A&P II exam 1
synthesized from cholesterol--> makes progesterone --> makes testosterone (which makes estradiol), cortisol, aldosterone; 4 carbon ring structure
steroids
secrete multiple hormones that aid in digestion
stomach and small intestine
agglutinogens
surface of RBCs contains genetically determined assortment of antigens
two or more hormones act together to produce an effect that is greater than the sum of their separate effects
synergistic effects
hormones produced/secreted from hypothalamus
(regulates hormones to the anterior pituitary gland) TRH, CRH, GnRH, GHRH, PIH, somatostatin; ADH and oxytocin to the posterior pituitary gland
anaerobic respiration in rbcs=
no oxygen is consumed/needed
hormones released during short-term stress
norepinephrine and epinephrine
produces estrogens and progesterone, inhibin, relaxin
ovaries
FSH targets what tissue for what function
ovaries and testes for either growth of ovarian follicle and estrogen secretion or sperm production
LH targets what tissue for what function
ovaries and testes for either ovulation and corpus lute or testosterone secretion
what hormones are stored and released from posterior pituitary?
oxytocin and ADH
located at first part of small intestine; functions as an exocrine and endocrine gland; includes alpha and beta cells
pancreas
explain what eicosanoids are and how they are produced
paracrine messengers; lipoxygenase helps convert. arachidonic acid. to leukotrienes and cyclooxyrgenase converts arachidonic acid to 3 other eicosanoids
hyposecretory disorder-- deficits in glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids; symptoms: weight loss, drop in plasma glucose and sodium, severe dehydration, hypotension; treatment: corticosteroid replacement therapy
Addison's disease
excess glucocorticoids are released; due sometimes to pituitary tumor, but usually caused by clinical administration of glucocorticoid drugs; signs: elevated blood glucose, loss in muscle and bone protein, water and salt retention (causing hypertension and edema)
Cushing's syndrome
i. Cortisol in corticosterone are used as steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and they inhibit inflammation by blocking the release of arachidonic acid from the plasma membrane and inhibiting the synthesis of all eicosanoids ii. NSAIDS are nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs because they block the action of cyclooxygenase
Explain how steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs like cortisol and corticosterone work and how NSAIDs (non steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs work
What hormones are made from the anterior pituitary?
FLAT PiG (FSH, LH, ACTH, TSH, PRL, hGH)
all hormones produced via anterior pituitary
FSH, LH, ACTH, TSH, PRL, hGH
what stimulates hGH
GHRH
gonadotropin releasing hormone
GnRH
what stimulates FSH
GnRH
what stimulates LH
GnRH
all hormones produced via hypothalamus
GnRH, CRH, GHRH, PIH, TRH
autoimmune hyperthyroid disease; abnormal antibodies are made against thyroid follicular cells (continuously stimulate TH release); symptoms: elevated BMR, sweating, rapid heartbeat, weight loss, exophthalmos
Grave's disease
what binds to hemoglobin to cause vasodilation= improve blood flow and oxygen delivery
NO
inhibit the enzyme cyclooxyrgenase in prostaglandin (responsible for fever, pain, inflammation) synthesis
NSAIDs (non steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs)
prolactin-inhibiting hormone
PIH
prolactin releasing hormone
PRH
what stimulates PRL
PRH and TRH
hormone secreted by parathyroid gland
PTH
hormones produced/secreted by thyroid gland
T3 and T4 by the combined activity of the colloid and follicular cells; calcitonin (via the parafollicular cells)
thyrotropin releasing hormone
TRH
what stimulates TSH
TRH
how do plasma proteins affect blood colloid osmotic pressure?
a decrease in plasma proteins results in edema, they draw water into the blood
negative feedback
a process in which the body senses a change and activates mechanisms that negate/reverse it
positive feedback
a self-amplifying cycle in which a physiological change leads to even greater change in the same direction; a normal way of producing rapid change
hypersecretion of hGH during adulthood where epiphyseal plates are closed--results in heavy, thick bones, large hands and feet, heavy jaw
acromegaly
what is the vascular role of prostaglandins
act as vasodilators and constrictors
tropic hormone
acts on another endocrine gland
contains zona glomerulosa, zona fasciculata, and zona reticularis beneath the capsule
adrenal cortex
ACTH targets what tissue for what function
adrenal cortex for glucocorticoid production/secretion
sits on top of the kidneys; contains cortex and medulla
adrenal gland
deeper than the cortex; made of nervous tissue; modified sympathetic ganglion of autonomic nervous system; intensifies sympathetic responses; secrete epinephrine and norepinephrine
adrenal medulla
transport plasma protein, major contributor to blood osmotic pressure
albumin
releasing hormone
those that stimulate the pituitary to release hormones of its own
inhibiting hormone
those that suppress pituitary secretion
hormones secreted by thymus
thymulin, thymosins, thymopoietins
part of both endocrine and lymphatic systems; maturation of T cells (important in immunity); hormones stimulate development of other lymphatic organs and T cell activity (thymopoietin, thymosin, thymulin)
thymus gland
located inferior to larynx; 2 lobes connected by isthmus
thyroid gland
relates oxygen use, basal metabolic rate, cellular metabolism, growth and development
thyroid gland
TSH targets what tissue for what function
thyroid gland for T3 and T4 secretion
consequences of anemia
tissues suffer hypoxia, reduced blood osmolarity (edema), reduced blood viscosity (Faster heartbeat and lower blood pressure)
what carries iron to red bone marrow
transferrin
3 overall, primary functions of blood
transportation, regulation, protection
part of pancreas that secretes insulin to lower blood sugar
beta cells
agglutination
clumping from antigens and antibodies mixing
the osmotic pressure exerted by plasma proteins (helps to maintain blood volume and blood pressure)
colloid osmotic pressure
endocrine system
communicates by hormones; releases hormones into bloodstream for general distribution throughout the body; sometimes has very general, widespread effects; reacts more slowly to stimuli; may continue responding long after stimulus stops; adapts relatively slowly
nervous system
communicates by means of electrical impulses and neurotransmitters; releases neurotransmitters at synapses at specific target cells; usually has relatively local, specific effects; reacts quickly to stimuli, stops quickly when stimulus stops, adapts relatively quickly to continual stimulation
what is the respiratory role of prostaglandins
constrict and dilate bronchioles
responsible for female secondary sex characteristics; regulates menstrual cycle, pregnancy, lactation
estrogen and progesterone
hormones secreted by ovaries
estrogens (ovarian follicles), progesterone, estrogens, inhibin, relaxin (all from corpus luteum)
makes a cell more sensitive to its receptor; low receptor density + weak response --> increased receptor density + increased sensitivity --> stronger response
up regulation
amine hormones, peptide/protein hormones; must be given by injection bc they are broken down by digestion before they can get into the blood; bind to receptors on the plasma membrane which activates second messenger system and amplification of original small signal
water-soluble receptors
secrete products into ducts that empty into body cavities or to the outer surface
exocrine glands
anterior pituitary communicates through what?
hypophyseal portal system (releasing and inhibiting hormones)
severe malnutrition and starvation; water content of blood plasma drops with protein content, osmolarity decreases and more water is lost to the tissue than reabsorbed (edema)
hypoproteinemia
posterior pituitary communicates through what?
hypothalamo-hypophysial tract (nerve bundle between hypothalamus and pituitary)
describe the anatomical relationships between the hypothalamus and pituitary gland
hypothalamus controls pituitary and is the link between the nervous and endocrine systems; hormones secreted from these 2 structures play roles in growth, development, metabolism, and homeostasis
cellular oxygen deficiency
hypoxia
found in the back of the neck embedded in the thyroid; major regulator of calcium, magnesium, and phosphate ions in the blood; increases osteoclasts and elevates bone resorption; promotes calcitriol formation in the kidney; blood calcium level controls secretion of calcitonin and PTH via negative feedback
parathyroid gland
what phagocytosis old RBCs
macrophages
how the body adapts to stress through its endocrine and sympathetic nervous systems
mainly controlled by hypothalamus, resulting in cortisol release; your body's homeostatic mechanisms attempt to counteract stress
PRL targets what tissue for what function
mammary glands and testes for milk synthesis and testosterone secretion
large quantity of hemoglobin in rbc
many binding sites for oxygen
amine hormone derived from serotonin; appears to contribute to setting biological clock and is liberated more during darkness than light
melatonin
catecholamines: dopamine, epinephrine, norepinephrine; melatonin, TH
monoamines
no nucleus in rbcs=
more space for oxygen
rbc biconcave shape=
more surface area for diffusion
most hormones are
peptides
one hormone enhances the target organs response to a second hormone to come later
permissive effects
autoimmune disorder that attacks stomach cells that produce intrinsic factor necessary for hemopoiesis
pernicious anemia
2 layers of adrenal cortex that secretes glucocorticoids (Regulate protein breakdown, glucose formation and lipolysis, stress resistance, anti-inflammatory effects, depression of immune responses) and androgens (like DHEA, estradiol are sex steroids)
zona fasciculata and zona reticularis
layer of adrenal cortex that secretes mineralocorticoids. that affect mineral homeostasis
zona glomerulosa
attached to roof of third ventricle
pineal gland
produces melatonin and is controlled by suprachiasmatic nucleus of the hypothalamus
pineal gland
hyposecretion where the long bones are not depleted
pituitary dwarfism
secrete estrogen and progesterone
placenta
common in athletes; more oxygen; synthetic EPO: patients with renal failure make too little EPO to support normal erythropoiesis
polycythemia
neurohypophysis
posterior pituitary
what is the renal role of prostaglandins
promote blood circulation through the kidneys
what is the inflammatory role of prostaglandins
promote fever and pain
affect smooth muscle contraction, blood flow, reproductive processes, platelet function, etc (eicosanoid family)
prostaglandins
eicosanoids that affect. smooth muscle contraction, blood flow, reproductive processes, platelet function, intensifying pain
prostaglandins
2 families synthesized by arachidonic acid
prostaglandins and leukotrienes
destruction of erythrocytes
rate of erythropoiesis= rate of RBC destruction; negative feedback loops monitors this via oxygen level; hypoxia
increases flexibility of pubic symphysis, helps dilate cervix
relaxin
anemia due to lack of EPO
renal anemia
major functions of the endocrine system
secrete hormones, secretions which alter cell metabolism, slowly secretes hormones
abnormal Hb causes sickling of RBC; RBCs rupture easily and block small blood vessels; occurs primarily in malaria belt of Africa
sick cell anemia
effects of mismatched transfusion
donor RBCs agglutinated by recipient plasma; agglutinated RBCs block small vessels
makes a cell less sensitive; high receptor density + strong response --> reduced receptor density + reduced sensitivity --> diminished response
down regulation
what causes colloid osmotic pressure
draws fluid into blood and prevents the loss of fluid in the capillaries; if plasma protein levels decrease, colloid osmotic pressure decreases, resulting in fluid loss from the blood and edema
inhibits FSH in ovaries and testes
inhibin
Which of the following are required for Erythropoiesis?
iron, globulin, vitamin B12, erythropoietin
hGH targets what tissue for what function
liver, bone, cartilage, muscle, and fat for tissue growth
how is TH produced
- You start with iodide in the capillary which is obtained from a diet. - That iodide is brought into the follicular cell with active transport. - The Rough ER synthesizes thyroglobulin and then the Golgi apparatus sends thyroglobulin (the protein) out into the colloid. - The iodide has also moved into the colloid where it is oxidized and becomes iodine. - Tyrosines (which are part of the thyroglobulin) combine with the iodide. - The amount of iodine you add to the tyrosine makes the results vary. - When you link the DIT and MIT together that makes T3 and T4, most of the time the follicular cells make T4. - Both of the thyroid hormones are packaged up with a lysosome that gets rid of some extra colloid. - Then it releases the T3 and T4 into the blood and they can go perform their functions, which mainly increase metabolic rate (heat production, oxygen, respiration and heart rates, hunger, etc.)
Describe how the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone mechanism works a. Name all components (proteins, hormones, enzymes) and i. Know the location where each hormone and enzyme is produced ii. know the effect(s) each hormone and enzyme has
1. ACE: angiotensin converting enzyme a. ACE restores fluid volume and blood pressure 2. Renin: acts as a protein in blood plasma and converts angiotensinogen into angiotensin I a. Decrease in blood pressure makes renin 3. angiotensin II-: rapid and potent vasoconstrictor (elevates blood pressure), causes excretion of sodium and water in the kidneys (long term) 4. aldosterone: as it binds to receptors it causes reabsorption of sodium in kidneys, causes secretion of potassium, can cause secretion of hydrogen ions and exchanges them for potassium depending on where it binds 5. vasoconstriction and increased blood volume can help bring the pressure back to normal if it is low
1 hemoglobin molecules carries how many O2 molecules?
4
adrenocorticotropic hormone
ACTH
hemoglobin transports 23% of what molecule
CO2
corticotropin releasing hormone
CRH
what stimulates ACTH
CRH
hormones released during long term stress
CRH, ACTH, cortisol
describe the 3 stages of the stress response
a. Fight or flight: sympathetic division brings in glucose b. Resistance: hypothalamus releases CRH--> ACTH -> cortisol -> gluconeogenesis, lipolysis, protein catabolism c. Exhaustion: energy sources are depleted; continued exposure to cortisol leads to muscle wasting, immune suppression, disruption of body systems
explain the regulation of erythropoiesis
a. Hypoxemia (inadequate O2 transport) is sensed by liver and kidneys --> secretion of erythropoietin --> stimulation of red bone marrow --> accelerate erythropoiesis --> increased RBC count -->increased O2 transport
describe how hormones are synthesized and transported to their target organs
a. Lipid-soluble hormones bind to receptors inside target cells b. Water-soluble hormones bind to receptors on plasma membrane c. can be synthesized under neural, hormonal, or humoral stimuli d. must transport in the blood e. Hydrophilic Transport proteins- carry hydrophobic proteins and protect them from being broken down by enzymes being filtered out of the blood by the kidneys f. The target proteins i. Some hormones bind to a specific receptor and others the receptor molecules are occupied by hormone molecules
discuss how hormones are removed from circulation after they have performed their roles
a. Negative feedback b. Most hormones are taken up and degraded by the liver and kidneys and then excluded in the bile or urine c. some are degraded by their target cells
discuss the structure and function of erythrocytes
a. biconcave discs, no nucleus or organelles, some glycolipids on the plasma membrane are antigens, contain hemoglobin b. function: transport oxygen and some CO2 i. no nucleus= more space for oxygen ii. anaerobic respiration= no oxygen used iii. biconcave shape= more surface area for diffusion iv. lots of hemoglobin= lots of gas transport
describe the formation of erythrocytes
a. formation: hemopoiesis (or hematopoeisis in red bone marrow) i. formed elements must constantly be replaced ii. negative feedback systems regulate the total number of RBCs and platelets in circulation iii. number of various WBC types based on response to invading pathogens or foreign antigens iv. erythropoietin is a growth factor that increases the number of RBC precursors 1. produced by the kidneys
identify some functions of eicosanoids
a. prostacyclin- inhibits blood clotting b. thromboxanes-stimulate vasoconstriction and override prostacyclin c. prostaglandins d. mediate allergic and inflammatory reactions
part of pancreas that secretes glucagon to raise blood sugar
alpha cells
what is the nervous role of prostaglandins
alter and release effects of neurotransmitters in the brain
hormones secreted by testis
androgens (interstitial cells of leydig) and inhibin (seminiferous tubules)
blood's oxygen-carrying capacity is too low to support metabolism; symptoms: fatigue, short of breath, chilled, pale; causes: hemorrhage, not enough RBCs
anemia
one hormone opposes the action of another
antagonistic effects
adenohypophysis
anterior pituitary
agglutinins
antibodies in the blood plasma
give a physiological definition of stress
any situation that upsets homeostasis and threatens ones physical and emotional well-being
destruction of inhibition of red bone marrow (blood transfusions necessary until blood marrow transplant can occur)
aplastic anemia
tissue becomes edematous and a pool of fluid may accumulate in the abdominal cavity
ascites
i. RU486 induces abortion by binding to progesterone receptors ii. Progesterone cannot exert its normal effect, which is to prepare and maintain the uterine lining iii. The embryo is sloughed off along with the uterine lining
blocking hormone receptors
diabetes mellitus type 2
diabetes due to hypoactivity of insulin
diabetes mellitus type 1
diabetes due to hyposecretion
results from hyposecretion of antidiuretic hormone; output of abundant but glucose-free urine
diabetes insipidus
blood glucose levels remain elevated; glycosuria; keto acidosis due to excessive breakdown of fatty acids; 3 cardinal signs: polyuria, polydipsia, polyphagia
diabetes mellitus
paracrine messengers; 2 families synthesized by arachidonic acid; prostaglandins and leukotrienes
eicosanoids
secrete hormones into the interstitial fluid around the cell; secretory cells derived from epithelium; connective tissue is the framework for support; extensive blood supply
endocrine glands
slowly secretes hormones that have lasting effects on a broad area
endocrine system
form fibrin threads in blood clots (plasma protein)
fibrinogen
hyper secretion of hGH during childhood where epiphyseal growth plates are targeted and causes someone to be abnormally tall with normal body proportions
gigantism
transport plasma protein, antibodies, prothrombin (complement)
globulins
hormones secreted by pancreas (via pancreatic islets)
glucagon (from alpha cells), insulin (from beta cells), somatostatin
iodine deficiency (body cannot make TH); since TSH operates on a negative feedback loop, there is nothing to shut off its production; thyroid gland becomes enlarged due to the increased production of TSH
goiter
ovaries and testes
gonads
percentage of total blood volume occupied by RBCs
hematocrit
pigment that gives blood its red color; carries oxygen
hemoglobin
anemia due to uncontrolled bleeding
hemorrhagic anemia
messenger molecule that binds to receptors elsewhere in the body
hormone
a. Know what stimuli initiate the RAA system
i. Angiotensinogenà angiotensin Ià angiotensin IIà aldosterone ii. A drop in blood pressure is detected by baroreceptors and transmits a signal to the brainstem (causing reflexes) iii. Renin is secreted from the kidneys and converts angiotensinogen into angiotensin I iv. angiotensin I arrives at the lungs and secretes ACE v. ACE converts angiotensin I to angiotensin II vi. angiotensin II goes to adrenal cortex and cause release of aldosterone b. dehydration, decrease in blood volume, decrease in blood pressure and stimulate renin c. spike in potassium levels in extracellular fluid can stimulate adrenal cortex
structure of hemoglobin
i. Globin—4 polypeptide chains ii. Heme pigment in each of 4 chains iii. Fe2+ in each heme that binds oxygen reversibly
describe G protein activates phospholipase C pathway
i. Hormone-receptor-activated G protein- phospholipase C splits PIP2- DAG and IP3 1. DAG- activates protein kinase 2. IP3- increases Ca2+ concentrationà activates protein kinase ii. Activated G protein binds and activates phospholipase C iii. phospholipase C splits PIP2 into DAG and IP3 iv. DAG activates protein kinase C v. IP3 increases Ca2+ in the cytosol by releasing Ca+ in the ER vi. Ca2+ release can adjust ion channel, can activate calmodulin and then activate protein kinase enzymes b. Messenger 1- neurotransmitter c. Messenger 2- DAG, IP3 d. Messenger 3- Ca+
describe adenylate cyclase pathway
i. Hormone-receptor-activated G protein-AC converts ATP to cAMP- activates protein kinase ii. Neurotransmitter binds to receptor and activates G-protein iii. G protein uses GTP iv. The activated G protein can activate adenylate cyclase (transforms ATP to cAMP) v. cAMP can change the membrane permeability (open and close ion channels), can activate specific genes, or activate protein kinases vi. protein kinase- causes phosphorylation 1. gets the phosphate from ATP and adds it to a protein 2. removes a phosphate from ADP and puts it on the protein—now it is activated vii. phosphodiesterase inactivates cAMP- "off switch" messenger 2= cAMP
3 forms of hemoglobin
i. Oxyhemoglobin: Hb saturated with oxygen ii. Deoxyhemoglobin: "reduced" Hb iii. Carbaminohemoglobin: Carbon dioxide bound to amino acids of Hb
describe components of blood
i. Plasma 55% of whole blood: water 92%, proteins 7%, other solutes (electrolytes, nutrients, respiratory gases, waste products) 1% ii. Buffy coat < 1% of whole blood: platelets and leukocytes (neutrophils (WBC), lymphocytes, monocytes (WBC), eosinophils, basophils iii. Erythrocytes (RBCs) 44% of whole blood: 4.2-6.2 million per cubic mm
process of how globin and heme are split apart
i. globin --> amino acids --> recycled ii. iron removed from heme and attaches to transferrin
produces angiotensin I, calcitriol, erythropoietin
kidneys
arms and legs are emaciated for lack of muscle, large swollen abdomen; risk for death due to dehydration
kwashiorkor
eicosanoids that stimulate chemotaxis of wbc, mediate inflammation
leukotrienes
stimulate chemotaxis of white blood cells, mediate inflammation (eicosanoid family)
leukotrienes
use transport proteins; steroid hormones, thyroid hormones, nitric oxide, eicosanoids; can be given orally. because they are not broken down by digestion; bind to receptors inside the target cells
lipid-soluble receptors
produces angiotensinogen and erythropoietin
liver
produces testosterone and inhibin
testes
responsible for male secondary sex characteristics; regulates spermatogenesis
testosterone