A&P Final Exam Study Guide

calcaneal

heel

popliteal

hollow behind the knee

Pleural cavities

they house the lungs and are associated with the ribs. Each lung is covered by visceral pleura and is surrounded by a pleural cavity. (Parietal pleura line the inner surface of the thoracic wall, the outer surface of the parietal pericardium, and the superior surface of the diaphragm. The pleural cavity lies between the visceral pleura and the parietal pleura and contains pleural fluid)

Dermis facts

thicker than epidermis Rich in blood cells Pain nerves here Sebaceous glands here Hair and follicle(pot and plant) anchored and fed blood here Arteries for body temp. Sweat glands start here Sub Q layer of fat.

Stratum corneum

thickest layer All dead cells surrounded by lipids. They flake off when desmosomes fall apart cells are stuffed with keratin, glued together by desmosomes, and repel water

Epidermis facts

thinner than the dermis has no nervous input NO BLOOD SUPPLY Basement membrane between this layer and the dermis.

Stratum lucidum

this layer is not formed anywhere than feet, toes, palm

What does "crine" mean? (compare and contrast exocrine, endocrine, paracrine).

this means secretion of something(from some kind of gland) Exocrine: glands that produce and secrete substances onto an epithelial surface by way of a duct. Ex:sweat, salivary, mammary, ceruminous, lacrimal, sebaceous, and mucous. Endocrine: secretes hormones directly into the bloodstream without the use of a duct or a tube. Ex: pituitary gland, thyroid, thymus, adrenal, pancreas, gonads. Paracrine:

Superior mediastinum

thymus, blood vessels of the heart, and the trachea are in this cavity.

anterior

ventral

Keratin

water cannot pass through it (hydrophobic protein) gives cells more mechanical firmness lack of pliability in rough areas stratified squamous epithelial cells at the top sometimes have mucous membranes(this is soft keratin)

orthogonal

perpendicular

pelvic cavity

where the urinary bladder, part of the large intestine, and the internal reproductive organs are housed.

cephalic(superior)

closer to the head than another structure

proximal

closer to the point of attachment to the body than another structure

caudal(inferior)

closer to the tail than another structure

abdominal cavity

contains the stomach, intestines, liver, spleen, pancreas, and kidneys.

Mediastinum

divides the right and left parts of the the thoracic cavity. Medial to the pleural cavity. It contains the heart, thymus, trachea, esophagus, and other structures such as blood vessels and nerves.

posterior

dorsal

orbital

eye

distal

farther from the point of attachment to the body than another structure

pedal

foot

antebrachial

forearm

antecubital

front of the elbow when supinated

inguinal

groin

manus/manual

hand

pacinian corpuscle

has nerve fibers that go to the center of the corpuscle. Helps to innervate the Dermis. Is a deep pressure receptor(an onion-like structure) Major sensor for vibration

coxal

hip

electrolytes and respiration

ion in the bloodstream or any kind of bodily fluid. Includes H3O+ Na+ K+ Cl- Ca2+ Fe3+ (Hemoglobin) Fe2+ Mg2+ (PO4)3- CO2 waste product, regulates pH of the blood

crural

leg

PNS

peripheral nervous system Carries information about the different tissues of the body to the CNS Carries commands from CNS that alter body actions

Anatomical position

refers to a person standing erect with the face directed forward, the upper limbs hanging to the sides, and the palms of the hand facing forward.

thoracic cavity

rib cage surrounds this, and a muscular diaphragm separates it from the abdominal cavity. It also contains three serous membrane-lined cavities: the pericardial, and two pleural cavities)

sural

calf

dorsum

top of foot

What are the four components of negative feedback and how do these components affect one another?

1. Variable(pH, Temp.) 2. Receptor(Thermometer/nerve endings)-measures and collects information about a specific variable. 3. Controller(thermostat/brain)- thermometer is wired to the thermostat to communicate. Controller sends impulse to the brain- Air conditioner is a muscle. 4. Effector (air conditioner)- cells in hypothalamus send signals to an effector, tells your body to vasodilate and release heat through sweat.

Know the three classes of burns and their relative degree of severity.

A burn is injury to a tissue caused by heat, cold, friction, chemicals, electricity, or radiation. FIRST DEGREE > weak burn > involves Epidermis only > may result in redness, pain, edema > can be caused by sunburn or a hot pan > heals in a week w/o scars SECOND DEGREE > damages the Epidermis and Dermis > May cause redness, pain, edema, and blisters > holding onto a hot pan > heals in ~2 weeks w/ no scar > if the burn goes into the deep into the dermis, it could take several months to heal and will scar. THIRD DEGREE > worst burn ever > epidermis and dermis are completely destroyed and deeper tissues may be involved. > often surrounded by first and second degree burns > regions with 3rd degree burns are painless because the sensory receptors have been destroyed. > skin grafts may be necessary

What is a ganglion? Are ganglia and nerves intrinsically PNS or CNS structures?

A structure containing a number of nerve cell bodies, typically linked by synapses, and often forming a swelling on a nerve fiber. PNS: 12 pairs of cranial nerves, 31 pairs of spinal cord nerves. Ganglia on everything outside of the spinal column and brain Ganglion are OUTSIDE the central nervous system.

mental

chin

Understand how anatomy and physiology are different subjects but are joined at the hip.

Anatomy is the study of the body's structures.(FORM) Physiology study of processes or functions of living things.. (FUNCTION) You cannot understand function without form and vice versa. A certain form facilitates its function. Its function is facilitated by its form.

What is the relationship between homeostasis and negative feedback?

Anything in the blood must be strictly regulated within narrow limits. Negative feedback are the control mechanisms that regulate homeostasis.

What are examples of variables mentioned in class that are homeostatically regulated?

Body Temperature Must stay near 98.6 degrees F Or 37 degrees Celsius pH of the blood CO2 will build up in your bloodstream if you stop breathing. Blood glucose Insulin tells the cells its time to collect glucose from the blood. Liver can make glucose out of amino acids.

Gas exchange equation

CO2 + H2O <=> (H3O)+ + (HCO3)- Hyperventilation= CO2 shortage, breathing in a bag keeps you breathing in your own CO2

For basic functions, you must know and explain how some related systems compare and contrast. Name some examples.

Cardiovascular and Respiratory systems(Gas exchange and removal of wastes) Cardiovascular and Lymphatic(pump to bring O2 and remove CO2/no pump, cleans up interstitial fluid through subclavian duct into subclavian veins.)

How are the cardiovascular system and the respiratory system "joined at the hip"?

Cardiovascular means heart and veins, but in order to spread oxygen and remove nitrogenous wastes/CO2 from the blood, you have to use the lungs. Blood pumps out from the heart to the lungs that are breathing in, all the way down to the smallest alveolus where gas exchange can occur. Oxygen enters the alveolus and CO2(and assorted gases) leaves through that into the lungs. The waste is then expelled as you breath out. The lungs cannot function without blood flow reaching it, and the cardiovascular system cannot function effectively if it is not spreading the nutrients and gases we need to the body.

How do the lymphatic system and cardiovascular system compare in terms of circulating fluid (what type of fluid)? Is this circulation directly under the direction of a pump?

Cardiovascular system transports blood, nutrients, blood gases, and waste through the body in arteries and veins. CV pump is the heart and has immense pressure. Lymphatic system transports fats, regulates fluid balance in interstitial fluid, and produces an immune response. LV system has no pump, moves unidirectionally and has gates to keep fluid from moving backwards. Lymph flows out from the Subclavian duct, into the lymphatic system, gets cleaned and pushed around, then out of the Subclavian vein at the clavicle back into the bloodstream.

Which systems above all others enforce and maintain regulation of the other systems?

Endocrine(Hormone control) Nervous System

Compare cells making up the nails with those making up hair and epidermis along the following lines: ( 1 )layer or zone of cell division, ( 2 )degree of pigmentation or lack thereof, ( 3 )degree or type of keratinization.

EPIDERMIS (1) Stratum Basale-mitotic divisions every 19 days. (2) Melanocytes in Basale and Spinosum. Very pigmented, doesn't depend on number of melanocytes, but rather the amount of melanin they produce. (3) Soft Keratin in the skin. HAIR (1) Matrix is a mass of undifferentiated epithelial cells within the hair bulb. (2) Melanocytes within the hair bulb matrix produce melanin and pass it to keratinocytes in the hair cortex and medulla. (3) The cells of the cortex that surrounds the medulla and forms the bulk of the hair contains hard keratin. NAILS (1) The nail matrix and bed are composed of epithelial tissue and stratum basale that gives rise to cells that form the nail. The nail matrix is thicker than the nail bed and produces more cells. (2)The nail does not have pigmentation at all. It is pink because you can see the blood vessels underneath slightly. (3) Consists of layers of dead stratum corneum cells that contain a very hard type of keratin.

How does the dermis and epidermis compare in terms of vascularization, innervation, and thickness?

Epidermis=thin compared to dermis. Non-vascularized of innervated besides merkel cells and Langerhan's cells. Dermis=thick layers Highly vascularized. Highly innervated,

Define tissues. (4 major ones)

Epithelial covers and protects surfaces on inside and outside of body. Connective differs from the other three tissue types in that it consists of cells separated from each other by an abundant extracellular matrix. Muscle it contracts with a force and is responsible for movement. Nervous found in brain, spinal cord, and nerves and is characterized by the ability to conduct action potentials.

What system(s) eliminates wastes? Which absorbs nutrients?

Excretory Digestive

How does gross anatomy differ from histology? Be able to define each.

Gross (german for BIG) anatomy is the anatomy of large body structures, what can be discerned by the naked eye. i.e. an arm, an eye, a kidney. Histology is the study of individual tissues, which requires microscopes.

What is a major function of hair in humans (hint: relationship with the nervous system)?

Hair can help detect outside stimuli. The nerves by hair can detect movement from the arrector pilli muscles as well as movement from the hair.

How does positive feedback differ from negative feedback in how it works and its purpose?

Homeostasis is enforced by negative feedback and positive feedback is for some major event that needs working up.

Review the names and numbers of the cranial nerves. Don't worry about foramina.

I. Olfactory(Sensory) II. Optic(Sensory) III. Oculomotor(Somatic Motor and Parasympathetic) IV. Trochlear(Somatic Motor) V. Trigeminal(Somatic motor and sensory) V1 Opthalmic V2 Maxillary V3 Mandibular VI. Abducens(Somatic motor) VII. Facial(Somatic motor, Sensory, and Parasympathetic) VIII. Vestibulochoclear(Sensory) IX. Glossopharyngeal(Somatic motor, Sensory, and Parasympathetic) X. Vagus(Somatic motor, Sensory, and Parasympathetic) XI. Accessory(Somatic motor) XII. Hypoglossal(Somatic motor)

Define positive feedback.

In short, as the body releases a hormone or determines that something needs to come out of the body fast, positive feedback occurs. It is used for major events that require being worked up. For example, during childbirth a woman's brain puts out the hormone Oxytocin when the baby stretches the walls of the uterus. The oxytocin molecules bind to the uterus which makes it contract which causes more pressure and the brain sends more oxytocin. This loop continues and becomes so intense that you give birth through contractions. Once the stretch stimulus is "removed", the variable is now terminated and no more oxytocin is sent down the line.

What underappreciated system is composed of one huge organ and its associated structures?

Integumentary system.

How are keratinized hair cells similar yet different from cells of the epidermis?

Keratinized cells make up the majority of the epidermis but not all of it.

What is the main cell type of the epidermis?

Keratinocytes are the majority. Other types include Melanocytes, Langerhans cells, and Merkel cells.

Abdomen Regions (L->R)

Left Hypochondriac Epigastric Right Hypochondriac Left Lumbar Umbilical Right Lumbar Left Iliac Hypogastric Right Iliac

What are the main functions and main locations of: Merkel cells, dendritic cells, and melanosomes?

Merkel Cells: specialized epidermal cells associated with the nerve endings responsible for detecting light touch and superficial pressure. (think bug on your skin) Located in Stratum Basale to Dermis Langerhan's cells: modified white blood cells from bone marrow. It is like a macrophage and can be called Dendritic cells. They kill bad cells, wear their carcass like a hat, travel to a lymph node, gather troops, come back and destroy. Located in stratum spinosum.(that's its patrol route) Melanosomes: melanin is packaged into vesicles called melanosomes which move into the cell processes of melanocytes. (so basically vesicles produced by melanocytes, and eaten and used by keratinocytes)

How do we compare with most other mammals with with respect to distribution and thickness of our terminal hair?

Most animals have terminal hair all over our bodies. Humans usually only have terminal hair on their scalp, arms, legs, and pubic/axillary regions.

Which systems (hint: tension generator and scaffolding) are partnered in executing movement?

Muscular and Skeletal System

Why is it called negative feedback?

Negative feedback is just resisting changes and bringing everything back to the set point.

Is the epidermis innervated? Is it vascularized?

Not vascularized. Not innervated.

Define an organ and an organ system.

Organ: composed of two or more tissue types that form a discrete structure and perform one or more common functions. Organ System: group of organs that together perform a common function or set of functions and are therefore viewed as a unit Organism: Us

What two types of tissue make up the dermis, what is their relative location and thicknesses?

Papillary layer=dermal papillae made of areolar connective tissue, elastin, and collagen Reticular layer(80%)=made of dense irregular connective tissue, high density collagen fibers, and lots of elastin. Not made of reticular fibers

What is the role of pigment? What is the role of keratin?

Pigmentation is due to melanocytes. Everyone has the same density of these melanocytes, the pigment only gets darker with how much melanin is produced. Melanin is a polymer of an amino acid called tyrosines. Keratin hardens everything and caused it to die.

Integumentary system Functions

Protection 1. mechanical-physical barrier to bacteria 2. chemical-skin has ways to kill bacteria 3. biological-border patrol, cells will migrate to attack whatever breaks through. Homeostasis -keeps water inside and maintains water levels -thermal protection, cooperates with blood stream, sweat glands, and circulatory system. Secretion -sweat cools you, acidic bacteria hate sweat -oil-proteins in the oils have antibiotic properties to kill bacteria, they also lubricate the dead skin cells on the surface -hormones-endocrine system, skin helps with Vitamin D Sensory -partnership with the nervous system -temperature, pain, touch, vibration are detected, and heat

Define regional anatomy, gross anatomy, and know why the course you have taken is called INTEGRATIVE Human anatomy and physiology.

Regional: body is studied area by area (head, abdomen, arm) Gross: structures you can examine without a microscope. Integrative: serving or intending to unify separate things. Both anatomy and physiology are considered/studied in conjunction with each other in this course.

Which system(s) most directly impacts pH?... through what ion? Does this regulation affect other ions?

Respiratory. CO2 molecules make the blood more acidic.

Know the body planes and the name of a section made by a body plane.

Sagittal=how an arrow would split a person if it passed anteriorly to posteriorly. Median=sagittal plane that passes through the midline of the body Transverse(horizontal)=runs parallel to the ground, divides the body into superior and inferior portions Coronal(frontal)=runs vertically to divide the body into anterior and posterior parts.

What is an afferent nerve? What is a synonym for afferent?

Sensory nerve=Afferent nerve Conducting or conducted inward or toward something (for nerves, the central nervous system)

What layer is the mitotic layer?

Stratum Basale. Keratinocyte stem cells here undergo mitotic divisions approx. every 19 days. It takes 40-56 days for this new cell to reach the epidermal surface and slough off.

Thickest layer of the epidermis?

Stratum corneum All of them are dead

Stratum Basale

Stratum germinativum Layer of the beginning of things Stem cells here can become full fledged members of the tissue in time. Freshly minted and newly divided. The cells make intercellular connections called desmosomes. These connections keep them from rubbing off with friction. Cell layer is a couple cells thick.

Know the layers from superficial to deep and vice versa.

Superficial Corneum Lucidum Granulosum Spinosum Basale Deep

Which systems regulate and enforce homeostasis through negative feedback?

Temperature is regulated with Negative feedback. If you are too hot, your blood pumps faster and you sweat. If you are too cold, your blood is shunted deeper into the body, your skeletal muscle "shivers" and your hair stands up to "trap heat"

What is an efferent nerve? What is a synonym for efferent?

Ventral horn, Nervus, Motor nerve fiber=synonym Conducted of conducting outward or away from something (for nerves, the central nervous system)

Know how anatomy and physiology can be investigated from atoms, molecules, cells... all the way to the organism itself.

We are made up of Carbon, Oxygen, Hydrogen, and Nitrogen (COHN) Oxygen = 65% Carbon = 18.5% Hydrogen = 9.5% And Sulfur for proteins Ans Phosphorus Chemical(atoms make up molecules) Cell(molecules make up smooth muscle cells) Tissue(smooth muscle cells aggregate into sheets of tissue) Organ(tissues form organs like the urinary bladder. This bladder has multiple types of connective tissue for durability) Organ System(kidneys connected to bladder through ureter, all coming together to remove salts and waste) Organism(organ systems make up an organism)

Hair follicle

a tubelike invagination of the epidermis that extends into the dermis. A hair develops and grows within each follicle. It consists of a dermal root sheath and an epithelial root sheath. Consists of 2 layers 1 layer from epidermis 1 layer from dermis

talus

ankle

arrector pilli muscle

associated with each hair follicle are smooth muscle cells that make up this. It extends from the dermal root sheath of the hair follicle to the papillary layer of the dermis. When it contracts, it causes the hair to "stand on end".

Know IONS

atoms come together and form molecules, we are mostly water and ions but also 4 classes of macromolecules. Nucleic Acids- DNA and RNA Carbohydrates- Glycogen Fats(Lipids)- hydrophobic Proteins- 20 naturally occurring amino acids

thickest epidermal areas

back of feet, toes, palms

Strata (pl. Stratum) facts

can be 20-30 cells thick. Stratum lucidum is not seen in every body, only a few cells thick and found in the palm, fingers, and toes

Stratum Granulosum

cells are going avascular Propagating in area with no capillaries. The dermis way below has blood, but the Granulosum is at the edge of too far away. Cells begin to die, pre-programmed cell death(apoptosis) Necrosis(cells dying from injury, trauma, wounds)(extreme frostbite) Desmosomes become plentiful in spinosum layer and continue those connections all the way up. Keratin and lamellar body production is ramped up. By way of exocytosis, they release glycolipids(makes it look grainy) When they die that is

CNS

central nervous system cranial nerves (12 pairs) spinal cord ends at the belt line

buccal

cheek

Oil Glands

located in the dermis, are simple or compound alveolar glands that produce sebum(an oily white substance rich in lipids) Classified as Holocrine glands because sebum is released by lysis and death of secretory cells. The secretions prevent drying out, and protects against some bacteria.

Stratum spinosum

means the spiny layer They are actually filled and puffier while living. But when cultured and taken out of a body, they shrink away from each other in the hypotonic environment, this made them look spiny. Accumulates spheres inside lamellar bodies. They are beginning to majufacture keratin(protein fiber) Individual cells called keratinocytes Lamellar bodies are spheres containing a glycolipid. (fusion of sugar and fat like a twinkie)

Glycolipids

mortar for the bricks. Becomes a layer of water repellent because of keratin and glycolipid.

Epithelial tissue characteristics

mostly composed of cells covers body surfaces distinct cell surfaces cell and matrix connections nonvascular capable or regeneration

What is a hormone and which system makes these?

organic molecules that go directly into the bloodstream without a duct or tube. They have access to the entire body and have the capability of regulating target tissues, causing them to change their physiology in some way because the target tissues have receptors for that specific hormone. ENDOCRINE system makes these.

Hair

root and shaft made of columns of dead keratinized epithelial cells arranged in three concentric layers. They are the medulla, the cortex, and the cuticle. Medulla_ central axis of hair, made of 2-3 layers of cells containing soft keratin. Cortex_ surrounds the medulla and forms the bulk of the hair. The cells contain hard keratin. Cuticle_ a single layer of cells also containing hard keratin. The edges of the cuticle cells overlap like shingles on roof.

What is vellus hair?

short, fine, and usually unpigmented hair that replaces the lanugo on the rest of the body. Usually covers children after fetal stage.

apocrine sweat glands

simple, coiled, tubular glands that usually open into hair follicles superficial to the opening of the sebaceous glands. Found in axillae and genitalia and around the anus. They do not help regulate temperature. Usually become active around puberty as a result of sex hormones. They produce an acid that is metabolized by bacteria which creates a body odor.

eccrine sweat glands

sometimes called Merocrine sweat glands. The most common type of sweat gland. They are simple, coiled, tubular glands that open directly onto the surface of the skin through sweat pores. Dermis portion: deep and coiled part that produces an isotonic fluid of water, salts, ammonia, urea, uric acid, and lactic acid. Most numerous in the palms of the hands and soles of the feet.

Pericardial cavity

surrounds only the heart and pericardial fluid. (Visceral lines inside, Parietal lines outside of cavity) Visceral pericardium covers the heart which is contained within a connective tissue sac lined with parietal pericardium. (If this cavity was a fist pushing into a balloon, Visceral would be inner balloon wall, and parietal is the outer balloon wall. The heart would be the fist. The air in the balloon is the pericardial cavity)

Abdomino-pelvic cavity

the abdominal and pelvic cavities are not physically separated and are sometimes called this. It also contains a serous membrane-lined cavity called the peritoneal cavity. Visceral peritoneum covers many of the organs here. Parietal peritoneum lines the wall of the abdominopelvic cavity and the inferior surface of the diaphragm.