135 Week 1-11

Medial and lateral condyles

"knobs" on the medial and lateral sides of the condyles

Which of the following correctly states Santes Rule?

(2 x tissue thickness in cm) + SID + Grid Factor = kVp

Identify the structure/organ on the radiograph labeled as

A. scapula B. trachea C. Olecranon D. sternum E.Heart F. diaphragm

Calcaneus

Also known as the heel bone, is located at the back of the tarsus.

Ramus

An extension of a bone making an angle with the rest of the structure

When completing a VD radiograph of the abdomen, the exposure is taken during the expiratory pause so the diaphragm is in the caudal position.

False

Which of the following radiographs should have the shortest scale of contrast?

Femur

Unexposed silver halide crystals are removed during which stage of the traditional film developing process?

Fixer

Tibial tuberosity

Roughened bump. Proximal anterior surface of tibia. Point of attachment for patellor ligament.

Occipital condyle

Rounded projections lateral to the foramen magnum that articulate with the first cervical vertebra (atlas)

What landmarks on the patient would be used to collimate the x-ray beam for a VD view of the abdomen?

T9 vertebrae (diaphragm) cranially to the greater trochanter caudally to include the coxofemoral joints (Pubic symphysis)

Condyloid process

Term for the posterior process of the upper ramus

x-ray tube

X-rays are generated in an x-ray tube 1. cathode side (with a negative electrical charge) 2. anode side (with a positive charge)

Metatarsal bones

almost identical to the metacarpal bones of the front limb except most animals have only four metatarsal bones numbered medial to lateral II to V

Head of the femur

articulates with the acetabulum (hip socket)

Zygomatic process of the frontal bone

articulates with the zygomatic bone laterally, completing the infraorbital rim

The image below is the correct position to obtain a CrCd view of the:

femur

Cervical Vertebrae (C1-C7)

first set of 7 bones, forming the neck

A DV view of the thorax is preferred for evaluation of the:

heart

For a ventrodorsal view of the thoracic spine, you would measure the patient at the:

most cranial point of the sternum

physiology

nature of human function.

If the following was used to label a radiograph, according to your Lavin textbook, what information is missing and should also be included in order for this label to be complete?

patient ID information

Location of the radial nerve

region between the tendons of the abductor pollicis longus and flexor carpi radialis

When capturing a DV view of the thorax, the patient should be positioned where the vertebral column is positioned over the:

sternum

Where should measurements be taken on the patient for a dorsoventral thoracic view?

caudal border of the scapula over the thoracolumbar (TL) spine

Which views are the most common used for images of the pelvis? Which view would be used for diagnosis or evaluation of hip dysplasia?

common pelvis images-ventrodorsal hip-extended and lateral views hip dysplasia images- ventrodorsal hip-extended projection

If you are positioning a patient for a caudocranial view of the stifle joint, the primary area of interest and x-ray beam focus would be:

distal portion of the femur

If you are positioning a patient for a ventral dorsal, extended view of the pelvis, the primary area of interest and x-ray beam focus would be:

the pubis and acetabulum of the pelvis

Radiographs of long bones (humerus, femur, radius/ulna, tibia/fibula, etc.) should include which of the following in the image:

the shaft of the bone(s), plus the joints both proximal and distal to the bone.

When performing radiographs on raptors, which structure(s) should never be left unrestrained:

the talons

Crest

tibia

Tuber calcanei

traction process of calcaneus projects proximal caudally

Pterygoid

where muscles of mandible attach in the Sphenoid Bone; muscle attachment for the jaw

In a Ventrodorsal view of the pelvis, which skeletal structures should be included in this view?

wings of ilia to caudal border of the ischium. Include at least 1/3 of each femur

Maxilla

~"Upper jawbone" ~Facial bone that forms most of the upper jaw

Middle Gluteal muscles

~Lateral Muscle of the Hip ~Origin- Lateral ilium ~Insertion- Greater trochanter of femur ~Action- Abducts limb/extends

Trapezius muscle

~Muscles of the Shoulder and Back

Head

A rounded articular projection supported on the constricted portion (neck) of a bone.

cathode

A temperature controlled wire filament that emits electrons when heated

Achilles tendon

A tendon in the back of the ankle and foot that attaches the gastrocnemius and soleus muscle to the calcaneus

The structure on the diagram of the bird labeled as "?" is the:

A. B. C. thoracic D. E. F. sternum

Identify the structure/organ on the radiograph

A. B. heart C. D. kidney E. small intestine F. bladder G.

Medial malleolus

At the lower end of the tibia, seen on the inner ankle

External acoustic meatus

Canal leading to eardrum and middle ear (concave anteriorly

Vertebrae

Cervical Vertebrae (C1-C7) Thoracic Vertebrae (T1-T13) Lumbar Vertebrae (L1-L7) Sacral (sacrum)

Costal cartilage

Connects the ribs to the sternum

If the following was used to label a radiograph, according to your Lavin textbook, what information is missing and should also be included in order for this label to be complete?

the date

Xiphoid cartilage

~Caudal end of sternum ~cartilage attached to the xiphoid

In a VD view of the abdomen, where should the primary x-ray beam be directed?

~K9- center on midline over caudal aspect of 13th rib at level of umbilicus (L3) ~Feline- two to three fingerbreadths caudal to 13th rib

True or False. When imaging structures of the forelimb, the cassette is typically placed on the table top and not in the Bucky Tray.

True, Except for the shoulder and the scapula in some dogs, a grid is generally not used because the tissue thickness of the forelimb is less than 11cm, so it is important to collimate the field as tightly as possible to reduce scatter and help achieve higher contrast

This patient is positioned for which of the following radiographic views?

V of the thorax

One way to properly position a patient for a ventrodorsal radiograph of the lumbar spine using non-manual patient restraint is with the use of a:

V-through Sand Bags

What about an image of the lungs?

VD or Ventrodorsal

Parts of the vertebrae

Vertebral canal Vertebral body Spinous processes Cranial and caudal articular processes Transverse process Transverse foramen Costal fovea and costal facet Accessory process

Deep Gluteal muscles

~Lateral Muscle of the Hip ~Origin- Body of ilium and ischiatic spine ~Insertion- Cranial aspect of greater trochanter ~Action- Abducts and extends hip

Gracilis muscle (M. gracilis)

~Medial Muscle of the Thigh ~Origin- ~Insertion- ~Action-

Trochanter

femer

Infraorbital foramen

found in the maxillary bone, just inferior to the orbit.

If the following was used to label a radiograph, according to your Lavin textbook, what information is missing and should also be included in order for this label to be complete?

nothing is missing - this label is complete

Transverse foramen

only found in the cervical vertebrae and allow passage of the vertabral artery, vein, and nerve

When measuring the patient to properly set the machine for the radiograph below, the patient should be measured:

over the high point of the zygomatic arch

Primary Beam

path that the x-rays follow as they leave the tube.

A radiograph of the lung field should be taken when the patient is in what stage of respiration?

peak inspiration

When collimating for long bones, your image should include which proximal and distal settings that border a long bone?

proximal and distal joints, Elbow and the Carpus

An image of the radius and ulna should be collimated to include which proximal and distal structures?

proximal to elbow joint and distal to carpal joint

What would be the primary area of interest in this radiograph?

right knee (stifle) joint

If you are positioning a patient for a lateral radiograph of the shoulder, the primary area of interest and x-ray beam focus would be the:

shoulder joint

Spinous processes

sites of muscle attachments

Why should a darkroom have a "wet" and a "dry" side? What are the components of each side?

so there is no chance of chemicals being transferred to the cassettes and screens

When positioning a patient for a caudocranial view of the elbow, radius and ulna, or carpals, the patient should be placed in which position?

sternal recumbency with the affected limb closest to the cassette.

According to Santes' Rule, if the abdomen of a cat measures 12 cm with the caliper, what is the kVp setting? (Santes' Rule is discussed in both the Exposure Factor handout and the lecture)

(2 X thickness) + 40 = kVp 64 kVp

Caudal

(Cd) A location toward the tip of the tail. Also refers to the parts of the limb above (proximal to) the carpal and tarsal joints that face toward the tail

Cranial

(Cr) The parts if the neck, trunk

Identify the structure indicated by "?" in this picture of the ventral surface of the skull.

A. B. palatine bone C. D. spinal cord exits the skull

For a lateral lumbar radiograph, you would use the caliper to measure the patient at:

L1

Mandible

Lower jaw bone

Zygomatic process of the temporal bone and maxilla

articulates with the zygomatic bone laterally, completing the infraorbital rim

When measuring a patient to set the x-ray machine to obtain a craniocaudal view of the radius and ulna, you would use a caliper to measure the patient thickness:

at the distal end of the humerus

When measuring a patient to set the x-ray machine to obtain a lateral radiograph of the shoulder joint, you would use the caliper to measure the patient thickness:

at the thickest area over the shoulder joint

Tuberosity

ischium

For an image of a long bone, the collimator of the machine would be set to include what structures in the field of view or image?

joints proximal and distal.

How are the directional terms used to indicate how the patient should be positioned for an image?

labeled according to the side the patient is laying on.

When a patient is in lateral recumbency, how would you determine which marker or label to place on the cassette (R or L marker)?

labeled according to the side the patient is laying on.

Femoral vein

major vein of the thigh that receives blood from the deep femoral and great saphenous vein

The first sternebrae of the sternum is the:

manubrium

If you are positioning a patient for a lateral radiograph of the humerus, the primary area of interest and x-ray beam focus would be:

midshaft of the humerus

When collimating an image for the cubital (elbow) joint, the image should include:

midshaft of the humerus through midshaft of the radius/ulna

How are radiographic positional terminology terms used to describe the direction of the central x-ray beam?

named according to the direction in which the central beam anatomically enters the body part, followed by the area of exit of the x-ray beam

Exposure time

period of time during which x-rays are permitted to leave the x-ray tube.

Tarsus (Tarsal bones/hock):

~Human "ankel" ~located immediately distal to the tibia and fibula Calcaneus Tuber calcanei Metatarsal bones Phalanges

Superficial Gluteal muscles

~Lateral Muscle of the Hip ~Origin- Sacrum and coccygeal vertebrae ~Insertion- Greater trochanter of femur ~Action- Abducts limb/extends hip

Femur

~Long bone of the "thigh" Head of the femur Neck of the femur Greater trochanter Medial and lateral condyles Medial and lateral condyles Medial and lateral epicondyles Trochlea Patella

Tibia

~Main weight-bearing bone of the lower leg Tibial crest Tibial tuberosity Medial malleolus

Sartorius muscle (M. sartorius)

~Medial Muscle of the Thigh ~Origin-Crest of Ilium ~Insertion- patella/cranial part of tibia ~Action- Flexes hip/extends stifle

Pectoralis descendens (M. pectoralis descendens)

~Muscles of the Chest

Pectoralis profundus (M. pectoralis profundus)

~Muscles of the Chest

Pectoralis transverses (M. pectoralis transverses)

~Muscles of the Chest

Digastric muscle (M. digastricus)

~Muscles of the Neck

Masseter muscle

~Muscles of the Neck

Sternocephalicus

~Muscles of the Neck

Cleidocervicalis

~Muscles of the Shoulder and Back

Deltoid muscle

~Muscles of the Shoulder and Back

Latissimus dorsi

~Muscles of the Shoulder and Back

Omotransversarius

~Muscles of the Shoulder and Back

External abdominal oblique

~Origin = thoracolumbar fascia and last rib ~Insertion - linea alba

Transversus abdominis

~Origin= medial surface of last 4-5 ribs and transverse process of lumbar vertebrae ~Insertion= linea alba

Rectus abdominis

~Origin= sternum ~Insertion= pubis

Internal abdominal oblique

~Origin= thoracolumbar fascia ~Insertion= linea alba

Muscles of the Chest

~Pectoralis descendens (M. pectoralis descendens) ~Pectoralis transverses (M. pectoralis transverses) ~Pectoralis profundus (M. pectoralis profundus)

Obturator foramen

~serves to lighten the pelvis ~the two large holes on either side of the pelvic symphysis

How should the femoral neck appear in a radiograph?

~smooth with no proliferative remodeling changes ~angle 130 degrees

Cecum

~the cavity in which the large intestine begins and into which the ileum opens ~A pouch at the proximal end of the large intestine

What are ways that the penetrating power of x-rays can be increased?

~the kVp controls the wavelength and the penetrating power ~Shorter wavelength has better penetrating ability.

With images of the spine, why is it important to make sure the anatomy of the spine is parallel to the image receptor and perpendicular to the center of the x-ray beam?

~to increase the detail and contrast

Condyle

~usually a large, round articular surface. ~The distal ends of the femur and humerus, and the occipital bone have the most prominent con-dyles

Muscles of the Abdominal Wall:

~work to flex the vertebral column and assist in various body functions that require abdominal press- urination, deification, parturition, and vomiting 1. external abdominal oblique 2. internal abdominal oblique 3. transverse abdomins 4. rectus abdominis

Vertebral canal

Formed by vertebral column; contains spinal cord

Which structures articulate to form the scapulohumeral (shoulder) joint?

Scapula and humerus

Mediolateral

The x-ray beam penetrates from medial to lateral

Hemopoietic

anatomic areas where red blood cells are produced.

Milliampere

"(mA)"amount of electrical energy applied to the x-ray tube filament. Describes the number of x-rays produced during an exposure.

mAs

"Milliamperage-seconds" number of x-rays produced over a given period. Calculated by multiplying the milliamperage by the time.

SID

"Source-Image Distance" also known as focal-film distance (FFD). The distance between the source of x-rays and the image receptor or film.

Pelvis

"hind leg" connected to the axial skeleton through the sacroiliac joint the unites the ilium of the pelvis with the sacrum of the spinal column. thIlium Ischium Pubis Acetabular fossa Acetabulum Pelvic symphysis Obturator foramen

Radiation Safety Program for a veterinary hospital?

(1) an adequate technique chart or comparable system (2) positioning aids (3) protective clothing and other protective barriers (4) personnel dosimetry devices (5) emergency procedures for malfunctioning x-ray equipment (6) quality control measurements and tests.

Sacral (sacrum)

-5 fused vertebrae, wedge or triangle shaped.

Compare and contrast the OFA and PennHIP methods to evaluate Hip Dysplasia.

...

List and describe some of the advantages of automated film processing over the traditional dip tank method?

...

Identify the structure of the scapula indicated by ?

A. Spine B. Infraspinous fossa C. Supraspinous fossa D. Glenoid cavity E. Acromion process

What are some concerns when working with a patient to position them for a radiograph?

1. Human Safety 2. Patient Safety

What are the 4 factors of exposure that are manipulated to create a diagnostic quality radiographic image?

1. Milliamperage 2. Kilovoltage 3. Time 4. Film to Focal distance

When positioning a patient for a VD view of the thoracic vertebrae, to check alignment of the patient one should imagine a straight line from the tip of the ______ to the base of the ______.

1. Nose 2. Tail

Radiographs should be permanently labeled with what information?

1. Patients name 2. date 3. ID number 4. name of veterinarian facility 5. address of veterinarian facility

List and describe the 5 basic steps of film processing.

1. immersed in developer 2. transferred to fixer 3. washing the film 4. drying the film 5. labeling the film

What are the most common patient positions for views of the spinal/vertebral column?

1. lateral (L) 2. ventrodorsal (VD)

What are the two divisions of the skelton? What structures are included with each division?

1. axial skeleton is made up of the bones located on or near the central cranial-caudal axis of the body—the skull, hyoid bone, spinal column, ribs, and sternum. 2. appendicular skeleton is made up of the main "appendages" of the body: the thoracic limbs and the pelvic limbs

Each vertebra consists of which structures or divisions?

1. body- denser ventral portion which is separated from bodies of adjacent vertebra by intervertebral discs 2. vertebral arch- dorsal to the body 3. various processes- cranial and caudal articular processes, dorsal spinous process and the lateral transverse processes

What are the 5 regions of the vertebral column? Where does one begin and one end? What is the proper way to refer to a specific vertebrae (i.e. how are they lettered and numbered)?

1. cervical- neck 2. thoracic- chest 3. lumbar- abdomen 4. sacral- pelvis 5. caudal- tail, sometimes referred to as coccygeal

How should a patient be prepared for a radiograph?

1. clean and free of any debris 2. collars removed 3. chemically restrained if possible

What other names may be used to refer to the "caudal" vertebrae?

1. coccygeal

Why might obtaining good quality diagnostic images of the skull present a challenge?

1. complicated anatomy 2. superimposition of many structures 3. variation in size and shape of various breeds

What are some of the reasons or medical conditions why images may be requested of the skull of a patient?

1. evaluate trauma 2. congenital abnormalities 3. inflammatory lesions 4. tumors 5. degenerative changes

If possible, before imaging the abdomen, what should be done to help minimize artifacts in the intestinal track?

1. fast the patient (if possible) 12 hours before 2. administer a cleaning enema 3-4 hours before

Create a "mental checklist" for yourself to go through before you push an exposure button to create an image.

1. measure animal 2. turning on machine 3. setting main voltage calibration 4. proper source-image distance 5. setting the exposures. 6. Cassettes loaded and ready 7. positioning devices in hand 8. patient clean and all artifacts removed

What are some of the reasons spinal radiographs may be requested for a patient?

1. spinal injuries 2. paresis 3. paralysis 4. chronic but progressive neurological changes 5. suspected intervertebral disc disease

Thoracic radiographs may be requested to aid in diagnosis of what types of conditions?

1. suspicion of heart disease 2. pneumonia 3. neoplasia 4. treatment or disease follow up

For an image of a joint, the collimator of the machine would be set to include what structures in the field of view or image?

1/3 each of the bones proximal and distal

When collimating for an image that has a joint as the primary area of interest, the image should be collimated to include which proximal and distal skeletal structures?

1/3rd each of the long bones proximal and distal to the joint

If the mA is set at 20, and the time is ½ sec, the mAs is:

10 mAs

Which of the following settings would give you 10 mAs?

100 mA X 1/10 sec

Your text describes two stages of the Exposure Switch. List each stage and briefly describe what occurs during each stage.

1st stage activates the rotor and boosts the filament circuit and the transformers. 2nd stage activates the exposure through the x-ray tube

Which of the following settings would give you 2.5 mAs?

300 mA X 1/120 sec

Which of the following settings would give you 15 mAs?

300 mA and 1/20sec

If mA is set at 300 and the time is set at 1/60, the mAs is:

5 mAs

A film should be developed for___________ at 20 degrees celcius.

5?

What is the ideal pH for radiograph developing chemicals?

68*

300 mA x 1/40 sec = ____ mAs

7.5 mAs

Why should the walls of a darkroom be white or cream-colored?

A light reflective color will take advantage of as much light as possible from the safe light

Esophagus

A muscular tube that connects the mouth to the stomach.

Foramen magnum

A passage in the skull bone through which the spinal cord enters the spinal column.

Identify the skeletal structure that would be located at

A. Scapula B. Phalanges C. Humerus D. Elbow

This is a lateral radiographic image of an elbow. Identify the area that is indicated by "A":

A. Humerus B. Radius C. Ulna D. Olecranon process E. Trochlear notch

The structure/organ identified in this radiograph as

A. Lungs? B. C. kidney D. large intestine

Occipital

Area located at the back of each cerebral hemisphere; associated with processing visual information

Femoral artery

Arterial supply to the thigh up to the knee; branched from the external iliac artery

Skull Mandible

Body Ramus Mandibular symphysis Angular process Condyloid process Coronoid process

Nasal bone

Bones that form the bridge of the nose.

Coronoid process

Bottom part of Trochlear notch on ulna

Sternum

Breast bone to which the ribs attach by means of cartilege

Zygomatic arch

Bridge-shaped structure that connects the Temporal Bone to the Zygomatic Bone

Proximal

Closer to the origin of the body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk

Peritoneum

Double-layered membrane surrounding the abdominal organs

Lacrimal

Facial bone that along with the Zygomatic bone and palate, helps to form the orbit of the eye.

It is acceptable to use the method of manual traction to properly position the spine in a patient with a suspected spinal column injuries.

False

Zygomatic bone

Form the prominence of the cheek and part of the lateral wall and floor of each orbit

Why might images be required for the femur, stifle joint, tarsals, metatarsals, and phalanges?

Fractures, joint-associated neoplasia, and arthritis

This view of the pelvis is known as which view:

Frog-leg view of the pelvis

In a VD view of the thoracic vertebrae, what structures should be superimposed over each other to minimize any rotation of the patient in the image?

Have the sternum and vertebrae superimposed to minimize any rotation

Ribs

Head Shaft (body) Costal cartilage Sternum Xiphoid process Xiphoid cartilage

Skull

Incisive Lacrimal Maxilla Palatine Frontal Parietal Temporal Occipital Tympanic bulla Zygomatic bone Nasal bone Pterygoid Mandible

Which of the following increases radiographic density?

Increased mAs

List the skeletal structures that are associated with the scapula.

Infraglenoid tubercle, glenoid cavity, humerus, supraglenoid tubercle, greater tubercle, proximal physis

Foramina and areas of the skull

Infraorbital foramen Maxillary foramen Frontal sinus Maxillary sinus Oval foramen (foramen ovale) Orbital fissure External acoustic meatus Foramen magnum Mandibular fossa Lacrimal Duct

Sciatic nerve

Largest nerve in the body; pierces the buttocks and runs down the back of the thigh

Which of the following is the best description of this radiographic view:

Lateral of tarsus

This patient is positioned for which of the following radiographic views?

Lateral of the abdomen

This diagram is an example of the radiographic positioning to produce a radiograph of which area of a patient:

Lateral of the thoracolumbar vertebrae

When positioning a patient for a lateral view of the shoulder joint, which limb should be placed closest to the cassette? Why?

Lateral recumbency with effected limb down will place the shoulder joint ventral to the sternum and air-filled trachea and separating the joints.

How should a patient be positioned for a mediolateral view of an elbow joint?

Lateral recumbency with the affected limb down

Lateral Oblique Mandible View

LeD-RtVO/Rt-LeVO Place In: Measure: AOI: Borders:

Palatine

Located on the left and right sides of the throat visible through the mouth

Recumbent

Lying down

Shaft (body)

Main portion of ribs

MPD

Maximum permissible dose: maximum dose of radiation a person may receive in a given time period.

When measuring for a caudocranial view of the scapula, the measurement with the caliper should be taken at which area? Why?

Measurement taken at the scapulohumeral articulation

Many times, veterinarians will request more than one view of a long bone or joint. List and briefly describe some of the different views to image elbow joints discussed in the reading assignment. How might using multiple views of the same area provide additional information?

Mediolateral Extended - shows fragmented process of the elbow joint Lateral Flexed (mediolateral) - elevation of the ulnar anconeal process Craniocaudal- keeps radius and ulna parallel and th ehumerus at a slight angle Oblique- visualize the supratrochlear foremen of the humerus and the anconeal process of the ulna

When positioning for a view of the humerus, the crossbeams of the collimator and primary x-ray beam should be focused on which area of the humerus?

Mid shaft of the humerus

Which 3 settings/factors may be adjusted on the x-ray machine to improve the contrast and density of an image?

Milliamperage Kilovoltage Time

safelights

Mounted on the wall with a minimum of 4 feet above the working surface where cassettes are located and unloaded Dark red with no orange or yellow

Skull Processes

Occipital condyle Zygomatic bone Zygomatic process of the frontal bone Zygomatic arch Zygomatic process of the temporal bone and maxilla

Which structures of the humerus, radius, and ulna articulate to form the elbow joint?

Olecranon, anconeal process of the ulna, medial epicondyle of the humerus, condyle of the humerus, medial coronoid process of the ulna

Angular process

On the mandible

Supraspinatus muscle (M. supraspinatus)

Origin - Supraspinous fossa Insertion - greater tubercle of the humerus Action - extends the shoulder joint

Brachialis muscle (M. iceps brachii)

Origin - caudolateral aspect of the proximal humerus Insertion - ulnar and radial tuberosities Action - flexes the elbow

Serratus ventralis (M. serratus ventralis)

Origin - cervical part, cervical vertebrae; thoracic part, ribs Insertion - serrated face on the dorsomedial aspect of the scapula Action - supports the trunk and depresses the scapula

Infraspinatus muscle (M. infraspinatus)

Origin - infraspinous fossa of the scapula Insertion - lateral side of the greater tubercle of the humerus Action - flexes the shoulder joint and abducts the limb at the shoulder

Triceps brachii (M. triceps brachii)

Origin - long head originates from the caudal boarder of the scapula; other heads originate from the proximal border of the humerus Insertion - all four heads are on the olecranon of the ulna Action - extends the elbow and flexes the shoulder

Subscapularis muscle (M subscapularis)

Origin - subscapular fossa of the scapula Insertion - lesser tubercle of the humerus Action - adducts limb at the shoulder and rotates arm medially; it also functions as a medial collateral ligament to the shoulder

Biceps brachii (M. biceps brachii)

Origin - supraglenoid tubercle of the scapula Insertion - ulnar and radial tuberosities Action - flexes the elbow and extends the shoulder

Mandibular fossa

Part of the temporal bone that articulates with the condyle of the mandible to make up the temporomandibular joint.

How might a patient be positioned to create a dorsopalmar view of the foot? How is this image collimated? Where are measurements taken on the patient prior to setting the machine?

Place in sternal recumbency - proxmial 1/3rd of metacarpal to distal 1/3 of radius/ulna - measuring at the site of interest, carpus joint-

Developing agents

Phenidone & Hydroquinone

Lateral Oblique Skull View

Place In: Measure: AOI: Borders:

Frontal 90-Degree Rostrocaudal-Closed-Mouth View

Place In: Dorsal recumbency in a V-trough if required, support with sandbags Measure: Over site of nasal sinuses (nasal stop) AOI: between eyes (frontal sinuses Borders: Occipital crest to the dorsal aspect of the nasal planum (tip of nose)

VD view of the cervical vertebrae

Place In: Dorsal recumbency in a V-trough or supported by tape or sand bag in needed Measure: Level C6 near the manubrium Central Ray: C4. Borders: Base of skull to the shoulder joint, with tight collimation latererally

lateral view of the thoracic vertebrae

Place In: Lateral Recumbency Measure: Highest point of the mid-thorax Central Ray: T6-T7 or the caudal boarder of the scapula Boarders: C7-L1 inclusive (shoulder joint to past the origin of the last rib

lateral view of the cervical vertebrae

Place In: Lateral recumbency Measure: Across the shoulder at the level C6 Central Ray: C4 Borders: Base of skull to the spine of the scapula (just past the shoulder joint)

lateral view of the skull

Place In: R or L lateral recumbency with affected side to the image receptor Measure: Highest point of zygomatic arch at the center of the cranium AOI: Lateral canthus of the eye. Midway between the eye and ear Borders: Full skull- tip of the nose to the occipital protuberance Pads under the nose and neck

Lateral Oblique View for Tympanic Bullae

Place In: R or L lateral recumbency with unaffected side to image receptor Measure: Base of ear over tympanic bullae at the widest part of the cranium AOI: Base of ear over tympanic bullae Borders: Cranial and caudal to the ear

VD Oblique View for Cat Tympanic Bullae

Place In: mandible and maxilla are displaced dorsally 10 degrees Measure: AOI: level of the base of the mandibular body at the commissure of th emouth about 1 cm ventral to the external nares Borders:

VD view of the thoracolumbar vertebrae

Place in: Dorsal recumbency in a V-through or use sandbags if needed Measure: Highest point of the mid-thorax origin of the last rib Central Ray: T13-L1 intervertebral space Boarders: Xiphoid to the caudal portion of the last rib Collimate: tightly to include the transverse process, and muscle mass, but do not include the fat and skin

lateral view of the lumbar vertebrae

Place in: Lateral recumbency Measure: level of L1 Central Ray: Level of L4 Boarders: T12-S1 (cranial to origin of the last rib to just before the greater trochanter

When positioning a patient for a mediolateral view of the scapula, how should the patient be positioned? How should both the limb of primary interest and the opposite limb be positioned to achieve the best view? Why?

Position in lateral recumbency with affected side down.

Fixer

Processing solution of a hardener, clearing agent, acid, and preservative that removes the unexposed silver halide crystals from the film emulsion ensure that the image that has been developed remains intact.

Maxillary sinus

Sinus of called 'recess' in cats and dogs as communicates very freely with nasal cavity

Rostrocaudal Open-Mouth View

Rostral 30-Degree Dorsal-Caudoventral Oblique) Place In: Dorsal recumbency in a V-trough if required, support with sandbags Measure: site of the frontal sinuses AOI: midway between the eyes so that the cranium is centered and the beam intersects the bridge of the nose Borders: entire cranium

Ventrodorsal Open-Mouth View

Rostroventral-Caudodorsal Oblique R20-30V-CdDO Place In: Dorsal recumbency in a V-trough if required, support with sandbags Measure: Thickest area near commissure of the lip (over level of 3rd maxillary premolar) AOI: On Nasal Cavity- back of palate about level of 3rd premolar. Angle tube head rostrocaudally 20-23 degrees Borders: Tip of maxilla to pharyngeal region (all upper palate)

List the skeletal structures associated with the humerus.

Scapula, greater tubercle, deltoid tubersity, supratrochlear foremen, lateral epicondyle, capitulum of humeral condyle, olecranon, radius, lesser tubercle, medial epicondyle, trochlea of humeral condyle, medial coronoid process of ulna, ulna, scapula,

Scatter Radiation

Secondary radiation: commonly called scatter radiation, it is caused by interaction of the primary beam with objects in its path.

Cranial and caudal articular processes

Sites of intervertebral articulation; joint surfaces called facet

Accessory process

Situated at the back part of the base of the transverse process in the LUMBAR vertebrae.

Distal

Situated farthest from the center, median line, or point of attachment or origin. In dental radiography, the direction toward the last tooth in each quadrant of a dental arch; farthest from the median line.

In order to properly align the spine for a lateral image of the thoracic vertebrae, how should the pelvis of the patient be positioned? Why is this important?

Superimpose and place the pelvic limbs caudally to maintain true lateral positioning of the entire body

Rostral

Toward the tip of the nose

A bird should be fasted prior to obtaining radiographs for diagnostic purposes as gastric contents may affect the appearance of the internal organs leading to misdiagnosis.

True

Film emulsion is sensitive to heat and humidity.

True

In patients larger than 50 lb, it may be necessary to radiograph the cervical spine in two separate radiographs due to the difference in thickness between the cranial and caudal cervical vertebrae.

True

One of the best ways to reduce radiation exposure in a veterinary hospital is to be able to produce a diagnostic x-ray on the first attempt and prevent retakes.

True

Stress can be fatal in birds. When working with injured and debilitated birds, it is important to reduce stress and minimize handling of the bird.

True

True or False. A change in patient position and phase of respiratory may change the appearance of the lungs on a radiograph.

True

True or False: The only legal labeling of a radiograph is a label that is permanently adhered to the radiograph in the film emulsion or permanently labeled on the image at the time it is created.

True

When collimating the primary x-ray beam of the machine, the smallest field possible should be used to obtain an image for any given area of the body.

True

When obtaining a thoracic radiograph on a bird, it is not essential to create the exposure on inspiration as with dogs and cats as birds are continuously moving air through the pulmonary system.

True

When positioning a patient for a radiograph of the vertebral column, the vertebral column must be as parallel to the tabletop and cassette as possible.

True

When positioning a patient for a radiograph, the comfort and welfare of the patient should be considered at all times.

True

If you are positioning a patient for an extended projection VD view of the pelvis, you would measure the patient with the caliper over the:

acetabulum of the pelvis

Pelvic symphysis

a cartilaginous joints that join the two halves of the pelvis ventrally

When securing an avian patient for a radiograph, tape should never be placed over:

across the chest which could prevent the air sacs from functioning properly and impact respiration.

Location of the Cephalic vein

between elbow & carpus on cranio-medial aspect of foreleg.

Lumbar Vertebrae (L1-L7)

bones of lower back

Thoracic Vertebrae (T1-T13)

bones of midspine

Maxillary foramen

caudal opening of infraorbital canal

If images have been requested for both the abdomen and thorax, how should those images be captured? (i.e. Should all abdominal images be captured before thorax? Should lateral images of both abdomen and thorax be completed before VD views of the abdomen and thorax? Can you just take one shot for both?)

complete both lateral views before imaging the ventrodorsal view

Tibial crest

continuation of the tibial tuberosity down the cranial aspect of tibia

Ilium

cranial-most area of the pelvis

What landmarks on the patient would be used to collimate the x-ray beam for a lateral image of the abdomen?

cranialy from caudal aspect of T7 (full diaphragm and heart apex) and caudally to the greater trochanter to include the coxofemoral joints

somatic radiation damage

damage to the body induced by radiation that becomes manifest within the lifetime of the recipient. (Ex. cancer, cataracts, aplastic anemia, and sterility.)

Sievert (Sv)

dose of radiation equivalent to the absorbed dose in tissue (1 sievert equals 100 rem).

Diagnostic imaging of the pelvis is performed to detect what types of abnormalities or conditions?

dysplastic or degenerative change of coxofemoral joints

genetic radiation damage List examples.

effects of radiation that occur to the genes of reproductive cells.

A radiograph of the abdomen should be taken during which respiratory cycle?

end of expiration, when brief pause often occurs

An abdominal radiograph should be taken at the:

expiratory pause

Which of the following are components of the control panel, or console, of the x-ray machine? (Please mark ALL that apply)

exposure button collimator

The extended projection view of the pelvis is standard for the evaluation of the:

hip joint

Tubercle

humerus

When imaging a distal forelimb (i.e. carpus, metacarpus, and digits), one technique is to "split" the cassette to create two views on the same image. Which of the following are essential in order to complete this type of view.

image must be completed on the table top. toes on images should all point in the same direction. collimate tightly to reduce scatter and control exposure image. protect the side of the cassette not used in the exposure with a lead shield.

When obtaining measurements for a radiograph the patient should be in what position?

lateral or VD?DV

6) List the PPE or radiation protective apparel that should be worn by those assisting during radiographic procedures.

lead aprons and lead gloves that have a 0.5-mm lead equivalent thickness.

Pubis

located medially and forms the cranial part of the pelvic floor

Xiphoid process

lower portion of the sternum

Process

lumps and bumps on bones

A VD thoracic view can be useful to examine which areas and structures?

lungs, ventral pulmonary fields, caudal mediastinum, accessory lung lobes, caudal vena cava.

axial skeleton

made up of the bones located on or near the central cranial-caudal axis of the body—the skull, hyoid bone, spinal column, ribs, and sternum

appendicular skeleton

made up of the main "appendages" of the body: the thoracic limbs and the pelvic limbs

What other views may be requested for the stifle joint? What types of information might these views provide to the veterinarian?

mediolateral, caudocranial, proximodistal

Pocket ionization chamber

method of dosimetry consisting of a charged ion chamber and electrometer, which can be read immediately to determine the amount of exposure.

Film Badge

method of dosimetry consisting of a plastic holder with a radiation-sensitive film in a lightproof package.

If you are positioning a patient for a lateral view of the femur, you would measure the patient with the caliper over the:

middle (or midshaft) of the femur

When measuring a patient to set the x-ray machine to obtain a dorsopalmar view of the phalanges, you would use a caliper to measure the patient thickness:

middle of the metacarpals

If you are positioning a patient for a caudocranial view of the humerus, the primary area of interest and x-ray beam focus would be:

midshaft of the humerus

A. head of the femur B. neck of the femur

radiograph of the hip joint

A. wing of the ilium B. obturator foramen C. pubic (pelvic) symphysis D. ischium E. acetabulum (deep pocket around the head of the femur)

radiograph of the pelvis

A. B. tibia C. Femur

radiograph of the stifle joint

Kilovoltage

related to voltage. Describes the electrical potential (difference) between the cathode and the anode; it is responsible for accelerating the electrons from the cathode to the anode and relates to the penetrating power of the x-rays.

When positioning a patient for a radiograph of the pelvis, the thickest part of the pelvis should be positioned toward which side of the x-ray tube?

toward the cathode to take advantage of the heel effect

Dosimetry

various methods used to measure radiation exposure to personnel.

If the following was used to label a radiograph, according to your Lavin textbook, what information is missing and should also be included in order for this label to be complete?

veterinarian or hospital information

Dorsal

(D) Toward the back; thus, dorsal describes the upper aspect of the head, neck, trunk, and tail. In limbs dorsal refers to those areas of the legs distally from the carpus and tarsus joints that face cranially or towards the head

What directional term would indicate a patient is placed on their abdomen and the x-ray beam will first penetrate through the back and then exit through the abdomen?

(DV) dorsoventral. The beam goes in the (D) dorsal portion-the back-and exits on the (V) ventral or abdomen.

Lateral

(L) , The x-ray beam either enters through the left or right side of the body and emerges on the opposite side, where the cassette is positioned. Away from the midline of the body; on the outer side of.

Palmar

(Pa) The caudal surface of the forelimb from and including the carpal joint (distally)

Plantar

(Pl) Below the tarsus (hock), the caudal side of the hindleg. The front is indicated as dorsal.

Ventral

(V) Lower or toward the lower aspect of the body ("belly")

Many positions for radiographs will require the use of several directional terms. What would be the directional term to indicate a patient is in dorsal recumbency and the x-ray beam would enter through the abdomen and exit from the back?

(VD) ventroldorsal. The beam goes in the (V) ventral portion-the abdomen- and exits on the (D) dorsal aspect or back

Phalanges

(singular phalanx) digits of hind paw as with forefeet

How should PPE be cared for and maintained? How often are these items checked or replaced?

1. Aprons should be hung vertically over a round surface (not <3 cm in diameter) or laid flat when not in use 2. Gloves should be placed on vertical holders that allow air to circulate throughout the inside 3. Inspected periodically for damage. 4. Every time the apparel is worn, a visual inspection should be made. 5. checked manually on a quarterly basis

8) List the basic Radiation Safety Rules that were outlined in your handout.

1. Remove all unnecessary personnel from the radiographic suite during exposure. 2. Never permit persons younger than age 18 or pregnant women in the radiographic suite while it is in use. 3. Rotate personnel who assist in radiographic procedures to minimize exposure. 4. Use mechanical restraints whenever possible (e.g., sandbags). 5. Use chemical restraint whenever possible (anesthetize or tranquilize). 6. Always wear protective apparel designed to absorb secondary radiation effectively (0.5-mm lead thickness). 7. Ensure maximum life of protective apparel through proper use and care. 8. Never permit any part of the body to be within the primary beam whether shielded or not. 9. Use collimation whenever possible to decrease field size and scatter radiation. 10. Use a 2.5-mm aluminum filter to remove soft x- rays from the primary beam. 11. Do not aim the x-ray beam directly at any personnel or adjacent occupied room. 12. Never handhold the x-ray tube. 13. Wear film or TLD badges near the collar, outside the lead apron, to monitor radiation exposure to the thyroid gland, face, and eyes. 14. Plan the radiographic procedure carefully to avoid unnecessary retakes. 15. Maintain darkroom chemicals in good operating condition. 16. Have the x-ray machine calibrated annually by a qualified service representative. 17. Keep an exposure log that identifies the patient, the type of study performed, and the exposure values. 18. Adhere to the radiation safety codes for your state.

Create a checklist for yourself to evaluate the image produced to determine if it is a good diagnostic quality before submitting it to your veterinarian for evaluation and interpretation.

1. image labeled and legible 2. position lead markers present 3. good exposure with contrast and density 4. properly centered 5. appropriate borders included, and collimation 6. body part properly positioned, with no rotation 7. no evidence of human interference (ex. glove) 8. properly developed 9. is the image diagnostic

List and describe 3 qualities of a good darkroom.

1. minimum 6feet X 8feet 2. door hung to swing out from darkroom 3. counter top 14in X 17 in 4. wet & dry area 5. temp. maintained @ 68* 6. humidity maintained 40%-60% 7. Cassettes stored upright 8. Walls painted a light reflective color

Identify the structure of the skull indicated by "?"

A. occipital bone B. Parietal C. zygomatic process of the temporal bone D. zygomatic bone E. Frontal sinus F. maxillary bones G. nasal bone H. Incisive bone

If the area located at "A" is the occipital bone of the skull, then the vertebrae located at "C" is:

A. occipital bone of the skull B. the atlas C. C2

Identify the skeletal structure indicated by

A. Scapula B. Humerus C. Radius D. Ulna

In this radiograph of the thorax, the structure/organ identified as

A.Base of the heart B. apex of the heart C. diaphragm D.

The section of vertebrae identified in the patient by "?", are the:

A. cervical vertebrae B. thoracic vertebrae C. lumbar vertebrae D. sacral vertebrae E. coccygeal (caudal) vertebrae

Identify the structure of the mandible indicated by "?":

A. coronoid process B. angular process C. Ramus D. Body (Shaft) of mandible

Transverse process

Bone pieces on the outside of a vertabrae

For a VD radiographic view of the cervical vertebrae, you should center the primary beam at:

C4 to C5

A ventrodorsal view of the thoracic spine should be collimated to include:

C7-L1

For a lateral view of the abdomen, where is the patient typically measured with the caliper?

Caudal aspect of 13th rib - at thickest area

According to your text, which image or patient position would be used to radiograph the heart?

DV or Dorsoventral, the heart will lie in a more natural position

Tympanic bulla

Encloses the middle ear cavity and its ossicles

When measuring a patient to set the x-ray machine to obtain a lateral view of the radius and ulna, you would use the caliper to measure the patient thickness:

Over the elbow joint **NOT thickest area over the shoulder joint or proximal end of the humerus**

If the following was used to label a radiograph, according to your Lavin textbook what information is missing and should also be included in order for this label to be complete?

additional patient identification information

Leukopoietic

anatomic areas where white blood cells are produced.

Muscles responsible for extension of the forearm

anterior deltoid; biceps; coracobrachialis; latissimus dorsi; subscapularis; teres major

Muscles responsible for flexion of the forearm

anterior deltoid; biceps; coracobrachialis; latissimus dorsi; subscapularis; teres major

Mandibular symphysis

anterior median depression indicating point of mandibular fusion

Vertebral body

anterior portion of the vertebra

Developer

chemical that convert a latent image to become a manifest image by immersing the film in a chemical solution. (4 min w/ agitation @ 68*)

Dosimeter

device used to measure radiation exposure to personnel.

When positioning a patient for a radiograph, the central x-ray beam should be centered:

directly over the primary area of interest

anatomy

form and structure of the body and its parts-what things look like and where they are located.

Santes' rule

formula used to estimate kilovoltage in relation to area thickness "(2 x thickness) + 40 = kVp"

When preparing to set the x-ray machine for this radiographic view, the patient should be measured with the caliper at the:

proximal coccygeal (caudal) vertebrae?

For a lateral view of the abdomen, is the patient typically placed on their right or left side?

right lateral recumbency

How should a patient be positioned for a lateral view of the thorax?

right to left lateral recumbency

Trochlea

smooth articular surface on the cranial surface of the distal end in which the patella (kneecap) rides

Acetabulum

the cup-shaped hollow in the hipbone into which the head of the femur fits to form a ball-and-socket joint

Quadriceps femoris (M. quadriceps femoris)

~Cranial Muscle of the Thigh ~Origin- Ilium/proximal femur ~Insertion- Tibial tuberosity ~Action- Extends stifle/flexes hip

When positioning a patient for a radiograph, which of the following should be taken into consideration? (Please mark ALL that apply)

welfare of the patient risk of radiation exposure to patient and staff restraint and immobilization of the patient possible existing injuries

The last sternebrae of the sternum is the:

xiphoid process

Patella

~"Kneecap" ~Largest sesamoid bone in the body ~Located distal tendon of the large quarriceps femoris muscle

Anus

~A muscular opening at the end of the rectum through which digestive waste material is eliminated from the body.

gallbladder

~A pear-shaped organ beneath the liver that stores bile and secretes it into the small intestine. ~overlapping right liver lobes ~opacity of soft tissue = not normally visible in radio-graph,

Rectum

~A short tube at the end of the large intestine where waste material is compressed into a solid form before being eliminated ~straight, posterior part of large intestine

Gastrocnemius muscle (M. gastrocnemius)

~Caudal Muscle of the Distal Leg ~Origin- Medial/lateral supracondylar tuberosities of femur ~Insertion- Proximal surface tuber calcanei ~Action- Extends tarsus/flexes stifle

Semimembranosus (M. semimembranosus)

~Caudal muscle of the Thigh ~Origin- Ischiatic tuberosity of pelvis ~Insertion- Femur and tibia ~Action- Extends Hip

Biceps femoris (M. biceps femoris)

~Caudal muscle of the Thigh ~Origin- Ischiatic tuberosity of pelvis ~Insertion- Patella/proximal tibia/tuber calcanea ~Action- Extends hip/flexes stifle/extends tarsus

Semitendinosus muscle (M. semitendinosus)

~Caudal muscle of the Thigh ~Origin- Ischiatic tuberosity of pelvis ~Insertion- Tibia and tuber calcanei ~Action- Extends hip/flexes stifle/extends tarsus

stomach

~Caudal to liver and cranial to transverse colon ~found within the ribcage ~divided into 5 sections = cardia, fundus, body, pyloric canal, and pyloric antrum ~food in stomach looks like granular material (air, soft tissue, mineral)

Muscles of the Shoulder and Back

~Cleidocervicalis ~Trapezius muscle ~Latissimus dorsi ~Omotransversarius ~Deltoid muscle

How should a patient be positioned for a Caudocranial view of the tibia/fibula? Where is the measurement taken? Where should the primary x-ray beam - or central ray - be focused? How should the image be collimated to make sure all required structures are visible in the image?

~Place in: sternal recumbency in a V-trough, or secure with a sandbag ~measure: mid-shaft of the tibia and fibula ~central ray: mid-shaft of the tibia and fibula ~borders: tarsus and stifle

Muscles of the Neck

~Sternocephalicus ~Digastric muscle (M. digastricus) ~Masseter muscle

Orbital fissure

~Trochlear passes through ~middle hole in caudal part of orbit

large intestine

~VD/DV position looks like question mark ~consists of cecum & colon (ascending, transverse and descending)

Epiphyses (epiphysis is singular)

~cancellous bone covered with a thin layer of compact bone ~The ends of long bones

urinary bladder

~caudo-ventral abdomen ventral to rectum and descending colon ~Empty urinary bladder not seen

Fossa

~depressed, sunken area on the surface of a bone ~Bone fossae are usually occupied by muscles or tendons

How should a patient be positioned for a Craniocaudal view of the femur? Are there any special considerations or adjustments for this view/structure that might not be a concern for other views?

~dorsal recumbency in a V-trough or secure with the use of tape or sandbag if needed. ~complete extension, to ensure that the affected limb is well secured

Lacrimal Duct

~empty into the medial corner of the eye ~channels that carry tears to the eye

Facet

~flat articular surface. ~found on carpal bones, tarsal bones, vertebrae, and some long bones, such as the radius and ulna

small intestine

~found in mid-abdomen ~3 parts- duodenum, jejunum, and ileum

spleen

~head (proximal portion) attached to the body and fundus of stomach by gastrosplenic ligament ~VD seen lateral to fundic portion of stomach, medial to body wall, craniolateral to left kidney

Foramen

~holes in the bone ~Usually a passageway for blood vessels or nerves to enter and leave the bone.

If it is too painful for a patient to be positioned in a VD or DV view to extend the limbs for imaging - or if it may create additional damage to the joint or bone - what is a positioning alternative to obtain the images?

~horizontal beam ~oblique positioning ~flexed lateral view ~extended lateral view

kidney

~identifiable on feline Xray ~Canine Xray- left kidney & caudal pole of right can be seen ~not seen on VD

When imaging the tarsus of a patient, which structures should be included in this view? Where is the measurement taken? Where should the primary x-ray beam - or central ray - be focused? How should the image be collimated to make sure all required structures are visible in the image? Is positioning altered if the primary focus is on the phalanges instead of the tarsals?

~include tarsus, metatarsus, and digits ~measure: ~central ray: ~borders:

What are some of the radiographic signs of hip dysplasia?

~increased width joint space ~shallow acetabulum ~flattening and deformity of the femoral head ~subluxation or luxation ~secondary joint disease ~femoral neck less/more than 130

What is the name of the space that can be seen on a radiograph between two vertebrae?

~intervertebral disc

Greater trochanter

~large process to which gluteal muscles attach

liver

~largest organ in the body ~cranial abdomen between diaphragm and stomach ~Lies between the ribs ~4 lobes= left, right, caudate, and quadrate

Diaphysis

~long part of a long bone is the diaphysis ~composed of primarily compact bone

For a Mediolateral view of the stifle joint, the measurement should be taken at which area? Where should the primary x-ray beam - or central ray - be focused? How should the image be collimated to make sure all required structures are visible in the image?

~measure: distal end of the femur c~entral ray: palpate and center on the indentation of the stifle joint (intercondylar fossa and the femur) ~Borders: proximal third of the tibia and distal third of femur

Neck of the femur

~narrow portion of the femur betwen the greater trochanter and the head of the femur ~Joins the head to the shaft,

Linea alba

~narrow strip of fascia that connects the 2 rectus abdominis muscles ~whitish line on the abdomen that is at the midline ~where incisions into the abdominal wall are made

Medial saphenous vein

~often used for venipuncture and catheter placement in the cat ~arises in paw and terminates in femoral vein

Radiographs submitted for OFA registration must meet which of the following parameters and include which information?

~permanent patient identification on film emulsion ~Vet's name, date of radiograph, registered name or number of patient

Before submitting an image of the pelvis to a veterinarian for evaluation, as the person that performed the radiograph what criteria should you make sure have been met in the image? (Hint: list on p. 254 of the reading assignment)

~radiograph legally labeled and positional markers included ~femurs parallel to each other ~patellae are positioned over the centers of the femoral condyles ~no rotation, so that the wings of the ilia, sacroiliac joints, and obturator foramina are equal in size and mirror images of each other ~entire pelvis, femurs, and stifles are included

pancreas

~right limb of pancreas lies adjacent and caudal to caudal margin of stomach ~not seen in normal radiograph

anode

~rotating and stationary ~tungsten or tungsten molybdenum alloy

How should femoral heads appear in a radiograph?

~rounded and smooth ~at least half of head positioned within the acetabulum