A&P II exam 1

synthesized from cholesterol--> makes progesterone --> makes testosterone (which makes estradiol), cortisol, aldosterone; 4 carbon ring structure

steroids

secrete multiple hormones that aid in digestion

stomach and small intestine

agglutinogens

surface of RBCs contains genetically determined assortment of antigens

two or more hormones act together to produce an effect that is greater than the sum of their separate effects

synergistic effects

hormones produced/secreted from hypothalamus

(regulates hormones to the anterior pituitary gland) TRH, CRH, GnRH, GHRH, PIH, somatostatin; ADH and oxytocin to the posterior pituitary gland

anaerobic respiration in rbcs=

no oxygen is consumed/needed

hormones released during short-term stress

norepinephrine and epinephrine

produces estrogens and progesterone, inhibin, relaxin

ovaries

FSH targets what tissue for what function

ovaries and testes for either growth of ovarian follicle and estrogen secretion or sperm production

LH targets what tissue for what function

ovaries and testes for either ovulation and corpus lute or testosterone secretion

what hormones are stored and released from posterior pituitary?

oxytocin and ADH

located at first part of small intestine; functions as an exocrine and endocrine gland; includes alpha and beta cells

pancreas

explain what eicosanoids are and how they are produced

paracrine messengers; lipoxygenase helps convert. arachidonic acid. to leukotrienes and cyclooxyrgenase converts arachidonic acid to 3 other eicosanoids

hyposecretory disorder-- deficits in glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids; symptoms: weight loss, drop in plasma glucose and sodium, severe dehydration, hypotension; treatment: corticosteroid replacement therapy

Addison's disease

excess glucocorticoids are released; due sometimes to pituitary tumor, but usually caused by clinical administration of glucocorticoid drugs; signs: elevated blood glucose, loss in muscle and bone protein, water and salt retention (causing hypertension and edema)

Cushing's syndrome

i. Cortisol in corticosterone are used as steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and they inhibit inflammation by blocking the release of arachidonic acid from the plasma membrane and inhibiting the synthesis of all eicosanoids ii. NSAIDS are nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs because they block the action of cyclooxygenase

Explain how steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs like cortisol and corticosterone work and how NSAIDs (non steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs work

What hormones are made from the anterior pituitary?

FLAT PiG (FSH, LH, ACTH, TSH, PRL, hGH)

all hormones produced via anterior pituitary

FSH, LH, ACTH, TSH, PRL, hGH

what stimulates hGH

GHRH

gonadotropin releasing hormone

GnRH

what stimulates FSH

GnRH

what stimulates LH

GnRH

all hormones produced via hypothalamus

GnRH, CRH, GHRH, PIH, TRH

autoimmune hyperthyroid disease; abnormal antibodies are made against thyroid follicular cells (continuously stimulate TH release); symptoms: elevated BMR, sweating, rapid heartbeat, weight loss, exophthalmos

Grave's disease

what binds to hemoglobin to cause vasodilation= improve blood flow and oxygen delivery

NO

inhibit the enzyme cyclooxyrgenase in prostaglandin (responsible for fever, pain, inflammation) synthesis

NSAIDs (non steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs)

prolactin-inhibiting hormone

PIH

prolactin releasing hormone

PRH

what stimulates PRL

PRH and TRH

hormone secreted by parathyroid gland

PTH

hormones produced/secreted by thyroid gland

T3 and T4 by the combined activity of the colloid and follicular cells; calcitonin (via the parafollicular cells)

thyrotropin releasing hormone

TRH

what stimulates TSH

TRH

how do plasma proteins affect blood colloid osmotic pressure?

a decrease in plasma proteins results in edema, they draw water into the blood

negative feedback

a process in which the body senses a change and activates mechanisms that negate/reverse it

positive feedback

a self-amplifying cycle in which a physiological change leads to even greater change in the same direction; a normal way of producing rapid change

hypersecretion of hGH during adulthood where epiphyseal plates are closed--results in heavy, thick bones, large hands and feet, heavy jaw

acromegaly

what is the vascular role of prostaglandins

act as vasodilators and constrictors

tropic hormone

acts on another endocrine gland

contains zona glomerulosa, zona fasciculata, and zona reticularis beneath the capsule

adrenal cortex

ACTH targets what tissue for what function

adrenal cortex for glucocorticoid production/secretion

sits on top of the kidneys; contains cortex and medulla

adrenal gland

deeper than the cortex; made of nervous tissue; modified sympathetic ganglion of autonomic nervous system; intensifies sympathetic responses; secrete epinephrine and norepinephrine

adrenal medulla

transport plasma protein, major contributor to blood osmotic pressure

albumin

releasing hormone

those that stimulate the pituitary to release hormones of its own

inhibiting hormone

those that suppress pituitary secretion

hormones secreted by thymus

thymulin, thymosins, thymopoietins

part of both endocrine and lymphatic systems; maturation of T cells (important in immunity); hormones stimulate development of other lymphatic organs and T cell activity (thymopoietin, thymosin, thymulin)

thymus gland

located inferior to larynx; 2 lobes connected by isthmus

thyroid gland

relates oxygen use, basal metabolic rate, cellular metabolism, growth and development

thyroid gland

TSH targets what tissue for what function

thyroid gland for T3 and T4 secretion

consequences of anemia

tissues suffer hypoxia, reduced blood osmolarity (edema), reduced blood viscosity (Faster heartbeat and lower blood pressure)

what carries iron to red bone marrow

transferrin

3 overall, primary functions of blood

transportation, regulation, protection

part of pancreas that secretes insulin to lower blood sugar

beta cells

agglutination

clumping from antigens and antibodies mixing

the osmotic pressure exerted by plasma proteins (helps to maintain blood volume and blood pressure)

colloid osmotic pressure

endocrine system

communicates by hormones; releases hormones into bloodstream for general distribution throughout the body; sometimes has very general, widespread effects; reacts more slowly to stimuli; may continue responding long after stimulus stops; adapts relatively slowly

nervous system

communicates by means of electrical impulses and neurotransmitters; releases neurotransmitters at synapses at specific target cells; usually has relatively local, specific effects; reacts quickly to stimuli, stops quickly when stimulus stops, adapts relatively quickly to continual stimulation

what is the respiratory role of prostaglandins

constrict and dilate bronchioles

responsible for female secondary sex characteristics; regulates menstrual cycle, pregnancy, lactation

estrogen and progesterone

hormones secreted by ovaries

estrogens (ovarian follicles), progesterone, estrogens, inhibin, relaxin (all from corpus luteum)

makes a cell more sensitive to its receptor; low receptor density + weak response --> increased receptor density + increased sensitivity --> stronger response

up regulation

amine hormones, peptide/protein hormones; must be given by injection bc they are broken down by digestion before they can get into the blood; bind to receptors on the plasma membrane which activates second messenger system and amplification of original small signal

water-soluble receptors

secrete products into ducts that empty into body cavities or to the outer surface

exocrine glands

anterior pituitary communicates through what?

hypophyseal portal system (releasing and inhibiting hormones)

severe malnutrition and starvation; water content of blood plasma drops with protein content, osmolarity decreases and more water is lost to the tissue than reabsorbed (edema)

hypoproteinemia

posterior pituitary communicates through what?

hypothalamo-hypophysial tract (nerve bundle between hypothalamus and pituitary)

describe the anatomical relationships between the hypothalamus and pituitary gland

hypothalamus controls pituitary and is the link between the nervous and endocrine systems; hormones secreted from these 2 structures play roles in growth, development, metabolism, and homeostasis

cellular oxygen deficiency

hypoxia

found in the back of the neck embedded in the thyroid; major regulator of calcium, magnesium, and phosphate ions in the blood; increases osteoclasts and elevates bone resorption; promotes calcitriol formation in the kidney; blood calcium level controls secretion of calcitonin and PTH via negative feedback

parathyroid gland

what phagocytosis old RBCs

macrophages

how the body adapts to stress through its endocrine and sympathetic nervous systems

mainly controlled by hypothalamus, resulting in cortisol release; your body's homeostatic mechanisms attempt to counteract stress

PRL targets what tissue for what function

mammary glands and testes for milk synthesis and testosterone secretion

large quantity of hemoglobin in rbc

many binding sites for oxygen

amine hormone derived from serotonin; appears to contribute to setting biological clock and is liberated more during darkness than light

melatonin

catecholamines: dopamine, epinephrine, norepinephrine; melatonin, TH

monoamines

no nucleus in rbcs=

more space for oxygen

rbc biconcave shape=

more surface area for diffusion

most hormones are

peptides

one hormone enhances the target organs response to a second hormone to come later

permissive effects

autoimmune disorder that attacks stomach cells that produce intrinsic factor necessary for hemopoiesis

pernicious anemia

2 layers of adrenal cortex that secretes glucocorticoids (Regulate protein breakdown, glucose formation and lipolysis, stress resistance, anti-inflammatory effects, depression of immune responses) and androgens (like DHEA, estradiol are sex steroids)

zona fasciculata and zona reticularis

layer of adrenal cortex that secretes mineralocorticoids. that affect mineral homeostasis

zona glomerulosa

attached to roof of third ventricle

pineal gland

produces melatonin and is controlled by suprachiasmatic nucleus of the hypothalamus

pineal gland

hyposecretion where the long bones are not depleted

pituitary dwarfism

secrete estrogen and progesterone

placenta

common in athletes; more oxygen; synthetic EPO: patients with renal failure make too little EPO to support normal erythropoiesis

polycythemia

neurohypophysis

posterior pituitary

what is the renal role of prostaglandins

promote blood circulation through the kidneys

what is the inflammatory role of prostaglandins

promote fever and pain

affect smooth muscle contraction, blood flow, reproductive processes, platelet function, etc (eicosanoid family)

prostaglandins

eicosanoids that affect. smooth muscle contraction, blood flow, reproductive processes, platelet function, intensifying pain

prostaglandins

2 families synthesized by arachidonic acid

prostaglandins and leukotrienes

destruction of erythrocytes

rate of erythropoiesis= rate of RBC destruction; negative feedback loops monitors this via oxygen level; hypoxia

increases flexibility of pubic symphysis, helps dilate cervix

relaxin

anemia due to lack of EPO

renal anemia

major functions of the endocrine system

secrete hormones, secretions which alter cell metabolism, slowly secretes hormones

abnormal Hb causes sickling of RBC; RBCs rupture easily and block small blood vessels; occurs primarily in malaria belt of Africa

sick cell anemia

effects of mismatched transfusion

donor RBCs agglutinated by recipient plasma; agglutinated RBCs block small vessels

makes a cell less sensitive; high receptor density + strong response --> reduced receptor density + reduced sensitivity --> diminished response

down regulation

what causes colloid osmotic pressure

draws fluid into blood and prevents the loss of fluid in the capillaries; if plasma protein levels decrease, colloid osmotic pressure decreases, resulting in fluid loss from the blood and edema

inhibits FSH in ovaries and testes

inhibin

Which of the following are required for Erythropoiesis?

iron, globulin, vitamin B12, erythropoietin

hGH targets what tissue for what function

liver, bone, cartilage, muscle, and fat for tissue growth

how is TH produced

- You start with iodide in the capillary which is obtained from a diet. - That iodide is brought into the follicular cell with active transport. - The Rough ER synthesizes thyroglobulin and then the Golgi apparatus sends thyroglobulin (the protein) out into the colloid. - The iodide has also moved into the colloid where it is oxidized and becomes iodine. - Tyrosines (which are part of the thyroglobulin) combine with the iodide. - The amount of iodine you add to the tyrosine makes the results vary. - When you link the DIT and MIT together that makes T3 and T4, most of the time the follicular cells make T4. - Both of the thyroid hormones are packaged up with a lysosome that gets rid of some extra colloid. - Then it releases the T3 and T4 into the blood and they can go perform their functions, which mainly increase metabolic rate (heat production, oxygen, respiration and heart rates, hunger, etc.)

Describe how the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone mechanism works a. Name all components (proteins, hormones, enzymes) and i. Know the location where each hormone and enzyme is produced ii. know the effect(s) each hormone and enzyme has

1. ACE: angiotensin converting enzyme a. ACE restores fluid volume and blood pressure 2. Renin: acts as a protein in blood plasma and converts angiotensinogen into angiotensin I a. Decrease in blood pressure makes renin 3. angiotensin II-: rapid and potent vasoconstrictor (elevates blood pressure), causes excretion of sodium and water in the kidneys (long term) 4. aldosterone: as it binds to receptors it causes reabsorption of sodium in kidneys, causes secretion of potassium, can cause secretion of hydrogen ions and exchanges them for potassium depending on where it binds 5. vasoconstriction and increased blood volume can help bring the pressure back to normal if it is low

1 hemoglobin molecules carries how many O2 molecules?

4

adrenocorticotropic hormone

ACTH

hemoglobin transports 23% of what molecule

CO2

corticotropin releasing hormone

CRH

what stimulates ACTH

CRH

hormones released during long term stress

CRH, ACTH, cortisol

describe the 3 stages of the stress response

a. Fight or flight: sympathetic division brings in glucose b. Resistance: hypothalamus releases CRH--> ACTH -> cortisol -> gluconeogenesis, lipolysis, protein catabolism c. Exhaustion: energy sources are depleted; continued exposure to cortisol leads to muscle wasting, immune suppression, disruption of body systems

explain the regulation of erythropoiesis

a. Hypoxemia (inadequate O2 transport) is sensed by liver and kidneys --> secretion of erythropoietin --> stimulation of red bone marrow --> accelerate erythropoiesis --> increased RBC count -->increased O2 transport

describe how hormones are synthesized and transported to their target organs

a. Lipid-soluble hormones bind to receptors inside target cells b. Water-soluble hormones bind to receptors on plasma membrane c. can be synthesized under neural, hormonal, or humoral stimuli d. must transport in the blood e. Hydrophilic Transport proteins- carry hydrophobic proteins and protect them from being broken down by enzymes being filtered out of the blood by the kidneys f. The target proteins i. Some hormones bind to a specific receptor and others the receptor molecules are occupied by hormone molecules

discuss how hormones are removed from circulation after they have performed their roles

a. Negative feedback b. Most hormones are taken up and degraded by the liver and kidneys and then excluded in the bile or urine c. some are degraded by their target cells

discuss the structure and function of erythrocytes

a. biconcave discs, no nucleus or organelles, some glycolipids on the plasma membrane are antigens, contain hemoglobin b. function: transport oxygen and some CO2 i. no nucleus= more space for oxygen ii. anaerobic respiration= no oxygen used iii. biconcave shape= more surface area for diffusion iv. lots of hemoglobin= lots of gas transport

describe the formation of erythrocytes

a. formation: hemopoiesis (or hematopoeisis in red bone marrow) i. formed elements must constantly be replaced ii. negative feedback systems regulate the total number of RBCs and platelets in circulation iii. number of various WBC types based on response to invading pathogens or foreign antigens iv. erythropoietin is a growth factor that increases the number of RBC precursors 1. produced by the kidneys

identify some functions of eicosanoids

a. prostacyclin- inhibits blood clotting b. thromboxanes-stimulate vasoconstriction and override prostacyclin c. prostaglandins d. mediate allergic and inflammatory reactions

part of pancreas that secretes glucagon to raise blood sugar

alpha cells

what is the nervous role of prostaglandins

alter and release effects of neurotransmitters in the brain

hormones secreted by testis

androgens (interstitial cells of leydig) and inhibin (seminiferous tubules)

blood's oxygen-carrying capacity is too low to support metabolism; symptoms: fatigue, short of breath, chilled, pale; causes: hemorrhage, not enough RBCs

anemia

one hormone opposes the action of another

antagonistic effects

adenohypophysis

anterior pituitary

agglutinins

antibodies in the blood plasma

give a physiological definition of stress

any situation that upsets homeostasis and threatens ones physical and emotional well-being

destruction of inhibition of red bone marrow (blood transfusions necessary until blood marrow transplant can occur)

aplastic anemia

tissue becomes edematous and a pool of fluid may accumulate in the abdominal cavity

ascites

i. RU486 induces abortion by binding to progesterone receptors ii. Progesterone cannot exert its normal effect, which is to prepare and maintain the uterine lining iii. The embryo is sloughed off along with the uterine lining

blocking hormone receptors

diabetes mellitus type 2

diabetes due to hypoactivity of insulin

diabetes mellitus type 1

diabetes due to hyposecretion

results from hyposecretion of antidiuretic hormone; output of abundant but glucose-free urine

diabetes insipidus

blood glucose levels remain elevated; glycosuria; keto acidosis due to excessive breakdown of fatty acids; 3 cardinal signs: polyuria, polydipsia, polyphagia

diabetes mellitus

paracrine messengers; 2 families synthesized by arachidonic acid; prostaglandins and leukotrienes

eicosanoids

secrete hormones into the interstitial fluid around the cell; secretory cells derived from epithelium; connective tissue is the framework for support; extensive blood supply

endocrine glands

slowly secretes hormones that have lasting effects on a broad area

endocrine system

form fibrin threads in blood clots (plasma protein)

fibrinogen

hyper secretion of hGH during childhood where epiphyseal growth plates are targeted and causes someone to be abnormally tall with normal body proportions

gigantism

transport plasma protein, antibodies, prothrombin (complement)

globulins

hormones secreted by pancreas (via pancreatic islets)

glucagon (from alpha cells), insulin (from beta cells), somatostatin

iodine deficiency (body cannot make TH); since TSH operates on a negative feedback loop, there is nothing to shut off its production; thyroid gland becomes enlarged due to the increased production of TSH

goiter

ovaries and testes

gonads

percentage of total blood volume occupied by RBCs

hematocrit

pigment that gives blood its red color; carries oxygen

hemoglobin

anemia due to uncontrolled bleeding

hemorrhagic anemia

messenger molecule that binds to receptors elsewhere in the body

hormone

a. Know what stimuli initiate the RAA system

i. Angiotensinogenà angiotensin Ià angiotensin IIà aldosterone ii. A drop in blood pressure is detected by baroreceptors and transmits a signal to the brainstem (causing reflexes) iii. Renin is secreted from the kidneys and converts angiotensinogen into angiotensin I iv. angiotensin I arrives at the lungs and secretes ACE v. ACE converts angiotensin I to angiotensin II vi. angiotensin II goes to adrenal cortex and cause release of aldosterone b. dehydration, decrease in blood volume, decrease in blood pressure and stimulate renin c. spike in potassium levels in extracellular fluid can stimulate adrenal cortex

structure of hemoglobin

i. Globin—4 polypeptide chains ii. Heme pigment in each of 4 chains iii. Fe2+ in each heme that binds oxygen reversibly

describe G protein activates phospholipase C pathway

i. Hormone-receptor-activated G protein- phospholipase C splits PIP2- DAG and IP3 1. DAG- activates protein kinase 2. IP3- increases Ca2+ concentrationà activates protein kinase ii. Activated G protein binds and activates phospholipase C iii. phospholipase C splits PIP2 into DAG and IP3 iv. DAG activates protein kinase C v. IP3 increases Ca2+ in the cytosol by releasing Ca+ in the ER vi. Ca2+ release can adjust ion channel, can activate calmodulin and then activate protein kinase enzymes b. Messenger 1- neurotransmitter c. Messenger 2- DAG, IP3 d. Messenger 3- Ca+

describe adenylate cyclase pathway

i. Hormone-receptor-activated G protein-AC converts ATP to cAMP- activates protein kinase ii. Neurotransmitter binds to receptor and activates G-protein iii. G protein uses GTP iv. The activated G protein can activate adenylate cyclase (transforms ATP to cAMP) v. cAMP can change the membrane permeability (open and close ion channels), can activate specific genes, or activate protein kinases vi. protein kinase- causes phosphorylation 1. gets the phosphate from ATP and adds it to a protein 2. removes a phosphate from ADP and puts it on the protein—now it is activated vii. phosphodiesterase inactivates cAMP- "off switch" messenger 2= cAMP

3 forms of hemoglobin

i. Oxyhemoglobin: Hb saturated with oxygen ii. Deoxyhemoglobin: "reduced" Hb iii. Carbaminohemoglobin: Carbon dioxide bound to amino acids of Hb

describe components of blood

i. Plasma 55% of whole blood: water 92%, proteins 7%, other solutes (electrolytes, nutrients, respiratory gases, waste products) 1% ii. Buffy coat < 1% of whole blood: platelets and leukocytes (neutrophils (WBC), lymphocytes, monocytes (WBC), eosinophils, basophils iii. Erythrocytes (RBCs) 44% of whole blood: 4.2-6.2 million per cubic mm

process of how globin and heme are split apart

i. globin --> amino acids --> recycled ii. iron removed from heme and attaches to transferrin

produces angiotensin I, calcitriol, erythropoietin

kidneys

arms and legs are emaciated for lack of muscle, large swollen abdomen; risk for death due to dehydration

kwashiorkor

eicosanoids that stimulate chemotaxis of wbc, mediate inflammation

leukotrienes

stimulate chemotaxis of white blood cells, mediate inflammation (eicosanoid family)

leukotrienes

use transport proteins; steroid hormones, thyroid hormones, nitric oxide, eicosanoids; can be given orally. because they are not broken down by digestion; bind to receptors inside the target cells

lipid-soluble receptors

produces angiotensinogen and erythropoietin

liver

produces testosterone and inhibin

testes

responsible for male secondary sex characteristics; regulates spermatogenesis

testosterone