual power, that they could disrupt or contaminate other things that came in contact with them. Thus, people had to avoid these places or follow specific rules to protect themselves. Many island cultures engaged in ancestor worship, believing their deceased forebears wielded supernatural power. Spirit mediums consulted with the ghosts of the dead, whom the islanders hoped would intervene in earthly affairs. Dance and the wearing of large masks were important components to religious rites. Some cultures wore masks for ceremonial purposes or funerary rituals. Australia's Aboriginal peoples developed a complex animistic religious tradition. Many of these beliefs revolve around the Dreaming, an abstract period of time when powerful beings shaped the world and created the rules for people to live by. Specific landmarks related to events in the Dreaming are considered sacred. People are connected to the Dreaming through their totems. Dancing, body painting, ancestor worship, and initiation rituals are also key aspects of Aboriginal spiritual beliefs.

Amerigo Vespucci

While Spain and Portugal vied with one another for supremacy, it fell to an Italian explorer to give the New World a name. Amerigo Vespucci sailed to the New World at least two times, possibly four. The first confirmed journey was in 1500. He sailed under a Spanish flag and served as the navigator. He reached Guyana, in South America, and believed he was at the mouth of the Amazon River. On the second voyage in 1502, Vespucci sailed under the flag of Portugal. This time, he was sure that South America was an entirely new landmass and not part of India or China. Vespucci wrote a popular book detailing his experiences in the "Mundus Novus," or New World. Martin Waldseemüller, the German mapmaker, read Vespucci's book. Waldseemüller was impressed enough to name the two landmasses on his new map "the Americas" in Vespucci's honor.

Ancient and Classical China

While civilizations were rising in Mesopotamia and the Mediterranean, cultures were also flourishing on the other side of the Asian continent. Migrating humans had reached all the way to the Pacific side of the land mass. Because of the geographical distances involved, Western influences were largely absent. The cultures evolving in Asia shared their own distinctive traits. The most ancient and advanced of these civilizations was the Chinese culture. The advances the Chinese made would have a lasting influence on the world.

Which identifies how the Catholic Church and Protestants viewed religious art?

While religious images were considered acceptable by the Catholic Church, they were regarded as idolatry by most Protestants.

Law definition

a statement of a natural phenomenon that always applies when conditions are the same, such as gravity

telegraph definition

a system that transmits messages from a distance along a wire

progressive tax definition

a tax in which the amount of income taxed increases with higher incomes

Judaism definition

a monotheistic religion practiced by people of the Jewish faith Judaism, the religion of the ancient Hebrews, is regarded as the oldest monotheistic religion. Its beginnings stretch far back into unrecorded history. Guided by philosophy and visions, the major Hebrew patriarchs and prophets wrote down the words that defined the Jewish religion. Moses, one of the prophets, is regarded as the law giver. His divinely inspired Mosaic law set down the basic guidelines by which the Jews observe their faith. Mosaic laws also regulate dietary restrictions, fasting, prayer, sacrificial offerings, and other rituals. These rules appear throughout the first five books of the Old Testament that are known as the Torah, which means law. The Torah is the source of the Ten Commandments. The Tanakh is the entire Hebrew sacred text. This includes the Torah and corresponds to the Old Testament. The Tanakh contains the history of the Hebrews as well as songs and poems. Another holy book is the Talmud. "Talmud" means study. The Talmud is a collection of teachings by Jewish scholars and rabbis from the first to seventh centuries AD. Jewish culture places great emphasis on tradition, community, and family. The Jewish Sabbath begins at sundown Friday and ends Saturday evening. Their holy days include Hanukkah, Passover, and Yom Kippur. The Orthodox Jews follow religious laws to the letter. The modern-day Reform Jews favor a less-strict observance of Mosaic law. The two branches differ over definitions of what is kosher (accepted by doctrine) and proper observation of holy days.

indentured servant definition

a person under contract to work for another for a set period of time

humanism definition

a philosophy and perspective that emerged out of the Renaissance and places humanity at the center of all inquiry Throughout history, the Mediterranean region has been the site of numerous major accomplishments. The region's proximity to the Arab world and Asia made it ripe for external influences. The arts and sciences flourished here much earlier than anywhere else in Europe. Thus, one accomplishment the region boasts is the birth of the Renaissance. The era began with a movement that has come to be known as humanism, since its focus is on what individual humans could achieve through application of learning and talent.

natural law definition

a philosophy that humans share an inborn sense of right and wrong

power vacuum definition

a political situation in which a government lacks a strong leader for guidance

Which best defines the scientific method?

a process of research used to test a hypothesis and draw a conclusion

Hierarchy definition

a ranking or classification of items or members

commodity definition

a raw material or agricultural crop that can be exchanged or sold

patriarch definition

a respected elder or religious leader who guides the course of the faithful

Renaissance definition

a revival of classical art, literature, and scholarship that spanned the 14th to 17th centuries in Europe

civil liberties definition

a right or freedom that cannot be granted or curtailed by a government

dynasty definition

a royal family with a lineage spanning several generations

Dynasties definition (Chinese Dynasties)

a royal family with a lineage spanning several generations The first organized state in China dates from the Neolithic Age, though some historians argue that it might be a myth as little evidence of this civilization exists. The Xia people chose a ruler by merit at first, but the political system switched to dynastic rule. This established the tradition of dynasties that would be maintained throughout Chinese royal history. The Xia dynasty ruled from around 2070 to 1600 BC. The Shang dynasty, the first Chinese dynasty to be documented in historical texts and to provide archaeological evidence, followed in 1600 BC. Its structure included an elite class of nobles whose need for status displays provided a market for stoneworkers and metalsmiths. Shang royalty was known for its elaborate tombs in which warriors, servants, and even horses were buried alive to serve the deceased king. The Zhou dynasty lasted from around 1046 BC to 256 BC. The Zhou expanded its territory through alliances with neighboring city-states and established a feudal system. These vassal states owed allegiance to the Zhou emperor. The leaders of the Zhou Dynasty introduced the "Mandate of Heaven." This idea allowed the leaders of the Zhou to rule based on divine right, with rulers being considered as the "Son of Heaven." Accordingly, leaders were expected to rule with justice, fairness, and kindness. Natural disasters such as earthquakes or floods, foreign invasions, or government corruption could be signs that "Heaven" had withdrawn its support, or "Mandate," from the emperor. This was used as a justification for a rebellion and overthrow of the ruling dynasty, allowing a new dynasty to claim power. This process, known as the dynastic cycle, recurred throughout Chinese history and helps explain how and why dynasties rose or fell. From 221 BC to 206 BC, the Qin dynasty ruled with a combination of reform and repression. Emperor Qin Shi Huang unified China and began building the Great Wall of China. He left behind a grave filled with thousands of life-size terracotta warriors. The rise of the Han dynasty in 206 BC began a golden age of prosperity in China. The Silk Road, a network of major trade routes, opened around 100 BC, bringing Western traders and outside influences to China. The Silk Road extended more than 4,000 miles through China, India, Persia, Europe, and the Horn of Africa. Despite its name, more than Chinese silk was traded along the Silk Road. Other goods, like spices, perfumes, and gemstones were traded. In addition, knowledge was exchanged along these roads: ideas about religion, technology, art, and cultural traditions. The Han dynasty ruled until AD 220.

Microscope

a scientific instrument used to magnify objects so that they appear larger - 1590s: The first microscope is developed by a father-and-son team of eyeglass makers, Hans and Zacharias Janssen. - Dutch inventor Anton van Leeuwenhoek ground his own lenses to customize his microscopes. - He found that rounder lenses enlarged an object much more. - Leeuwenhoek developed a microscope capable of magnifying 270 times. - He was able to see bacteria and red blood cells and small creatures swimming in a drop of water.

Peloponnesian War definition

a series of wars between the Peloponnesian League and Athens in 431-404 BC

Reign of Terror definition

a time of mass political executions during the French Revolution, beginning with the death of Louis XVI (Sept. 1793) and ending with the death of Robespierre (July 1794) In June 1793, the Jacobins seized control of the National Convention. Robespierre sided with the Jacobins. On April 6, 1793, Robespierre and the National Convention established what he called "the Committee of Public Safety" to kill the opposition within their ranks. The ensuing wave of violence was called the Reign of Terror. Robespierre suspended the new constitution and ordered the executions of thousands. For the next 15 months, an endless parade of condemned citizens met their deaths as the blade of the guillotine flashed to the cheering of the mob. No one was safe. An estimated 17,000 victims fell to the guillotine. Nearly as many people died in prison or were murdered in cold blood. Robespierre himself was accused of crimes against the republic and executed within 24 hours. On July 28, 1794, Robespierre's head rolled into the executioner's basket. A purge of over 80 Robespierre sympathizers followed before the murderous frenzy ended.

centralized government definition

a type of government in which a single department or person imposes authority on outlying territories

Theory definition

a valid explanation as to why a phenomenon occurs

Hinduism

began in India; date of origin uncertain, between 1500 BC and 500 BC polytheistic religion with demons, avatars (gods in human form) established caste system (rigid hereditary social structure), formally abolished in mid-20th century, but still in limited cultural practice unified cultures throughout Indian subcontinent with same faith, language, customs promoted literature, poetry, science, astronomy, mathematics, geometry

Philip II of Spain (1527-1598)

became emperor of the Spanish Empire in 1556, which was the largest empire on earth at the time fought a successful naval war against the Muslim Ottoman Empire forced all of his subjects to practice Catholicism supported the brutalities of the Spanish Inquisition encouraged literacy, and banned many books In 1588, the Spanish Armada sailed north to conquer England. A raging storm sank many ships, and the English navy fought the rest. This crushing defeat signaled the slow decline of the Spanish Empire

Islam (Monotheistic Religion)

began in AD 632, making Islam the most recent of the Abrahamic religions based on meditations and philosophies of Muhammad traditions and history recorded in the Koran, considered to be the literal word of Allah (God) unified the scattered Arab cultures church and state seen as inseparable concepts created cultural and architectural traditions spread literacy, science, mathematics, law

Confucianism

began in China around same time as Buddhism, Jainism not a religion, but a belief system based on the philosophy of Confucius (b. 551 BC) no gods; human-centered concepts including reverence for ancestors and traditions followed in China, Korea, Vietnam, Japan provided social order and structure established governmental model, defined leadership principles, promoted scholarship defined ethical, social, and cultural values; promoted literacy and philosophy - China and Japan Belief Systems and Religions not a religion but a strong belief system based on the philosophy of a man named Confucius a philosophy of ethics and moral correctness provides a code of social order for Chinese society established a model of government efficient enough to administrate a huge empire

The Italian Renaissance

c. 1300 - (Northern Italy) Bankers develop an accurate accounting system, providing foundation for budding banking industry. c. 1308 - (Florence) Dante begins work, in exile, on The Divine Comedy. c. 1349 - (Florence) Boccaccio beings work on The Decameron. 1420 - (Florence) Brunelleschi begins work on the dome above the city's cathedral, which represents Renaissance ideals. c. 1443 - (Florence) The San Marco Dominican convent provides frescos painted by Fra Angelico. 1462 - (Florence) Cosimo de' Medici founds the Platonic Academy, where classical learning takes place. 1470 - (Venice) The first Italian printing press established, rivaling German presses. 1472 - (Florence) Leonardo da Vinci joins painters' guild, having completed his training under Verrocchio. c. 1480 - (Florence) Botticelli paints The Birth of Venus and Spring for the villa Medici. c. 1489 - Leonardo begins series of detailed anatomical drawings made from human dissection. 1501 - (Florence) Michelangelo begins work on carving David statue; it reflects Renaissance ideals of anatomy and beauty. 1521 - (Vatican) Pope Leo X excommunicates Martin Luther.

Mercantilism definition 2

economic theory that says a nation can build wealth by maximizing the export of goods while minimizing the purchase of imports The Dutch East India Company exemplified the new idea and practice of mercantilism. Land had been the most important marker of wealth and power. The more land that individuals or monarchs controlled, the greater their power and wealth. In 16th century Europe, this emphasis shifted somewhat. Trade, business, and commerce became the new markers of wealth. The more trade a nation was involved in, the greater the wealth it could amass. Mercantilism shaped the governing and administration of European colonies. It placed a greater value on what the land could produce. Raw materials and natural resources became global commodities as early industrialism took root in European nations. The early mills—and later factories—of Europe needed raw materials and natural resources to maintain output. Colonies provided both. Finished products were then shipped all over the world as part of the Triangular Trade. European goods could be found in the remotest ports of Asia, Africa, and the islands dotting the South Pacific. In many ways, this was the birth of globalism.

Characteristics of feudalism

elevated status of a specialized warrior class lack of centralized authority bonds of obedience tying individuals together from tenant, to warrior, to noble

advocate definition

endorse or speak on the behalf of an idea

Egyptians

established around 4500 BC; recorded history began around 3100 BC agriculture, economy, and political stability dependent on the annual Nile floods pyramids and Sphinx engineered and built between 2589 and 2504 BC during Old Kingdom taken by Alexander the Great in 323 BC; established Macedonian Greek Ptolemaic dynasty great library in Alexandria founded by King Ptolemy I; mix of Greek and Egyptian works Hellenic and Pharaonic traditions combined by Greeks; Greek kings defined themselves as gods similar to pharaohs, with temples and statues built in their honor introduction of currency (coinage) by Greeks became a sought-after region by the Romans as they expanded their empire Roman province from 30 BC to AD 641; Egyptian art adopted Greco-Roman style Roman persecution of Egyptian Jews (and later Christians) who did not follow Roman polytheistic religion Egyptian science, medicine, and mathematics influences on Greeks and Romans, and later on modern cultures and societies

Romans

established in 753 BC; became mightiest military superpower in ancient world sophisticated architects and artists; developed arches, columns, domes, sculptures, mosaics efficient highway systems stretching thousands of miles; improved trade and military conquest city planning including the design of aqueducts and sewer systems mass entertainment: stadiums, amphitheaters created the Julian calendar, including the names of the current months Latin language influence on other languages: English, Spanish, Italian, French, Portuguese adapted Greek principles of religion and government, created law code still in use today Latin terms such as pro bono, habeas corpus, affidavit still used in US legal system developed innovative and efficient bureaucracy (Republic and Senate) to administrate vast Roman Empire, which is modeled today in many nations such as the United States adopted Christianity as its religion, spread throughout the empire

servient tenement definition

land that is owned by a landlord and worked by others in servitude ~~~ Servient tenement meant that people received goods and services instead of money for their work. A tenement is any property that is held, rather than owned, and the vassals (as the peasant farmers were called) on these lands never owned it but worked on it in return for their livelihood. When feudalism was active in Europe and in Japan, those two areas were "cash poor." There was no real, consistent monetary system. All monetary value was based on real estate holdings, precious metals, and jewels. Taxes and dues were paid in crops and services. People working the land kept a portion of their harvest for food and seed. The rest of the harvest was given to the landlord (usually a noble) as payment for use of the land. Similarly, the tenants were expected to provide service in the military when they were needed.

smelting definition

process in which raw ore is heated in a furnace until its metallic content melts and separates from the rocky material

The Inquisition Inquisition Definition

prolonged investigation; (capitalized) in Catholicism, a tribunal convened to detect and suppress heresy As Islamic rule retreated, Castile and other reconquered provinces dissolved into civil unrest. Nobles fought for control of new territory. The marriage of Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon in 1469 unified Spain. In 1478, Queen Isabella and King Ferdinand asked Pope Sixtus IV to authorize official action against Muslims and Jews in Spain. No one had expected this move. This was the notorious Spanish Inquisition. Any religious opinion deviating from established Church doctrine was regarded as heresy. Inquisitors used torture as a tool to gain confessions of guilt. Grand Inquisitor Tomás de Torquemada put the accused on trial in a public spectacle called the auto-da-fé, or "act of faith." Sometimes an execution followed, usually in the form of burning the accused person at the stake. Terror and persecution swept through Spain. People lived in dread of the inquisitors. Jealous rivals falsely accused their enemies of being Protestants. Protestants, in addition to Jews and Muslims, were purged from Spain by exile or execution. In 1492, Ferdinand and Isabella's armies attacked Granada. After 700 years, the last Muslim stronghold fell. But the Inquisition continued until the 1800s.

Triangular Trade definition

three-way transatlantic trade system of the 16th to 19th centuries in which western Europeans traded goods (rum and guns) for African slaves, who were transported to the New World and sold for raw materials trade routes between Africa, Europe, and the Americas in 1750. Manufactured goods and luxuries from Europe are transported to North America. Guns, cloth, iron, and beer from Europe are transported to West Africa. Rum, iron, gunpowder, cloth, and tools are sent from New England to West Africa. Slaves are sent from West Africa to the Caribbean. Slaves, sugar, and molasses are sent from the Caribbean to North America. Sugar, molasses, and wood are sent from the Caribbean to Europe. Rice, silk, indigo, and tobacco are sent from the American South to Europe. Fish, livestock, flour, and lumber are sent from New England to the Caribbean. Whale oil, lumber, and furs are sent from New England to Europe.

adjudicate definition

to act as a judge and make a formal decision about a dispute or problem

Which most accurately describes the governmental policies of Louis XIV of France?

to assume control, centralize the French government, and strengthen the French army

augment definition

to increase or enhance

appease definition

to soothe, bring peace, or buy off

blasphemy definition

to speak in an irreverent way about God

What motivated Prince Henry the Navigator to sponsor Portuguese exploration efforts?

to spread Christianity to new lands and convert indigenous peoples

A religious belief that says bread and wine become the body and blood of Christ during Holy Communion is defined as _[blank]_.

transubstantiation

Sailing Ships

​​​​​​​Not all ships were used for exploration. Many different kinds of ships existed during the Age of Discovery. Caravels were small, fast vessels about 60 feet long that could cover about 100 miles in a day. Carracks were wider and over 100 feet in length. They had large cargo holds and were used as supply ships or flagship vessels. A carrack could sail about 80 miles in a day. Galleons appeared after 1500. They were faster and more maneuverable than carracks. Galleons had huge cargo holds and could be outfitted as warships. Those advantages made galleons the ship of choice for transporting and protecting plundered riches of the New World. Barks were cargo vessels used by merchants and whalers. The many sails of these three-masted ships made barks fast and maneuverable.

The Kingdom of Kush

Around the mid-1000s BC, the power of Egypt's pharaohs declined and ended Egypt's occupation. Nubia was once again independent. Around 850 BC, the Nubians relocated their capital farther up the Nile to Napata and declared it the Kingdom of Kush. Thanks to its central location as a trade center and its access to resources, Kush grew in wealth and power. Eventually, the Kushites became mighty enough to seize the throne of Egypt. In the 700s BC, King Kashta led his Kushite forces into Egypt and defeated their former conquerors. For almost 90 years, Kushite pharaohs ruled Egypt. They restored many of Egypt's ancient practices and traditions, including the building of pyramids which had been abandoned a few centuries earlier. The Kushite pharaoh-kings of Egypt were mummified according to Egyptian religious ritual. Their mummies, however, were brought back to be entombed in Kushite royal family cemeteries in Nubia. Their tombs were built in the distinctive Egyptian pyramid style. The ruins of over 200 tombs can be seen today in the deserts of present-day Sudan. The Egyptian-Kushite dynasty ended in 663 BC when Assyrian invaders conquered Egypt.

elite definition

to have influence or wealth; marked by a superior attitude

Invention of war and Akkadians

Early on, the Akkadians used their intellectual gifts to study the science of waging war. They launched small raids on nearby cities to test their military skills. As they perfected their strategies and tactics, they became more savagely efficient. Around 2300 BC, in an early display of imperialism, the Akkadian king Sargon I led his armies west and seized lands as far away as Syria and Lebanon. Sargon's armies also conquered the Sumerian Empire, Akkadia's neighbor to the south. The greater the land controlled, the more access a population had to food and water, which were essential to power in this region of the world. Over the next millennium, regional conflicts resulted in eras of imperialistic advance alternating with dominance by invaders from other Mesopotamian states and other parts of the Middle East.

Out of Africa Theory

It calculates that human migration from Africa began 60,000 to 90,000 years ago.

South America

Major crops: beans, maize, peanuts, potatoes Animals raised: alpacas, llamas

The cost of cultural changes

More people and livestock living close together meant more risks of infections. Neolithic settlements were breeding grounds for anthrax and typhus. The larger and denser the city, the larger the risk of plagues like smallpox. An epidemic could wipe out everyone living in a town. Without understanding their causes and treatments, people saw illnesses as punishments from angry gods. Sick members of the community might be ostracized to protect the healthy. In addition, large groups of humans could use up the natural resources in the surrounding areas. Growing cities might not have enough water, building materials, fuel, or land to support all of their people.

The Permanent Record of a Martial Existence

The Assyrians left behind thousands of clay tablets that documented every phase of Assyrian life. The Assyrians also left behind detailed relief art on great slabs of marble and granite to document and celebrate military victories. This compelling evidence paints a timeless portrait of this empire, its people, and how they lived.

Kingdoms of Mesopotamia

Scholars believe that after leaving the continent of Africa, ancient humans settled in the land between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. The seasonal flooding of these rivers provided the basis for the Agricultural Revolution and the beginnings of settled society for human beings. Scholars believe this region is the birthplace of modern society. Mesopotamia, "the land between the waters" as this region came to be known, was one of the earliest sites for permanent human settlement. The early civilizations of the Babylonians, Assyrians, and others made this region home. Even though the waters of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers provided the soil with the nutrients it needed to produce crops, flooding was irregular and seasonal. The history of this region is the history of all humanity.

Which best describes the type of religious worship in the Sumerian Empire?

Sumerians worshiped many gods including a sun god, a moon god, a river god, and a fertility god.

The Great Rift Valley

The Great Rift Valley is a major geographical feature that stretches from Southwestern Asia through eastern Africa. This ragged line in the earth's crust is about 3700 miles long and marks where multiple continental plates are pressing together. The rift is so massive that it affects weather patterns. The Great Rift Valley's geography includes salt flats, snow-covered mountains, and active volcanoes. For millions of years, dozens of deep lakes along the rift have supported a wide variety of plants and wildlife. Most scientists think this included the first humans. In Tanzania, the rift slices across the Serengeti Plain. Here, at a place called Olduvai Gorge, scientists Louis and Mary Leakey began discovering an abundance of early hominid fossils beginning in 1959.

Nubia

The Nile River flows smoothly throughout Egypt. South of Egypt, however, a series of natural barriers known as the cataracts of the Nile begin to appear. The first cataract lies on the present-day border of Egypt and Sudan. Below it, the Nile curves and meanders. The large region within this river bend was collectively referred to as Nubia. This major civilization existed for a thousand years under several names: Kemet, Kush, and Meroë.

paleontologist definition

a scientist who studies the most ancient human history paleontologists study fossil evidence and human-made artifacts. Then they discuss where to place these elements on the overall timeline. It is very important to know how old a fossil or artifact is. Scientists have devised methods to determine the age of organic matter. Two tools that paleontologists use to measure the age of fossil evidence are dendrochronology and radiocarbon dating.

cataract definition

an area of rapids in a large river, usually caused by shallow depths, fast waters, or rocks

genetically modified organism definition

any organism whose DNA code has been altered using biotechnology techniques

prehistoric definition

occurring before recorded history

soil cultivation definition

preparation of earth for planting by breaking up compacted soil to the proper depth to allow strong root growth

Downfall of Assyrian Empire

After putting cities to the torch and their citizens to the sword, the Assyrians commanded their defeated foes to pay tributes—not simply in crops and livestock, but also in gold and silver. The treasuries of the Assyrian Empire filled with the wealth of conquered nations. By 650 BC, Assyria ruled the entire Near East. Despite their vicious war methods, the Assyrians were responsible for major advances in civilization. Their centralized government maintained effective control over far-flung territory, using advanced messaging and transport systems developed initially to support its armies. This ruling model kept it politically stable and safe from other outside attackers. Aramaic, the language of many of these relocated peoples, eventually became the empire's common language. However, Assyrian occupation and cruelty shown to its subjects made them burn with anger. Among the ruling class, arguments ensued and bitter divisions occurred over distribution of the spoils of war. When King Ashurbanipal died in 627 BC without an heir, the Assyrian Empire began to weaken. Its defeated foes had learned the art of war from masters. Now they joined forces to topple Assyria. Babylonians, Medes, and Persians seized and sacked Assyria's capital of Nineveh, bringing on the fall of the Assyrian Empire.

Principles of Dendrochronology

Dendrochronology is governed by a set of principles. The oldest, the Principle of Uniformitarianism, dates back to 1785. The Principle of Aggregate Tree Growth is more recent, dating from 1987. Other principles involved in this science include the Principle of Limiting Factors, the Principle of Crossdating, and the Principle of Replication.

The impact of Civilization

Economic advancements changed the way people related to one another. There was no currency as such; citizens used the barter system to obtain goods and services. But some people still amassed wealth in the form of surplus food and goods, resulting in the formation of an elite class that began to wield influence. They began to finance large public-works projects like digging irrigation canals and building granaries. As their wealth and power grew, they gained higher status in their social group. This development of urbanized living altered the way of life for many people of the ancient world. Many who experienced the benefits of civilized city living found it difficult to return to the wild. Civilization had begun to define humanity.

Babylon's great return

In 604 BC, an Assyrian-Chaldean king named Nebuchadnezzar II took control, and Babylon literally blossomed. Nebuchadnezzar has long been credited with the creation of the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, a lavish multi-terraced rooftop garden known as one of the Seven Ancient Wonders of the World. According to the traditional story, Nebuchadnezzar's garden abounded with full-grown trees, plants from every corner of the empire, and exotic animals. An advanced mechanical system kept the greenery watered. No archaeological evidence has been found of such a creation at Babylon, but recent finds suggest that these legendary gardens may actually have existed at Ninevah, some 300 miles to the north. Nebuchadnezzar II was also a ruthless military commander. He sacked Jerusalem and destroyed its temple in 586 BC, then took 10,000 prominent Jewish citizens back with him to Babylon. Their long sojourn appears in the Old Testament as the "Babylonian captivity." They remained after Nebuchadnezzar died in 562 BC. Cyrus the Great conquered Babylonia and made it part of the Persian Empire in 539 BC. When Cyrus declared Babylon his capital, he returned the Jews to Jerusalem and rebuilt their temple. Babylonia again became a respected center of learning. Its astronomers, mathematicians, and philosophers left intriguing records of their research and theories.

What was the site of the First Agricultural Revolution and the ancient Kingdom of Babylon?

Mesopotamia

Paleolithic definition

relating to the Old Stone Age from around 3 million years ago to 9000 BC

deity definition

supreme being; a god or goddess They believed that gods and goddesses had a divine mission to use their powers to create order out of chaos.

Authority

As cities became larger and urban life became more complex, the need for organization and order arose. This led to the establishment of government, a structured system of authority. These early governments typically gave a great deal of power to a single source. This central power was held by a ruler or a council of several men. Religion also provided an element of order in these advancing cities. At the center of almost every major city was a temple complex overseen by a special class of priests. Priests gave the citizens guidance while reinforcing the social order. Sometimes the priests oversaw the distribution of surplus food supplies. Religion and government often overlapped, as in the case of god-kings. In some early cultures, priests ruled large cities as priest-kings.

Manufacturing the Machines of War

Assyrians used their advanced technology to obtain a military advantage. The early Akkadians began to master metallurgy. They learned to make bronze and, eventually, iron weapons. Even the wheel had military uses. Horse-drawn chariots provided commanders mobility in battles. Wheeled carts made quick and easy work of positioning heavy battering rams and catapults during a siege. Siege towers could be wheeled up against city walls so that the protected Assyrian warriors could pour out over the walls and overrun the city's defenders. The Assyrians relied not only on weapons and tactics but also on psychological warfare. They inspired terror with their brutal punishments of conquered peoples. They frequently used public execution by torture. Another method of maintaining control over an occupied land was to select a percentage of the higher-ranking population and send them back to Assyria to be exploited for their abilities. Native Assyrians would then replace those who were deported. These implants kept order and prevented rebellion. Soon the Assyrian armies were feared throughout Mesopotamia. By the eighth century BC, their conquered territories included all or part of 13 present-day countries in Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa. Sargon II seized power in 722 BC and continued the frenzy of subjugation. He launched an extended and bitter siege on Jerusalem. Sargon II defeated the Israelites and ordered the deportation of over 27,000 Jews to other locations in the Near East.

King Hammurabi and His Code

Hammurabi took the throne of Babylonia in 1792 BC. He unified his empire, which stretched from the Persian Gulf to the Mediterranean Sea. Hammurabi brought all of his subjects under one system of law, known today as Hammurabi's Code. In 1901, archeologists discovered a stone pillar with the 282 laws of this code carved on it in cuneiform. In places, the code calls for those convicted to suffer the same fate as the victim ("an eye for an eye"). Other penalties included losing limbs or even death. But while some of its punishments seem brutal, parts of Hammurabi's Code are quite progressive. For example, in parts of the code, fair and impartial judges are required to resolve disputes. The empire thrived under Hammurabi but started to decline after his death in 1750 BC. This began 1,000 years of repeated conquest and occupation. The Assyrians seized Babylonia in 1220 BC and again in 626 BC. Still, the Babylonian culture endured. By 612 BC, Assyria was declining. Babylonians united with Medes and Persia to overthrow Assyria and sack its capital, Nineveh.

The Egyptian Conquest of Nubia

In addition to its rich soil, Nubia was blessed by rich deposits of gold, copper, building stone, and precious gemstones. The Nubians gained further sources of wealth by trading with peoples to their south. Soon Nubian merchants were trading such luxury items as live exotic animals, animal skins, ivory, spices and oils, incense, ebony wood, and human slaves. By the late 16th century BC, Nubian traders traveled north to Egypt. Nubia soon became the source of much of Egypt's gold as well as salts and oils for use in mummification. As the resources of Nubia traveled up the banks of the Nile to Egypt, Egypt's culture trickled down to influence Nubia. Its people adopted the Egyptian deities and erected Egyptian-style temples in their names. Egypt's kings became regarded as divine beings who reigned as earthly representatives of the gods. Around 1500 BC, Pharaoh Thutmose I launched a successful invasion of Nubia and destroyed the capital city of Kerma. The Egyptians would occupy Nubian lands for 450 years. Throughout this time, the Egyptian culture—including clothing, religion, and language—dominated the region.

Migration

Sometime after early humans had developed, a migration occurred that populated the world. Small tribal groups of humans began moving north into southern Europe and Asia. The land bridge where the Great Rift Valley crosses from Africa into Asia provided a convenient pathway. Numerous indicators point to eastern Africa as a possible site where humankind first developed. The "Out of Africa" Theory calculates that human migration began some 60,000 to 90,000 years ago. Another perspective supposes that migration occurred 2 million years ago, giving a long enough time for the Neanderthal to become a different subspecies. There is much debate over the way the migration process might have occurred and where it started. There is something apparent from the evidence, however. Humans followed certain geographic features as they migrated. The primary one was water. The first explorers stayed close to seashores and rivers. On the other hand, geography also impeded migration. Mountains, deserts, and large bodies of water prevented early humans from going in certain directions. All of these features provide scientists with clues about where to look for evidence of migrating humans.

The beginning of Nubia

The fertile floodplains of the Nile bend made Nubia an important agricultural center. The region was dotted with small farming communities. Grains such as wheat, rice and barley were Nubia's main crops. Another major source of food came from farm animals, like pigs, goats, sheep, and cattle. Livestock herding was a standard practice of many African cultures. The early system of government was based on small settlements. Each communal group selected a council of elders as leaders. These scattered communities were united in a loose regional confederation. Whenever a region-wide situation arose, the independent groups gathered at a central location to hold a tribal council. Once the crisis had passed, the leaders returned to their homelands. As the capital city of Kerma grew in size, the rural populations looked to the king for guidance.

Advanced Technology

The final characteristic of civilization is its advanced technology. Early civilizations mainly focused on agriculture, so innovations often involved food production or farming. - Around 3500 BC: Kiln-firing pottery was developed in the Near East.Baking the finished pottery made the clay harder and stronger, and smooth surfaces made the pottery more waterproof and easier to clean. - By 3000 BC: The plow and the wheel were likely in daily use in Mesopotamia. Using plows pulled by teams of oxen was much easier. Farmers could plow larger fields to produce more crops. Oxcarts with large wooden wheels let farmers haul large amounts of crops into the market. - Canals and dams protected the Fertile Crescent.Rains and weather could be unpredictable, leading to floods or droughts. Canals brought water to fields that needed it, while stone dams kept floods from washing away settlements in the river valleys. These solutions reflected the higher level of knowledge and complex problem-solving skills these early humans possessed. Humans were becoming engineers who could alter their natural environment.

Search of early humans

We don't know for sure when humans began to develop. The current theory dates the beginning of the Paleolithic age to around 3 million years ago. That was when the early hominids Australopithecus began developing larger brains and adopting upright postures. Multiple species began budding off. Australopithecus anamensis led to A. africanus, A. garhi, A. sediba, and A. afarensis. These were chimp-like creatures, but they had certain improvements that made them closer to humans. About 2 million years ago, the human species Homo began to emerge from the A. africanus branch of the family tree. One example is Homo habilis or "skillful man." H. habilis earned this name when a paleontologist was impressed by the handiwork seen in artifacts found near its fossils. But H. habilis only sounds like an advanced human. Some paleontologists consider H. habilis to be the last Australopithecus species. Instead, they choose H. erectus (also known as H. ergaster) as their candidate to be ancestor to Homo sapiens (meaning "wise man") or modern humans. After 500,000 BC, a thick-skulled, slope-browed species of human called Neanderthal (H. neanderthalensis) roamed Europe and Eurasia. Neanderthals died out just 40,000 years ago. Recent DNA testing of Neanderthal specimens reveals surprising similarities with the DNA of modern humans. Around 50,000 years ago, Cro-Magnons appeared. Exactly where they came from is unknown. But Cro-Magnon DNA is so close to modern-day human DNA that both species share the scientific name Homo sapiens.

City states definition

primitive city possessing the military or economic power to rule surrounding regions By the late Neolithic Age, humanity was spreading all over the known world. Groups of people established settlements that grew into villages, then towns, then cities. Some cities became so large and powerful that they could use their authority to rule the lands surrounding them. These cities became city-states. This led to the establishment of empires. Sumer, an ancient land in what is now southern Iraq, is acknowledged as the first empire. The origin of the first Sumerians is unknown. Some migrating groups settled nearby around 5000 BC. But Sumer occupied the marshy alluvial plain between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. However, the marshy land impeded building, so this area developed later than northern regions. Around 3600 BC, settlers discovered ways to drain the marshes. They began building permanent towns on the now-dry land with massive city walls for defense. Sumer grew rapidly. By 3100 BC, about 20 large city-states like Uruk and Ur became the urbanized centers of trade, culture, law, and religion. Sumerians shared a common language, religion, and culture. Sumer was a small region the size of Northern Ireland.

carbon cycle definition

the circular process in which plants and animals take in and expel carbon

imperialism definition

the political policy of acquiring more and more territory by conquest or treaty

dendrochronology definition

the study of annual tree rings to detect environmental changes Dendrochronology is the technique of dating the age of a tree through the measurement and study of its growth rings. As a tree grows, it forms another layer on its outer cortex. Every year, a new ring forms around the outside beneath the bark. When you cut down a tree, the rings are visible. The differences in width, color, and other factors record the environmental conditions of that time. Droughts, wildfires, abundant rainfall, and pollution are only a few examples of the data researchers can obtain through this technique. A scientist can take a core sample to study without killing a living tree. Paleontologists can use dendrochronology to date the wooden artifacts in ancient structures, like roof beams or support poles. They would also consult the records of environmental conditions from other sources. Then they compare the data with the ring pattern found on a section of wood from that area. When the sequence of the records matches that of the rings, researchers can determine approximately when that tree was felled. This is called crossdating.

radiocarbon dating definition

the technique of estimating the age of organic matter by measuring how much of its stored carbon-14 has decayed Carbon is a plentiful element on our planet. When neutrons act on carbon atoms, radiocarbon, or carbon-14, is produced. Carbon-14 lets scientists gauge how long ago a once-living creature died. Carbon-14 in living creatures constantly decays, but it is also constantly replaced. Living creatures will constantly replace the carbon-14 in their bodies through the carbon cycle. When a creature dies, it no longer takes in fresh carbon-14 atoms. The carbon-14 that remains in that creature's body tissues will break down. Scientists discovered that carbon-14 decayed at a consistent rate. This means that the decay is the same from one specimen to the next. By measuring the amount of carbon-14 left in a fossilized specimen, a paleontologist can calculate how long ago that creature died. This is the key to radiocarbon dating. The carbon-14 method is useful for dating specimens between 500 and 50,000 years old.

ostracize definition

to exclude from a group; to reject or ignore someone who is disgraced in some manner

relief art definition

type of sculpture in which figures stick out from a flat background

ziggurat definition

type of stepped pyramid originated by the Sumerians for religious and ritual uses

polytheistic definition

worshipping more than one god or goddess