5.2 Internal migration (within a country)

xplain how both distance and cost can influence internal migration.

3/2 or 2/3 split between distance and cost. Both act as friction to migration. distance - generally migration decreases with distance from the source as it takes longer, costs more and migrants know less about the area distance may not be uniform in its friction or there may be barriers e.g. sea v mountains cost - generally, as cost (of moving and/or re-locating) increases, migration decreases as migrants have limited funds and/or costs exceed the benefits of the move costs may vary with the pricing of the system of transport candidates may consider cost and distance together

Give one reason why the migration data shown in Fig. 2.1 may not be 2 accurate.

A number of valid reasons may be offered, falling in three broad areas: issues of data collection, e.g. survey access/methods, migrants are on the move, language issues issues of data processing, e.g. calculation errors, rounding, government 'fixing' the data, lack of comparability between countries migrants avoid being counted, e.g. to avoid taxation illegal (1 mark) so (2nd mark)

With the aid of examples, explain the advantages and disadvantages of 7 stepped migration for the migrant.

Advantages could include: Helps in building up knowledge of urban environments Accumulation of capital to fund next move Builds self confidence Creates more links and connections Remittances sent back to origin Less stressful than one 'big move' Takes longer to reach final destination May cost more as involves many moves Disrupts social life every time migrant moves More stress as always getting ready to move Never putting down roots

Assess the impacts of rural-urban migration on one or more urban 15 areas in LICs/MICs.

Any impacts are valid, such as negative and positive; short-term and longer- term; and demographic, social/cultural, economic, environmental and political. Related syllabus content includes: urban growth competition for space (spatial competition) a shanty town (squatter settlement)

Describe three ways in which urban areas in LICs/MICs are changing 7 as a result of rural-urban migration.

Description of changes to the urban areas may include: increased competition for land overcrowding of existing housing/transport creation of shanty towns (squatter settlements) pressure on utility services unemployment increased crime health issues congestion pollution other

Explain the impact of rural-urban migration on population structures of 8 LICs/MICs for both source and receiving/destination areas.

Indicative content Rural-urban migration tends to involve single, educated, males initially so: source areas lose young working age males so structures tend to be ageing with fewer births and more females destination areas gain younger working age males so structures have low dependency rates and tend to be youthful but often with low birth rates with time these initial groups may move their families into destination areas which could increase the young dependency ratio.

'The impact of the migration of a population into an area is always negative for the receiving/destination area.'

Indicative: In-migration can be negative for the receiving/destination area depending on the volume and characteristics (e.g. young or old) of the migrants Economic - strain on services, jobs, housing, food supply etc. Demographic - higher BR, sex imbalance Social - unrest, friction with locals Cultural - differences in religion, diet etc. Political - may change local voting patterns In-migration often involves the young, better educated, healthy or wealthy population so can have a positive economic, social and cultural impact

'The impact of the migration of a population from an area is always negative for the source area.'

Indicative: Out-migration often involves the young, better educated, healthy population. Negatives could include: demographic e.g. ageing population, social e.g. limited education, economic e.g. lack of labour, but: Out-migration can be a positive for the source area if it is originally over- populated or if the characteristics of the out-migrants is to the areas advantage e.g. loss of ageing retirees Award marks based on the quality of the response using the marking levels

With the aid of examples, explain the role of push factors in urban‒rural 8 migration

Inner city decline Urban renewal schemes displacing population Traffic congestion Poor environmental quality Loss of employment Low quality housing Crime rates High land values Lack of public and private open space Lack of community Political Increase in home working Other

Describe the process of intra-urban migration.

Intra-urban migration is permanent movement (1) within the same urban area (1) for at least one year (1).

Assess the extent to which issues in rural settlements in LICs/MICs are 15 the result of internal migration.

Issues in rural settlements in LICs/MICs may include: Depopulation or increased population Service provision Employment issues Ageing population and other demographic changes Transport Education opportunity Land tenure Other

Explain how rural-urban migration can have negative impacts on rural 5 source areas.

Key ideas include: break-up of marriages and families (social and personal cost) loss of young working adults reduces food production imbalance in population structure (aged + youth remain) abandoned houses and fields dependency on remittances (disincentive to work) some migrants never return other

Explain how international migration can have negative impacts on 5 receiving/destination areas.

Key ideas include: changes to employment market loss of money from the economy due to remittances can expose racism in the destination population leading to discrimination breakdown of culture and tradition pressure on housing/health/education sectors social segregation disease crime/violence/unrest economic costs of providing for refugees other

Explain how international migration can have positive impacts on 5 receiving/destination areas.

Key ideas include: increase in labour supply skills shortages eased increased productivity through specialisation increase in entrepreneurs/enhanced innovation contributors to tax revenue diversification of retail and other services cultural and social benefits higher BR/more youthful population other

Outline how push factors and pull factors cause rural-urban migration 6 in LICs/MICs.

Key ideas include: push factors stimulate out-migration from rural areas pull factors stimulate in-migration to urban areas push factors and pull factors interact/combine The factors operate in all dimensions, for example: demographic, e.g. population pressure (push), higher life expectancy (pull) social, e.g. family disputes (push), family in urban area (pull) economic, e.g. poverty or job loss (push), betterment and employment prospects (pull) environmental, e.g. hazards (push), clean water supply (pull) political, e.g. conflict (push), relative safety/stability (pull)

Volume

Low High

Frequency

Low In bursts

Gender balance

More males Mix/variety

Suggest why Mexico is a large source of migrants into the USA.

Next door to USA - shorter distance than anywhere else Significant difference in standard of living between the two countries Many Mexicans have already migrated to the USA, so a lot of chain migration Long porous border - difficult to police Much of SW USA has a Mexican (Hispanic) culture and language Lots of low skilled jobs available for 'cheap' labour Chance to send remittances home Safety and political stability Also accept relevant push and pull factors

Transport

Often by air and sea Often walk

With the aid of examples, explain why intra-urban migration (within an 8 urban settlement) has increased in many cities in LICs/MICs.

Reasons could include: Increased urban populations Increased incomes so people can afford to move Residential segregation has increased Industrial estates etc. have been set up often at distance to residential areas (people move nearer to their place of work) Increased range of educational opportunities (people move near to them) Improved public and private transport Stricter planning controls leading to land use zoning/urban renewal etc. Increased recreational and entertainment opportunities

intra-urban

Reasons could include: Increased urban populations Increased incomes so people can afford to move Residential segregation has increased Industrial estates etc. have been set up often at distance to residential areas (people move nearer to their place of work) Increased range of educational opportunities (people move near to them) Improved public and private transport Stricter planning controls leading to land use zoning/urban renewal etc. Increased recreational and entertainment opportunities

Suggest two reasons for urban‒urban migration.

Reasons may be related to a range of factors: Employment Education Promotion/development of skills Housing Environmental issues Transport Political Social/family Other

Structure

Single person Families

Describe the process of stepped migration. 3

Stepped migration is a process which occurs in distinct stages (1) where a migrant initially heads for a small town and then after a period of time moves on to a large settlement (1), over many years taking a number of steps up the urban hierarchy (1). This usually occurs in rural to urban migration (1

With the aid of examples, explain why the level of internal migration has 8 increased in many LICs/MICs.

The LIC/MIC context suggests rapidly urbanising and industrialising countries, so level of migration has increased due to: Greater disparities in wealth between areas e.g. rural vs urban or core vs periphery Increased opportunities in cities - tertiary jobs Decreased satisfaction with rural life Improvement in transport - both private and public Increased education - opened up new horizons and ambitions Growth of media so more people know of other opportunities elsewhere Government policy - tends to focus its limited investment Increased employment of women More barriers to international migration Climate change e.g. more droughts/floods

Describe the impacts on population characteristics of urban areas 7 caused by urban-rural migration.

Urban‒rural migrants might be retirees and/or working age people. The former would reduce numbers in the post-60 (or slightly earlier age groups), whilst the latter would reduce numbers in the age groups from approximately 30 to 45 related to out-migration of families and might also reduce the lower age groups as young children go with the parents. The impacts on socio-economic characteristics of both of the above would be a concentration of lower income and less well educated/qualified or skilled people. It is reasonable for candidates to describe the characteristics of the people migrating in order to develop the general description of the characteristics of the population which remains in the urban area.

Explain why population has moved out of the inner areas of cities in 6 HICs

easons could include:Pushes from the inner areas such as • High cost of rents / rates / land in CBD• Traffic congestion making deliveries difficult• High cost of (and competition for) labour so jobs move out • Inner area redevelopment (at lower density)• Fear of crime/violence Pulls from other areas such as Cheaper housing Larger houses with gardens Larger sites at lower costs, so industry/retail can expand Easier transport/access and parking Development of private/state housing developments

Describe how obstacles, barriers and distance may influence the volume of internal migration.

escription should include a clear relationship between each aspect and the volume of migration: migration volume tends to decrease with distance from source - most is local natural obstacles and barriers e.g. rivers, mountains, tend to reduce volume or funnel migration along particular routes the influence of some obstacles/barriers may vary with the nature of the migrant or level of development/technology of the area obstacles and barriers placed by authorities e.g. quotas, qualifications/ skills areas, age constraints.

'Internal migration in many HICs has created urban areas with empty 15 cores.' With the aid of examples, to what extent do you agree with thisview?

internal migration in HICs has created urban areas with empty cores. Response has good contextual understanding of the type/scale of central area changes and makes clear links between the cause and effect. Examples used are appropriate and integrated effectively into the response. Response is well founded in detailed knowledge and strong conceptual understanding of the topic.

With the aid of examples, describe two intra-urban migrations (within 7 urban settlements).

location (source area(s) and receiving/destination area(s)); direction(s); scale; who the migrants are, e.g. age, gender, life cycle, socio-economic status; importance or significance, timing; other. For example, inward movement of people from peripheral areas such as suburbs into the CBD and/or inner urban area. This mainly occurs in HICs at a late stage in the urbanisation cycle. The migrants are often young single professional people or couples, although some older people also move in. Equally the reverse is true for older groups. For example, betterment moves/change of residence, e.g. from shanty town to high density low income area, or from smaller houses in the inner suburbs/inner city to larger family homes further out.

Explain the impact of rural-urban migration on the provision of services in rural areas.

loss of population age and/or gender selectivity of rural to urban migration loss of customers for rural services leads to closure or less frequent services harder to improve basic services in rural areas as investment focuses on urban areas to cope with the increase in numbers remittances from migrants supports provision of services in rural areas loss of workforce leads to younger family members having to engage in economic activities and therefore leaving school other

What is intra-urban migration ?

migration is within an urban area and results from an increased need for people to move for activities - i.e. functions are increasingly separated geographically.

Describe how net migration and natural increase influence the net 4 change of population shown in Fig. 2.1.

net change remains positive from 1990-2019 as net migration is greater than natural increase after 2019 net change is negative because natural increase is negative and outweighs the positive impact of net migration net change moves from positive to negative in 2020-2039 as net migration is not enough to counteract the negative natural increase

migration

population movement for one year or more (1)

Explain why migration into and out of some rural settlements can occur at the same time.

push and pull approach different groups do the moving e.g. old move in to retire but young move out to find further education or jobs improved transport allows both in and out migration changes in employment structure in rural areas e.g. loss of jobs in primary but gains in tertiary e.g. tourism internet allows more flexible working so locate where other factors have greater influence e.g. entertainment or scenery house prices - increases attract wealthy older migrants but force out younger less well off planning controls e.g. National Parks - limit housing development but encourage economic development government policies

Explain how forced internal migration may have negative impacts on 4 receiving/destination areas.

the speed of the event and inability to carry sufficient possessions to support themselves in the receiving/destination area; the numbers involved, etc. Alternately or as well, explanation may be related to the impacts such as: economic issues - demands on finance and resources for medical care for injuries or trauma, or finance for basic items such as food, water, shelter, etc.; social issues, e.g. religious or cultural differences; or environmental issues such as waste disposal, loss of land, etc.

Suggest two reasons why the data collected about remittances shown 2 in Fig. 2.1 may not have been accurate.

unwillingness to disclose financial information inaccurate recall not wanting to appear poor / affluent access issues / missing migrants or households literacy or education issues language issues fear

Explain why people migrate within urban settlements (intra-urban movements).

Candidates may consider the various economic, social, cultural, environmental and political push and pull forces at work whilst noting there are relatively few barriers to such movements. An alternative approach might be to consider the life cycle model of intra-urban migration such that changing family circumstances, age, etc., lead to typical inward or outward movements within the urban settlement. Higher level responses may go beyond this to suggest the roles of opportunity costs (as in the intervening opportunity model) and other types of economic factors such as transport, employment. Award marks based on the quality of explanation and breadth of the response using the marking levels below. Level 3 (6-8 marks) Response outlines in detail a range of explanatory factors and makes clear links to how they result in intra-urban migration. Response is well founded in detailed knowledge and strong conceptual understanding of the topic. Any examples used are appropriate and integrated effectively into the response. Level 2 (3-5 marks) Response offers some explanatory factors and makes some links to how they result in intra-urban migration. Response develops on a largely secure base of knowledge and understanding. Examples may lack detail or development.

Explain why pull factors in internal migration are often perceived rather than real.

Candidates may discuss: 'streets paved with gold' expectations - hopes and dreams availability of information - distortion by the media or even governments social distance so information and feedback gets distorted contacts at destination may exaggerate time lag in information so it is out of date push factors are so great that migrants don't care - 'can't be worse' idea.

With the aid of examples, explain the role of push factors in rural-urban 8 migration.

Candidates may include demographic, social, economic, environmental or political push factors: demographic, e.g. lack of marriage partners, overpopulation, high death rate social, e.g. lack of educational opportunities, tradition and cultural issues, inheritance laws economic, e.g. employment issues such as seasonality, diversity of opportunity, low wage rates, agricultural change environmental, e.g. natural disaster, famine political, e.g. neglect/priorities by government over investment in services, security issues, war other

Describe the impacts of rural-urban migration on rural areas.

Candidates may include impacts on: population structure such as increased age dependency, imbalanced gender structure, etc. social such as issues for family structure, loss of schooling as children take on adult roles, etc. economic such as remittances, loss of labour force, skills shortage, decline in agricultural production, etc. environmental such as abandonment of agricultural land political such as neglect of rural areas, voting patterns other

comparison of chained and stepped

Chain migration involves a group whilst stepped migration is more individual or family unit Stepped migration generally is a longer-term process than chain migration Chain migration involves feedback, stepped migration does not Stepped migration moves up the hierarchy whilst chain migration may not

With the aid of examples, evaluate the extent to which improvements 15 in transport and communications may make rural settlements moreattractive for urban-rural migrants.

Communication includes both transport and other forms such as television and IT. Indicative content Role of transport and communications: improved road/rail transport has reduced friction of distance and time taken - rural areas less remote for services, etc. increased use of IT means people can work at a distance television and other media can give an attractive image of rural life

Explain why improvements in communications in an area may increase the rate of internal migration.

Communications can include transport, telecommunications, IT, etc. Indicative: Reduces the friction of distance Reduces travel costs (in time/effort) Supplies more information on destinations to better inform choices Greater feedback from existing migrants; promotes chain migration Enables migrants to keep in touch with friends and family

With the aid of examples, describe how the age of migrants may 7 impact on the population structure of a receiving/destination area

Content may include: Migration of young adults increases the working age groups from 15 to the early 40s May increase young dependents if these migrants have children or decrease them if single and childless Migration for retirement influences the ages over 55, equally at first There may be more female than male migrants (or vice versa) emphasising the asymmetry of gender in the older age groups Very much depends on the nature and characteristics of migrants and the existing population structure Oth

Contrast the features of urban-rural migration with the features of rural-urban migration in HICs.

Contrasts could include: direction of migration/movement - urban-rural is more diverse than rural-urban type of migrant - urban-rural tend to be older migrants and rural-urban younger often single volume - HICs tend to have greater urban-rural compared to rural- urban duration - often rural-urban is shorter term than urban-rural differences in push/pull factors e.g. employment fuels rural-urban and desire for more pleasant environment fuels urban-rural

Suggest two reasons why there were less young international migrants 3 (34 years and under) in HICs than in LICs.

Costs of migration mean only older can afford to migrate in HICs More are in full time education in HICs Migration is stronger in other groups, e.g. older for retirement in HICs but these are weaker in LICs as often ill or infirm More young people in LICs have the motivation to migrate to better their situation - HIC young people are more content / inert Political controls over movement - e.g. visas

With the aid of examples, explain why people migrate between urban settlements (urban-urban movements).

Economic, e.g. job change / promotion Social, e.g. to get married, get better services / facilities such as education Environmental, e.g. less pollution, more open spaces Cultural, e.g. to be with similar groups (age / ethnicity / orientation) Political, e.g. to reduce taxation, increased security

'Urban‒rural migration has a greater impact than rural‒urban migration 15 on the receiving/destination areas.'

Environmental, e.g. pollution of air, land or water; congestion, etc. Social, e.g. impact on population characteristics, quality of life, segregation, etc. Economic, e.g. labour market, services, land values, housing market, etc. Other

Distance

Flexible Short - usually nearest safe haven

With the aid of examples, explain why the level of internal migration 8 has increased in many HICs.

Greater disparities in wealth between areas e.g. rural vs urban or core vs periphery Increased opportunities in rural areas or cities Increased separation of work and home locations Decreased satisfaction with rural or urban life Improvement in transport - both private and public Can now work from home (IT) Increased education - opened up new horizons and ambitions Growth of media so more people know of other opportunities elsewhere Government policy - tends to encourage counterurbanisation

Give two reasons why intra-urban migration may increase as a country 4 develops.

Greater variation of the location of urban functions as country develops - so people move for employment Improvement in transport means workers can live away from their place of employment Increased wealth so people change residential type/area Greater media/information sources inform population of more options within the urbanarea Governments undertake land use zoning, redevelopment, etc., which cause people to move

Destination

HICs - usually cities Anywhere that is safe

'It is the number of refugees that causes the greatest problem for receiving/destination areas.' With the aid of examples, how far do you agree?

Indicative content Generally it is the large numbers of refugees that cause a range of environmental, economic, social and political problems for the receiving/destination area. Other factors that could be discussed include: the characteristics of the refugees in comparison with the destination population's characteristics - age, sex, education, ethnicity, culture, wealth, etc. the level of knowledge/perception by the refugee of the destination and the perception of the refugees by the destination population the ability of the destination area to respond - reflecting its resources, technology, space, political will, etc. the time span - given sufficient time span the destination area might cope political attitudes in the destination area

With the aid of examples, how far do you agree that it is the number of 15 rural-urban migrants that cause the greatest problem forreceiving/destination areas?

Indicative content Generally it is the large numbers of rural-urban migrants that cause a range of environmental, economic, social and political problems for the receiving/destination area. Other factors that could be discussed include: the characteristics of the migrant - age, sex, education, ethnicity, culture, wealth, etc. the level of knowledge/perception by the migrant of the destination the ability of the urban area to respond - reflecting its resources, technology, space, political will, etc. the time span - given sufficient time span the urban area might cope the level of urban-rural migration - this could offset some of the gain in population

With the aid of examples, describe two intra-urban migrations (within 7 urban settlements)

The command word is 'describe' so explanation is not required and should not be credited. The description may comprise some of the following: location (source area(s) and receiving/destination area(s)); direction(s); scale; who the migrants are, e.g. age, gender, life cycle, socio-economic status; importance or significance, timing; other. For example, inward movement of people from peripheral areas such as suburbs into the CBD and/or inner urban area. This mainly occurs in HICs at a late stage in the urbanisation cycle. The migrants are often young single professional people or couples, although some older people also move in. Equally the reverse is true for older groups. For example, betterment moves/change of residence, e.g. from shanty town to high density low income area, or from smaller houses in the inner suburbs/inner city to larger family homes further out.

With the aid of examples, assess the extent to which refugee flows impact more on receiving/destination areas in LICs/MICs than on receiving/destination areas in HICs.

The impacts of refugees depend on several factors such as: Volume of refugees Characteristics of refugees Culture of refugees compared to that of receiving/destination area Wealth of receiving/destination area Resources of the receiving/destination area History of previous refugee flows to receiving/destination area Environment of the reception area Political stance of receiving government

Explain the causes of urban-urban migration.

The migrant gains money, experience, or skills in one place Job prospects including higher pay, better conditions, promotion, etc. Social factors such as increased service accessibility, education, entertainment, or other cultural factors Environmental issues Political Other

Define the process of urban‒urban migration.

The movement of people (1) from one town or city to another town or city (1) for more than one year (1)

'Residential segregation is the main impact of intra-urban population 15 movements.'

With the aid of examples, to what extent do you agree with this view? Candidates are free to develop their own approach to the question and responses will vary depending on the approach chosen. Whichever approach is chosen, essays which address the question and support their argument with relevant examples will be credited. There may be detailed consideration of a case study/one or more examples, or a broadly conceived response, drawing on several examples to illustrate the factors involved. Intra-urban movements (within the same urban area) often lead to separation of the urban population by age (life cycle notion), mobility, income, ethnicity, culture and socio-economic status. Like often attracts like due to similar needs/wants or security or discrimination. Movements enable this 'sorting effect'. But is it the main impact? Economic, social/cultural and political impacts may be more important. Higher level responses may recognise that impacts may vary with time/development, with location, for different groups and the exact scale and nature of the urban area (and the perception of them by the individual moving). Some may even distinguish between separation and segregation. Award marks based on the quality of the response using the marking levels below. Level 4 (12-15 marks) Response thoroughly discusses whether the main impact of intra-urban movements is to create residential segregation. Response has good contextual understanding of the causes of migration. Examples used are appropriate and integrated effectively into the response. Response is well founded in detailed knowledge and strong conceptual understanding of the topic. Level 3 (8-11 marks) Response discusses some of the impacts of intra-urban movements including its creation of residential segregation but may be unbalanced. Examples may lack detail or develo

Duration

Years or may be permanent Most are short-term until peace returns

Age

Young All ages

Explain why a person's age may influence intra-urban migration.

Young families move to find larger houses with gardens School age children are often moved to find the best school catchments Young adults move to find entertainment or further education Young workers move to be near their work Older workers can afford to move to larger houses and commute Elderly often move to be near medical facilities or more peacefulareas

Explain why the rate of rural-urban migration often varies with the age 4 of the migrant in LICs/MICs.

Young keen to move into urban areas for: education, employment, entertainment + urban area is seen as more dynamic. Middle aged - may move out of rural area as want better opportunities for their children or to get promotion, etc. Old - unlikely to leave rural area for urban as inert, high cost of moving, like rural environment, friends in area. Many elderly retire to their village roots in LICs. Old move to urban for health reasons - more care/support.

forced (involuntary)

compelled, e.g. by political instability or conflict, by hazardous event, by catastrophe, e.g. famine, not through choice (1)

With the aid of examples, assess the extent to which the characteristics of internal migration change as a country develops.

demographics: age, sex economic: income, wealth, occupation social: education, marital status, socio-economic group, ethnicity and/or the nature of the migration direction of movement: rural-urban vs urban-rural, intra-urban type of movement: seasonal, stepped, circulation different motivations of the migration such as security vs economic different/fewer obstacles to the migration. Candidates may discuss the characteristics of countries as they develop which facilitate internal migration: improved transport and media (increased knowledge of other areas) greater mobility of labour due to increased economic development - industrialisation impact of education allowing social mobility greater political control so easier and safer to move higher incomes so can afford to move.