2.3 Responding to global climate change

Carbon capture and storage

Carbon capture and storage (or CCS) methods are currently under investigation and are likely to be very expensive. The method involves the removal of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere followed by either: - chemical processing to form carbonates - compression and transport to a site of permanent storage. Air could be filtered through adsorbent material that removes the carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Storage could be in underground sites such as geological formations previously containing oil or gas reservoirs

Geo-engineering definition

The intentional manipulation of the global environment to limit global warming

There are a variety of ways to reduce the amount of GHGs in the atmosphere:

- reduce energy use through improved efficiencies and conservation approaches - replace fossil fuels with low-emission energy sources, such as renewable energy and nuclear power - reduce emissions from transport - decrease emissions from agriculture activity - carbon dioxide can also be removed from the atmosphere by a range of methods referred to as geo-engineering.

Adaptation strategies

Adaptation measures can be categorised by the sector they apply to. The sectors covered here include water resources, coastal systems and low-lying areas and human health.

Carbon credit

a tradable permit (or certificate) that allows a country/industry/organisation to produce 1 metric tonne of carbon dioxide. If the permit is not used it can be traded, sold or retired. Carbon credits do not just apply to carbon dioxide but can also refer to the other GHGs based on equivalent mass or warming potential (tCO2e).

Clean Development Mechanism

allows industrialised countries to implement emissions-reduction projects in LICs, such as rural electrification using solar panels. This mechanism stimulates sustainable development in the poorer countries of the world.

Cap-and-trade

an economic system used to control carbon emissions. An upper limit or cap sets the maximum emission allowed. It also allows for extra capacity to be traded between organisations.

Mitigation

any actions taken to eliminate or reduce the long-term impacts of climate change through reducing the sources of, or increasing the sinks of, GHGs.

Joint implementation

applies to industrialised countries and economies in transition (Annex I countries). Industrialised countries can reduce emissions by investing in projects to reduce GHG emissions in other Annex I countries. Russia receives about two thirds of the projected savings.

Hydropower

is currently the most used renewable source of energy. The energy obtained from the movement of water has historically been used to drive a variety of machinery from grinding flour to sawing wood. Hydroelectric power (HEP) is produced when flowing water drives turbines connected to a generator that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.

Adaptation

management of the risks posed by global climate change in order to moderate the harm (or take advantage of the opportunities).

Geopolitics

the interrelationship between geography and international politics and relations.

Risk

the potential that the variables associated with climate change will reach such extreme levels that they have an adverse impact on human life (e.g. storms, flooding and drought).

Vulnerability

the sensitivity and susceptibility to the adverse effects of climate change and the ability (or otherwise) to cope with them

Geothermal energy

uses heat from the interior of the Earth and is used to heat buildings and generate electricity. Enhanced geothermal systems are created whereby holes are drilled into heated areas called 'hot dry rock'. Pressurised water is passed through and collected as steam, which is used to drive turbines that generate electricity.

Solar power

uses thermal panels to heat water for buildings or photovoltaic panels to convert sunlight into electrical energy.

Carbon offset

when operators sponsor activities or projects in other countries that will reduce the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. The aim being to compensate for their own emissions.

Wind power

windmills have been used historically to pump water or drive mechanical machinery, for example for grinding grain to produce flour. Wind turbines that produce electricity are called aero-generators and usually have fewer blades than the traditional windmill meaning that they require stronger winds to get started. In northern hemisphere countries such as the UK, higher energy demand in the winter months is matched by more windy days and higher wind speeds.

Big corporations taking action defeating climate change

- Amazon are using carbon offset by building wind and solar projects to provide power for 90,000 homes. It is aiming for 100% renewable energy use as soon as possible. Amazon is also using 100% recyclable packing for all shipping. - Google is also offsetting its carbon and is currently scheduled to be 100% powered by renewable energy for global operations. It is the largest corporate producer of renewable power. - The Apple Cupertino campus will be powered totally by renewable energy and 75% natural ventilation. In addition, 95% of materials will be reused or recycled. The company currently boasts that 93% of its global operations run on renewable power. - Facebook is part of the Open Compute Platform, a group of companies working to improve efficiency of data centre design (the servers and the buildings). - Microsoft is looking for innovative solutions to energy use and is turning to new technologies such as biogas and fuel cell energy. It is carbon neutral and supports LICs through carbon-offset programmes.

Fast facts about Californian water issues

- California has a very high demand for water but the majority of people live in the dry south whereas the water supply comes from the Sierra Nevada snowpacks in the north. - Snowpacks act as a natural water store, storing winter snowfall that is then released in spring. - Annual precipitation rose by up to 15% between 1958 and 2008 but climate change has shifted the timing and changed the nature of the precipitation from snow to rain. - In most river basins in California snow is more important than artificial reservoirs; the Sierra Nevada snowpack supplies natural storage equivalent to half of the reservoirs. - Snowpacks have reduced by up to 75% and this reduction is stressing water supply infrastructure, drinking water supply, and irrigation water and recreation facilities. - Spring melt is occurring earlier by 15-20 days and the reservoirs are not able to store the released water so it flows out of the area. This means less water for the dry summer months. - By 2020 more than 40% of southern California's water supply will be threatened. - California is home to many important crop-producing areas and climate change will cause unreliable water supplies, increased temperatures and increased pests. The financial cost is predicted to be US$3 billion per year by 2050. - Loss of the snowpack is also impacting winter tourism in the Sierra Nevada as major ski resorts will not have enough snow.

Governmental responses to European heatwave

- Hose pipe bans in many countries addressed water shortages. - The media (TV news, internet, newspapers) ran information sessions on coping with the heat. - Speed restrictions were imposed on trains when temperatures reached 30°C to avoid buckling lines and derailment. - Working hours were shifted to avoid the hottest part of the day. - Refuse collection was increased and made earlier to avoid rubbish decomposing in the streets. - Heat-Health Watch UK operates every summer from 1 June to 15 September. - France improved surveillance on the elderly who live alone to ensure they are coping with the heat.

Fast facts about the European heatwave

- In 2003 Europe suffered the hottest summer in 500 years. - Some 35,000-50,000 people died from heat-related conditions. - August temperatures reached 40°C (7°C above the mean). - In the Netherlands, Utrecht recorded a high of 35°C and the death toll was 1000-1400 above normal levels. - Extreme heat and humidity make it difficult for the human body to maintain the right temperature and the old and young suffer cardiovascular and respiratory problems. - Low-income families suffer most as their houses are poorly insulated and lack air conditioning. - The number of days with smog and ground-level ozone increased, pushing up the number of deaths. - Precipitation was 300 mm below normal, causing serious drought, which damaged agricultural productivity and cost US$16 billion. - Wild fires increased, and low water levels in rivers caused problems of water supply for irrigation and to cooling systems for power plants.

Notes on the Paris Agreement

- The UNFCCC acknowledges that country pledges are too low to control the rise in temperature to less than 2°C, even if all countries achieve their pledged cuts. - The agreement is non-binding: so pledges are promises, not commitments national caps are voluntary and there is limited guidance on the necessary stringency of caps. - The financial support of $100 billion per year is still significantly below global military spending and insufficient to address the problems faced by LICs. - For existing pledges to work: 40% of all energy investment will have to be in energy efficiency and low-carbon technology 60% of all power-generation investment will have to be in renewable power.

Civil society and NGOs and their important role in actions linked to global climate change:

- They can improve information access on climate change. - They often raise the profile of the most vulnerable groups and give them a voice through advocacy and by drawing attention to their plight in the public arena. - They promote responsibility within communities by raising awareness that everyone is responsible for global climate change. - The form action groups to raise awareness on how to reduce carbon footprints. They encourage grassroots action to change behaviour though education and awareness campaigns. They let people know they can take action by: - turning appliances off when not in use, rather than using standby mode - using energy-efficient devices such as low-energy washing machines - making home modifications to reduce loss of heat to the outside through windows, doors, roofs and flooring; for example, with efficient windows (e.g. triple glazing), wall cavity insulation and ceiling and floor insulation - decreasing consumption of non-essential goods that utilise energy during production; for example, following the latest fashion can encourage over-consumption and waste - reducing consumption of non-local goods that need to be transported long distances and which have high road and air miles - decreasing individual car use and instead walking, cycling, using public transport or sharing vehicles (e.g. car pooling) - purchasing hybrid electric cars (which use both petrol and electricity) or electric cars (only powered by electricity) - installing solar and wind power alternatives.

Reducing emissions from agriculture as a way to reduce GHGs in the atmosphere

- Using less fertiliser can reduce nitrous oxide emissions. Fertilisers should only be applied when required and preferably when there is maximum uptake. - Adding nitrification inhibitors to fertiliser to reduce nitrous oxide production. - Reducing methane generation from livestock by: selective breeding to have cattle that produce less methane changing the feedstock. - Collecting and utilising methane emissions from biodegradation of animal waste as a source of energy. - Cultivating rice varieties that can be grown in drier conditions with higher yields to reduce methane emissions.

Governmental responses to Californian water issues

- Water conservation strategies to enhance water supplies: management of irrigation energy-efficient water recycling pricing incentives. - Drought-tolerant crop varieties. - Drought monitoring, for example the US Drought Monitor in California. - Research to promote water-holding capacity of soil. - Response strategies are set up against agricultural pests and diseases: inspection stations state-wide detection systems encouraging the maintenance of bee pastures to ensure pollination information dissemination and awareness raising.

Other disparities in exposure to climate change

- Wealth is very closely linked to other social factors such as education and health. Greater wealth brings better education and access to health care. These three factors combine to improve risk management and reduce vulnerability to the impacts of global climate change. Greater wealth increases the adaptive capacity of individuals, communities and nations. A wealthier country has better infrastructure, technology, emergency services and general support networks. A wealthier person has access to higher-quality housing, can protect themselves financially (with insurance) and can buy better health care and more food: all the factors necessary to reduce vulnerability. The poorer nations and poorer people do not have such advantages. - Education is central to improving people's response to climate change. Education is considered to be so important that UNESCO has a programme to help younger people understand the impacts of climate change, the Climate Change Education for Sustainable Development. - Gender has an indirect impact on responses to climate change. In many LICs women face higher risks from climate change owing to the fact that they commonly face greater poverty, and climate change hits poorer people harder. As discussed in The gender gap, women have unequal participation in decision making and less access to the workplace. This prevents women from taking part in planning for preparedness for climate change. - Age affects a person's ability to cope with climate change impacts. Older adults and young children do not cope as well with extreme heat or extreme cold. The elderly tend to lack the financial resources to heat and cool their homes and they are less able to relocate. Both the young and the old have more sensitive immune systems and their ability to cope with lack of food, water and the presence of disease is compromised.

Adaptation strategies to decrease the risk of flooding include

- bans on building on river flood plains or in areas prone to flooding - flood control through construction of flood barriers, improvements in drainage or diversion of floodwaters, for example through use of sustainable drainage systems (SuDS); the use of SuDS could be incorporated into planning and building regulations - modifying infrastructure to withstand floods, such as adapting drainage and sewage systems to prevent sewage overflow - modifying buildings to withstand floods, such as concrete floors at ground level, elevated buildings above flood level and raising electrical wiring above floor level - introducing flood-warning systems to allow people to take action before floods occur - increasing spending on flood defence to improve levees, embankments, flood barriers and diversion canals - protecting wetlands and other natural vegetation such as forests; these slow the progress of precipitation through the system - increasing water storage in dams and lakes.

Governments using economic incentives to reduce energy use as a way to reduce GHGs in the atmosphere

- charging companies that emit pollution, which encourages a reduction in emission levels; for example a GHG tax, in which tax is charged according to the amount of GHGs produced - using carbon emissions cap-and-trade schemes and carbon offsetting. - using subsidies to encourage new technologies and support research into more efficient methods, reducing GHG emissions from the combustion of fossil fuels - awarding subsidies or tax credits to promote renewable sources of energy for industry and domestic users - subsidising public transport - using road tolls and parking charges to discourage use of cars creating incentive schemes to encourage people to practice shared car use (car pooling).

Mitigation and adaptation different in number of ways

- mitigation deals with causes, adaptation with effects - the effects of mitigation can be seen on a global scale whereas those of adaptation are at a local level - the success of mitigation is relatively easy to measure as reduced levels of atmospheric GHGs can be tracked by appropriate instrumentation; however, the success of adaptation is more complex: whether or not the risk of vulnerability to climate change has decreased is almost impossible to assess.

As discussed in Disparities in exposure to climate change HICs have a higher level of:

- personal and national wealth with which to reduce the risk and repair the damage caused by extreme events - basic health and health care to speed recovery - education to understand the risks presented by global climate change and how best to adapt - infrastructure such as emergency services that can deal with the threats. (Generally speaking, HICs suffer far less from the detrimental impacts of climate change than LICs.)

the impact of the adverse effects of climate change vary greatly depending on:

- population densities relative to natural resources: overpopulated regions where natural resources such as water and food are already stretched will be more vulnerable - reliance on climate-sensitive economic activities, such as agriculture - level of development of a country: this affects health, education levels, wealth and infrastructure wealth: people and nations with greater money are more able to prepare for the risk by putting adaptive strategies in place and repairing the damage of extreme events health: if baseline health is good then people are more able to overcome some of the impacts of extreme events, such as the spread of disease education: an educated population is more likely to be prepared, with the necessary strategies in place to cope; for example, houses on stilts in flood areas.

Replacing fossil fuels as a way to reduce GHGs in the atmosphere

1. Solar power 2. Wind power 3. Hydropower 4. Geothermal power

Key points of the Paris Agreement

1. Temperatures Keep average global temperature increases less than 2°C higher than pre-industrial levels. If possible, they should be under 1.5°C higher than pre-industrial levels. 2. Finances The Green Climate Fund and the Global Environment Facility were created as financial mechanisms to help LICs mitigate and adapt to climate change. The goal is for HICs to provide US$100 billion per year. Other countries can provide support on a voluntary basis. 3. Differentiation HICs are still expected to be in the forefront of GHG emissions reductions while LICs are encouraged to increase efforts to cut emissions. 4. Emission objectives Reduce reliance on fossil fuels and increase carbon sinks to restore the balance between inputs and outputs. 5. Climate damage It is recognised that there is a need to increase the adaptive capacity and climate resilience of the most vulnerable countries without threatening food production. 6. Review cycle There will be a review every 5 years (first in 2023) to allow innovations to be introduced to set new, more ambitious targets.

How many and what are the different adaptation strategies

1. Water resources 2. Coastal systems and low-lying areas 3. Health

corporate responsibility

A corporation is a company or group of people that is recognised by the law. It is owned and controlled by its members and is 'outside' the government. They abide by something called corporate social responsibility (CSR), whereby the corporation monitors itself to ensure it is within the spirit of the law, ethics and accepted models. In some cases its actions go beyond legal requirements and into improving the general well-being of society.

Health and low-lying areas and adaptation strategy

Adaptation strategies to impacts of climate change on health involve: - use of monitoring and surveillance systems that raise alarms when there may be increased risk of health issues - being prepared for climate-related events and treatment of likely types of injuries and diseases - use of vaccination programmes to reduce risk of certain diseases such as cholera - public health education programmes, which cover: what action to take during a heatwave what to do during floods how do avoid specific diseases.

Civil society in action

After the Copenhagen Climate Conference (2009), some NGOs shifted their focus on climate change to fossil fuel consumption with an initial attention on coal. Action became global in nature as it was increasingly clear that the impacts of global climate change were being felt in many LICs. Civil society organisations that were campaigning for development, the rights of women and indigenous people and other issues combined forces on climate change.

Spatial disparities

Although climate change is global there is some spatial variation in the amount of risk faced. Figure 1 shows the climate change vulnerability index for 2015 (the most recent one available). The index evaluates 42 economic, environmental and social factors linked to human sensitivity (level of development), natural resource and adaptive capacity.

Absorption by the oceans

Carbon dioxide is absorbed by photosynthetic phytoplankton in the oceans. The carbon moves through the food web and when organisms die they sink to the lower layers. The carbon is stored in the sediments. This absorption of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and its movement into the deep oceans is referred to as the biological pump. The biological pump could be further enhanced by: - fertilising the oceans with nitrates, phosphates and iron to encourage photosynthesis by phytoplankton - increasing upwellings; for example, using mechanical pumps to move cold, nutrient-rich waters from the lower layers to the surface, encouraging photosynthesis and enhancing carbon dioxide uptake.

Carbon dioxide removal

Carbon dioxide removal (or CDR) involves removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and placing it in the carbon sinks. Carbon dioxide can be removed using a range of techniques, from biological absorption to chemical abstraction. However, carbon dioxide removal is a very slow process, so it will take decades to stabilise atmospheric levels. Strategies include land use management, carbon capture and storage, absorption by the oceans and use of biomass.

Water resources and adaptation strategy

Changing precipitation patterns are likely to increase the risk of water shortage in some regions. In contrast, intense rainfall over a short period of time could lead to flooding. Adaptation strategies to reduce the risk of water shortage involve conservation and improving supply: - water meters and pricing strategies: if water is metered and users are charged for how much they actually use then people are more likely to save water - setting targets for water recycling and water use - legislation on the use of sprinklers, hose pipes and other watering devices; for example, banning hose pipes at dry times of the year - subsidising farmers and other large-scale water users to change from overhead irrigation and watering methods (sprinklers) to drip irrigation where the water is delivered at the surface or within the soil to the roots of the crops - planning legislation to ensure water-efficient systems are fitted in all new developments and major refurbishments, such as low-flow taps and shower heads - encouraging and/or subsidising waste-water and grey-water recycling systems for domestic and commercial use - leading by example and ensure all government buildings are water efficient - educational campaigns to build awareness of water saving; for example, in Western Australia there have been adverts to encourage people to reduce watering times on gardens and the length of time spent showering - desalination plants can increase supply by using seawater, although this causes problems if fossil fuels are used in the processing - building dams to create reserviors to store water from times of surplus for times of defecit - water-transfer schemes to move water from areas of high precipitation to areas of low precipitation.

Civil society and corporate strategies

Civil society is simply everything outside of the government that establishes the interests of the citizens. It includes non-governmental organisations (NGOs), institutions, individuals and local groups of people. Civil society tends to be independent and self-governing. People decide for themselves what their priorities are and what activities they wish to be part of. In recent years financiers (individuals and corporations) have participated more and targeted funding is also becoming popular. Citizen's actions stem from self-motivation and an interest in events. Participation in activities gives the individual the opportunity and ability to have an impact on something that is important to them, for example, climate change.

Geo-engineering

Geo-engineering involves manipulating the Earth's environmental systems to counteract the impacts of climate change. It does not address the causes of climate change but could be used to complement the strategies to reduce GHG emissions discussed in Government-led climate change mitigation.

Global climate change is a product of past and present greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from the anthropogenic sources of industrialisation, which are amplified by land use changes.

Global climate change is a product of past and present greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from the anthropogenic sources of industrialisation, which are amplified by land use changes. As discussed in International variation in greenhouse gases the volume of GHG emission is not spatially even, as some countries have higher emissions than others. Emissions have changed through time and the biggest emitters of GHGs in the past are not necessarily the biggest emitters now due to changes in patterns of production. In addition to uneven emission patterns, and despite the fact that GHGs are mixed into the atmosphere and spread evenly across the globe, some countries suffer the impacts of climate change far more than others. All of this makes global climate change a complex geopolitical problem that requires international collaboration.

Patterns in global climate change

Global climate change is a product of past and present greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from the anthropogenic sources of industrialisation, which are amplified by land use changes. As discussed in International variation in greenhouse gases the volume of GHG emission is not spatially even, as some countries have higher emissions than others. Emissions have changed through time and the biggest emitters of GHGs in the past are not necessarily the biggest emitters now due to changes in patterns of production. In addition to uneven emission patterns, and despite the fact that GHGs are mixed into the atmosphere and spread evenly across the globe, some countries suffer the impacts of climate change far more than others. All of this makes global climate change a complex geopolitical problem that requires international collaboration.

Reducing emissions from transport as a way to reduce GHGs in the atmosphere

Good transport is considered important for economic development, for example for effective movement of the workforce and goods. Road transport is a major source of GHGs such as carbon dioxide and nitrous oxide. Vehicle emissions can be reduced by replacing petrol or diesel vehicles with electric powered or hybrid vehicles (as discussed above). Some countries have taken this a step further and are substituting fossil fuels with biofuels such as biodiesel and bioethanol. Alternatively, there is a variety of legislation that can be employed to reduce emissions: - international agreement set goals that are adopted into national policies (e.g. Kyoto Protocol and Paris Agreement) - legislation can be used to set stringent emission standards for industry, power generation and vehicles; many countries have vehicle emissions standards that must be met before new vehicles can be sold - planning regulations can promote alternatives to private car use, for example incorporation of cycle paths.

Kyoto Protocol

In 1997 the annual meeting of the UNFCCC was in Kyoto, Japan. The meeting led to the Kyoto Protocol, which came into force in 2005. The Protocol's first commitment period introduced legally binding emissions targets for developed countries: - There was to be an overall global reduction in carbon dioxide emissions, of about 5% of 1990 levels, by 2012 - There were individual targets for each country with a final deadline of 2012

Land use management

Land management can be used to protect and enhance plants that absorb carbon dioxide, thus reducing atmospheric levels: - revegetation of land - restoration (i.e. reforestation) of degraded land - reduced deforestation - use of farming practices that encourage retention of carbon stores as organic matterin the soil; for example, leaving land fallow means that soil is left undisturbed, which reduces carbon dioxide loss into the atmosphere. In 2008 the United Nations set up a collaborative programme to reduce emissions from deforestation and forest degradation, referred to as UN-REDD. The project recognises: - the economic value of forests as carbon sinks - the potential of indigenous people to effectively manage forests. UN-REDD supports developing countries to: - reduce GHG emissions from forests - invest in low-carbon energy sources.

Paris Agreement

Like the Kyoto Protocol, the Paris Agreement deals with mitigation of GHG emissions and adaptation to the impact of climate change. The agreement was: - negotiated at COP 21, the 2015 Paris Climate Conference, by the representatives of 195 countries (Note: COP stands for Conference of the Parties.) - adopted on 12 December 2015 - opened for signatories on 22 April 2016 - signed by 195 and ratified by 143 countries by April 2017 - ratified by enough countries in October 2016 for the agreement to come into effect November 2016

Solar radiation management and climate change mitigation

Methods of solar radiation management (SRM) are currently only theoretical. They focus on increasing reflection of sunlight back into space and therefore reducing the amount of solar radiation absorbed by the Earth. For example: - increase the reflection from the Earth's surface by painting rooftops with white reflective paint growing plants with high reflectivity, for example genetically engineered crops or grasses with high albedo covering areas with reflective material, for instance covering deserts with reflective plastic sheets - use aerosols to increase the albedo effect; however, the effects of this are unknown, including the potential impacts on stratospheric ozone - enhance reflectivity of clouds by increasing particles that attract water molecules in the cloud - use solar deflectors in space to reduce sunlight reaching the Earth.

Reducing energy use as a way to reduce GHGs in the atmosphere

Modernised lifestyles consume large amount of fossil fuels. Just about everything that makes our lives comfortable and convenient uses electricity. Most of that electricity is produced through the combustion of fossil fuels (depending on where you live). Motorised transport, much of which is still powered by fossil fuels, is a way of life. Modern society is consumer-based: laptops, mobile phones, tablets and the other gadgets all require fossil fuels to be made and to be transported to the stores. Reducing energy consumption in any of these areas reduces the amount of fossil fuel used and that in turn reduces GHG emissions. The following strategies require government action to reduce energy use: - education campaigns on ways to reduce energy consumption; this is discussed in Civil society and corporate strategies - install recharging stations like that shown in Figure 1 so that people can make the choice to switch to electric cars - increase the use of renewable energy sources in electricity generation, making electric cars even more effective - introduce legislation for emission-control technologies on vehicles to reduce the level of GHG emissions, for example catalytic convertors.

Risk Perception options

None of these factors work in isolation: better knowledge does not always result is a more accurate risk perception. There is plenty of information available about global climate change and many people have a reasonable knowledge about the impacts, which they get from the media. However, if climate change has not affected a person in the past then their level of concern is likely to be lower than for someone who has suffered the impacts of extreme weather events, such as storms and flooding.

Coastal systems and low-lying areas and adaptation strategy

Planning guidance needs to consider the impacts of climate change. It may include incorporating the management of rising sea level and increased storm surges. This could involve: - a ban on new developments in low-lying coastal areas - building and reinforcing sea walls and coastal defences, such as groynes and beach-replenishment programmes which dissipate the energy of incoming waves, reducing their impact - preparing contingency plans for the event of a flood, for example having access to alternative water and food supplies and shelter for people who are made homeless - moving potentially dangerous facilities away from low-lying areas vulnerable to sea level rise or storm surges, such as nuclear power stations or stores of hazardous material - managed retreat, which allows coastal areas to become flooded; it may involve compensation and relocation of local residents. It has been predicted that the Carteret Islands off the coast of Papua New Guinea in the Pacific Ocean will be submerged by 2020. Its residents are being relocated to other areas such as Bougainville in Papua New Guinea.

Biomass (and biofuels) and climate change mitigation

Plants are the environment's natural way of removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Plants are part of the collective 'biomass', or the quantity or mass of living organisms on the planet. The process of photosynthesis uses carbon dioxide to make simple carbohydrates, thus removing it from the atmosphere. Plants are increasingly being grown to make fuel for modern vehicles that run on 'biofuel'. Removal of carbon dioxide is greatest during the growth phases of plants and this makes biofuel a 'carbon-neutral' fuel, meaning that the plants remove as much carbon dioxide from the atmosphere during growth as they release when they are burned as a fuel.

Risk Perception

Risk and how we perceive risk can be completely different. Risk perception is a subjective judgement that people make about a particular risk (its severity, possible impacts, etc.). How people view climate change will depend on factors such as: - Level of education/knowledge: if people have inadequate or incorrect information then they are likely to have an inaccurate perception of what the risks are. - Gender appears to have an impact on risk perception: females are more concerned about the impacts of climate change. The reasons for this are not agreed upon. - Culture is what gives us our system of beliefs and our worldview. This will impact the way we view risk. For example, a fatalistic worldview means we accept what is coming to us so risk becomes somewhat irrelevant. On the other hand, if we feel a sense of belonging and responsibility towards the planet and fellow human beings then concern will be elevated. - People have a set of simple 'rules of thumb' (basic guidelines) that they use to organise and prioritise information to make decisions. There are a number of factors within these 'rules' that affect risk perception as regards climate change: prior knowledge of the risks involved tends to come from the scientific community (and the media) and is often very remote from the individual; this lessens the fear that is felt and thus the perceived scale of the problem media coverage is very high and may raise the importance of the risks in people's minds; alternatively, it may be seen as hype and ignored as being 'blown out of proportion' immediate threat to the individual is often seen as being very low, or remote, so the risk is lessened and people adopt a wait-and-see approach predictability is notoriously poor and this fuels the wait-and-see approach figures of authority (scientists and politicians) are mistrusted.

Technology and climate change mitigation

Technology plays a major role in climate change mitigation. Sometimes it is in ways you would expect, but others are less expected: - Data for Climate Action is a UN innovation challenge to access data from different sources. The aim is to access data and identify new approaches to climate change mitigation and adaptation. - Mobile apps: there is a range of apps to help individuals monitor and reduce their impact on the planet. Apps such as Oroeco and GiveO2 allow individuals to track and reduce their carbon footprint. - Technology is responsible for improvements in renewable energy, especially in storage and transmission of the energy once it is harnessed. Better grids are being developed and they are having as much of an impact as advances in capture technology. - Changes in diet: technology is making meat substitutes far more palatable, with the hope of reducing the number of cattle and other farm animals kept. - Transport emissions are being reduced in a number of ways through technology: catalytic converters are reducing emissions alternative fuels such as biofuels are now being used in cars. It should be noted that technology is also playing a role in some of the other strategies discussed here.

The 2014 climate talks in New York

The 2014 climate talks in New York were unusual because civil society was represented by heads of business, finance, international organisations, scientists and NGOs. On 23 September 2014, 400,000 people joined the People's Climate March in New York with thousands of people joining parallel marches around the world. June 2015 saw the Pope publishing an official letter (an encyclical) on climate, which encouraged faith-based organisations to take action. Almost every other faith joined the call for action. In addition to action, academics consulted with governments and civil society organisations to gather support and consensus for the way forward. What came out of that was the following: - establishment of 5-yearly reviews which will make governments accountable to civil society for any shortfall in emissions reductions - the acknowledgement that mitigation and adaptation are equally important - the requirement that HICs must provide financial strategies in LICs.

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was set up by the United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) and World Meteorological Organization (WMO) in 1988. The aim of the IPCC is to provide a scientific view of the current knowledge and understanding of climate change and its impacts. The IPCC involves scientists and governments from across the world. Hence their work has wide ownership, which can help to influence national policies. This section has looked at the international frameworks within which mitigation and adaptation strategies can be developed. The following sections look at how these ideals can be achieved.

The set qoutas/caps for HICs by Kyoto Protocol

The Kyoto Protocol set quotas/caps for HICs, known as assigned amount units (AAUs). Each AAU allowed them to emit 1 metric tonne of carbon dioxide. The quota was set below what each country was expected to need, to make them reduce emissions. National government then set emission quotas for the organisations, industries and businesses that produce the carbon dioxide, referred to as operators.

Commitment of the Kyoto Protocol

The second commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol runs from 1 January 2013 to 2020 and is covered by the Doha Amendment. Under the Doha Amendment 38 countries are committed to reducing emissions by at least 18% of the 1990 levels. This amendment has yet to be accepted by a sufficient number of nations to come into force, although 70 developed and developing countries have committed to reducing or limiting GHG emissions. Notable countries not taking part include Russia, Japan and New Zealand.

Traditional stance of corporate bodies

The traditional stance of corporate bodies has been opposition to stronger climate policies. However, at the Paris climate talks that was seen to change. Many big corporations have begun to argue that stronger climate policies are in the best interests of all businesses. This may be driven by the facts that the impacts of climate change are becoming more apparent and that renewable energy sources are far more accessible and cost efficient than in the past.

vulnerability index

The vulnerability index has been calculated by Verisk Maplecroft since 2011 and it ranks the top 10 countries that have shown some changes. As can be seen in Table 1 Bangladesh has maintained the 'top' spot, the number of African countries in the top 10 has doubled, a large number of the countries are in Asia and none of them are MICs.

Vulnerability explanation

The vulnerability of an individual, community or nation will depend on the magnitude and rate of climate change. Vulnerability is dynamic and varies across time and space. It depends on cultural, demographic, economic, environmental, geographic, institutional, social and political factors. Of great relevance to reducing vulnerability is adaptive capacity: the ability to adjust to the actual or expected climatic variability and change. Adaptive capacity includes the ability to change behaviour plus access to and availability of resources and technology. Individuals, communities and nations must have the adaptive capacity for adaptation strategies to work. Adaptive capacity allows people to see and take advantage of the opportunities presented by climate change, such as longer growing seasons. In general terms, adaptive capacity relies on factors such as education and income but some of the large-scale adaptations necessary to cope with climate change are more dependent on institutions and technology.

Vulnerability explanation

The vulnerability of an individual, community or nation will depend on the magnitude and rate of climate change. Vulnerability is dynamic and varies across time and space. It depends on cultural, demographic, economic, environmental, geographic, institutional, social and political factors. Of great relevance to reducing vulnerability is adaptive capacity: the ability to adjust to the actual or expected climatic variability and change. Adaptive capacity includes the ability to change behaviour plus access to and availability of resources and technology. Individuals, communities and nations must have the adaptive capacity for adaptation strategies to work. Adaptive capacity allows people to see and take advantage of the opportunities presented by climate change, such as longer growing seasons. In general terms, adaptive capacity relies on factors such as education and income but some of the large-scale adaptations necessary to cope with climate change are more dependent on institutions and technology.

What are ways to improve the chances of Kyoto Protocol success

To improve the chances of meeting targets the protocol has three market-based mechanisms, creating a carbon market: 1. emission trading or cap-and-trade 2. joint implementation 3. Clean Development Mechanism.

Cap-and-trade system explained

Under the cap-and-trade system, if the operator has lower emissions than they are allocated they are free to trade them. If, however, the operator emits more carbon than is permitted according to its quota (cap) then it must purchase more credits or face heavy fines. In theory this is the cheapest way to reduce emissions. For example, an operator can reduce emissions by investing in cleaner machinery or by purchasing emissions credits from another operator.