A&P Test 1 Review

What is a hormone?

"An organic molecule that is secreted from endocrine glands, travels through the bloodstream, and interacts with target cells, which changes the physiology after secretion" Chemical messenger secreted into the bloodstream that will regulate the function of other tissues Can only change the physiology of target cells (Cells that have the certain receptor for that hormone)

What major macromolecules of food that can be broken down and absorbed by the small intestine?

"Lipids, or fats, are digested and absorbed in the small intestine. Bile salts emulsify fat so pancreatic lipase can digest it. Fats first enter lymphatic capillaries, called lacteals, before entering your blood circulation."

Epiphyseal plate

"growth plate"- cartilage (hyaline) that separates the epiphysis and diaphysis- mostly spongy bone; wellspring of long bone growth

Abdominopelvic cavity

(peritoneum); contains abdominal and pelvic cavity so just put two together- contains a lot of vital organs that are surrounded by parietal and visceral peritoneum

Know the components and subcomponents of bone extracellular matrix.

**Mature matrix bone is normally about 35% organic, 65% inorganic Organic matrix: ground substance (dissolved glycoproteins and proteoglycans); collagen Ground substance: Made up of proteoglycans and glycoproteins (basically make the soup they're floating in) Extracellular fibers and Organic Matrix: Osteoid Inorganic Matrix: consists of Hydroxyapatite, CaPO4, and crystals Hydroxyapatite: calcium phosphate crystal suffused through the inorganic matrix; gives bone its hard character (only thing dead bone has in common with living bone)

What is the major difference in hip anatomy between males and females? How does this difference in structure relate to giving birth in general and to humans in particular?

-Females- bowl shaped; shallow; wider; sacrum further back; ischial spines further apart; pubic angle is 90 degrees or greater; pubic symphysis is a little thicker so it can move apart during childbirth; pelvic inlet/outlet are larger -Males- bigger/longer/thicker pelvis; funnel shaped, ischial spines closer together; coccyx closer to pubic symphysis; narrow inlet/outlet; subpubic angle is less than 90 degrees -A wide, circular pelvic inlet and a pelvic outlet with widely spaced ischial spines can facilitate delivery of the newborn. A smaller pelvic outlet can cause problems during the delivery. If pelvic outlet is too small for normal delivery, cesarean section (C-section) may be performed

Name three things of physiological significance that happen in the large intestine or colon.

1. Break down cellulose (roughage) by intestinal bacteria 2. Water absorption (wont be dehydrated; won't have diarrhea) 3. Bacteria make vitamin K (blood clotting)

What are the number and names of the different types of vertebrae? How are these numbered? How many are in each location

1. Cervical: C1 (atlas), C2 (axis)-C7 2. Thoracic: T1-T12 3. Lumbar: L1-L5 4. Sacral: 5 sacral vertebrae fused to form 1 bone Coccygeal: (4-5 5. vertebrae fused to form 1 bone) *total of 33

How does fluid flow from the circulatory system to the interstitial fluid, to the lymphatic fluid, back to the cardiovascular system? Where does intracellular fluid figure in all this?

1. Fluid enters the circulatory system from the lymphatic system via the subclavian veins 2. The same fluid exits the circulatory system through capillaries and enters the interstitial space 3. In order to replenish fluids lost through the subclavian veins, intracellular fluid then re-enters the lymphatic system and the cycle restarts Fluid leaves lymphatic system → Circulatory → interstitial fluid → lymphatic system → circulatory(some fluid is taken up by cells

Know the physiological role of each in orchestrating growth. If specified what is its chemical nature?

1. Growth hormone from anterior pituitary (master gland): Stimulates interstitial cartilage growth and appositional bone growth; important in childhood to directly grow body; polypeptide 2. Thyroid hormone: required for growth of all tissues, regulates basal metabolic rate & help growth hormone; amplifies and helps other hormones reach their full potential; absence causes cretinism; important in early life in brain development; protein 3. Sex hormones such as estrogen(females) and testosterone(males) - Cause growth at puberty (girls before boys), but also cause closure of the epiphyseal plates and the cessation of growth. Are hormones that are lipids & are a type called steroids; precursor is cholesterol (cell membranes would melt without it) That they are the basically big proteins or amino acids

For each of these hormones, which are hypercalcemic and how does this (do these) hormone(s) exert this (these) effects?

1. It increases osteoclast activity (dissolve hydroxyapatite and increase calcium concentration). 2. It stimulates the kidney to decrease the amount of calcium that is excreted as urine (has effect of boosting calcium in blood circulation). 3. It stimulates the final reaction necessary to allow activation/maturation of vitamin D. By increasing vitamin D production, the vitamin D then stimulates the intestine to absorb calcium into the bloodstream. Therefore it increases calcium concentration.

1. What four elements make up most of the body's molecules? 2. Two of these four make up a compound that lays claim more than 60% of our weight . This compound is _____?

1. Since we are studying both anatomy and physiology together, we are recognizing that the two are interwoven and are integrating the two subjects (systemic approach) 2. (H2O) Hydrogen and Oxygen are the two elements!

What are the four components of negative feedback? What defines them?

1. Variable: the thing that is deviating from a set point (ex: body temperature) 2. Receptor- monitors the value of a variable such as body temperature. (Thermometer) Nerve Endings: temperature receptors of the skin 3. Control center- part of the brain (hypothalamus), which establishes the set point around which the variable is maintained through communication with the receptors and effectors. (Thermostat) Hypothalamus: controller of body temperature; sends impulses to sweat glands 4. Effector- adjusts the value of the variable back toward the set point; responds to the change after receiving impulses (Air conditioner/heating unit) Sweat glands: effectors of the body that cool body temperature

The molarity of the OH- concentration multiplied by the molarity of the H+ concentration for any aqueous solution is always equal to____?

1.0 * 10-14

How many cranial nerves are there? What defines a cranial nerve?

12 pairs; Cranial nerves command muscles in the head. Can carry exclusively afferent (send signals back to the brain or spinal cord-receptor) information, exclusively efferent (going from CNS to target, affecting a muscle, gland, etc- effector) information or a mixture of both.

For an aqueous solution, the pH + the pOH is always equal to ?

14

How many spinal nerves are there and what defines a spinal nerve

31 pairs; a spinal nerve is a mixed nerve, which carries motor, sensory, and autonomic signals between the spinal cord and the body.

What is the pH of neutrality?

7

What is the single pH value in which the hydronium ion concentration and the hydroxide ion concentration are equal to one another?

7

What is the essential character of negative feedback that makes it ideal for regulating and enforcing homeostasis?

?

Why are there several nerves in numerical order that go through the same foramina?

?

What is a bolus?

A ball of food, formed during the "ingestion" phase of food consumption in your mouth

What are some details of the nervous system?

A major regulatory system that detects sensations and controls movements, physiological processes, and intellectual functions Consists of the brain, spinal cord, nerves, and sensory receptors

What are some details of the endocrine system?

A major regulatory system that influences metabolism, growth, reproduction, and many other functions Consists of glands, such as the pituitary, that secrete hormones into the bloodstream Glands have no ducts because the hormones travel through the bloodstream (not direct)

What is a nerve in general?

A nerve consists of an axon which projects an electrical impulse that is projected down, and it propagates a signal across the synapse- targeting usually a muscle or gland (exocrine mostly)

What is the difference between tissues and organs?

A tissue is a group of similar cells and their surrounding materials, an organ is composed of two or more tissue types that perform one or more similar functions. A tissue is composed of a group of similar cells and the materials surrounding them- these surrounding materials determine the functions of the tissue. Organs are made of tissues. An organ is composed of two or more tissue types that perform one or more common functions.

What are the roles of the lymph nodes, spleen and tonsils, etc in terms of guarding the body from infection and disease?

A ton of WBCs here; blood passes through the nodes, spleen, tonsils, etc. WBC's found in each of these locations "cleanses" the blood of the toxins; these locations swell when the "cleansing" process is in effect. These are "infection checkpoints."

What is cranial nerve VI. What is it's entry and function?

Abducens Nerve Superior Orbital Fissure Motor

What is cranial nerve XI. What is it's entry and function?

Accessory Spine Nerve Jugular Foramen / Foramen Magnum Motor

Upper limb (Posterior)

Acromial - point of shoulder Olecranon - point of elbow Dorsum - back of hand

reasons why periosteum is so important to living bone?

Allows the blood vessels to penetrate into the bone; aids in growing bone wider and thicker by producing osteoblasts

This very toxic molecule is created as a matter of course from the daily synthesis and break down of_____________ .

Amino acids

This waste is a less toxic form of what very toxic molecule?

Ammonia

What is (give a definition) of an exocrine gland and how is it similar to an endocrine gland?

An exocrine gland, just like an endocrine gland, secrete a chemical substance. However, an exocrine gland releases it into a duct which then will lead either to the surface of the body or onto a surface within the body. Endocrine secretes straight into the blood and are ductless.

What is the definition of an organ?

An organ is a collection of similarly related tissues, that once together, carry out certain bodily functions

superior mediastinum

Anything above the heart

What part of the skeleton are the girdles a part of?

Appendicular skeleton- shoulder (pectoral) and hip (pelvic) girdles

How does the relationship of pressure inside the lung vary with pressure?What is the significance of this insofar as forcing air in and out of the lungs?

As the chest cavity expands (volume increases), pressure in the lungs decreases, and becomes less than that of the atmosphere. Because of the difference in pressure, air rushes into the lungs. Once the air has entered the lungs, gas exchange occurs. The presence of the air within the lungs increases the partial pressure within the lungs - the diaphragm relaxes - the chest cavity decreases in volume and pressure increases, which results in an exhalation and release of CO2.

How does the contraction/relaxation of the diaphragm relate to the increase/decrease of the chest volume?

As the diaphragm contracts, it pulls the chest cavity downward, which increases the volume of the lungs, allowing you to inhale and take in oxygen. As it relaxes, the chest cavity shrinks, which causes the compression of your lungs, resulting in exhalation. >Breath in → diaphragm contracts→ chest cavity increases (decrease pressure) >Breath out → diaphragm relaxation→ chest cavity decreases (increase pressure) Remember guys, pressure and volume are inversely related. pv=nrt

What is the difference between the axial skeleton and the appendicular skeleton? What are the girdles and what bones comprise them?

Axial skeleton- (midline of body) composed of the skull, auditory ossicles, hyoid bone, vertebral column, and rib cage (thoracic cage). Appendicular skeleton- upper and lower appendages, two girdles: pelvic/hip girdle (ossa coxae or coxal bones), shoulder girdle (scapula, clavicle)

If there are differences, how do these account for the average difference in male height versus female height

Before puberty, the female sex hormones are released in intervals causing growth spurts due to activation of the epiphyseal plate to grow. This happens earlier in females than in males. But the males have similar interval release of their sex hormones, but the intervals last longer in duration. Also, the females sex hormones stop the growth quicker (at a younger age) than the male sex hormones. This allows females to grow taller younger, but be on average shorter when adults because the males grow longer.

What types of molecules in the body can serve as buffers?

Bicarbonate, phosphates, amino acids, and proteins

The circulatory system contains a fluid containing water, soluble factors and cells called___________under pressure from a pump called the _______ ?

Blood Heart Does not make the blood, but simply contains the blood within this system - the skeletal system makes the blood!

What is another term for an osteoprogenitor cell?

Bone Stem cell

Generally speaking, why is osteoclast function essential for proper bone growth and development in juveniles and bone maintenance in adults?

Bone is constantly being remodeled and in order to build, bone also has to be broken down. When widening/thickening the Diaphysis, osteoblasts have to be working faster than the osteoclasts in order for the bone to get thicker; bone remodels to benefit us

What properties would a bone have if you soaked it in acid?

Bone would become too flexible (because mineral is removed). Becomes bendable because the acid dissolves the calcium phosphate = the hard crystal part (not the collagen)

How is the skeletal system a partner in movement? justify the sometimes used fusion of the two terms "musculoskeletal system"?

Bones from the skeletal system articulate with the muscles in the muscle system to provide us with the ability to move. Equal partner in movement- muscle pulls on bone. The term musculoskeletal system refers to how the skeleton and muscle systems work together to provide movement.

Upper limb (Anterior)

Brachial - arm (shoulder to elbow) Antecubital - front of elbow; "ante"= coming before Antebrachial - forearm (elbow to wrist) Phlebotomist - draws blood, usually from veins in antecubital region

Define the central nervous system. Where is it found?

Brain and spinal cord

Which are hypocalcemic and how is this exerted?

Calcitonin is hypocalcemic because it decreases calcium concentration in the circulation. Exerted in 3 ways: 1. If there is too much calcium, calcitonin will signal osteoclast inhibition to stop more release of calcium. 2. If there is too much calcium, calcitonin will signal osteoblast activation (up-regulation from normal or current activity). 3. If there is too much calcium, calcitonin will stimulate the kidney to secrete more calcium in the urine to decrease the calcium concentration in the circulation.

How (and for what) is the skeleton system a "storage organ" system?

Calcium (blood clotting) and phosphate (amino acid production) are stored in bone which help make bones rigid and strong. Bone marrow is stored in the spongy bone. One can find ALL blood cell production in the red marrow (not just red blood cells) and also lipid storage in the yellow marrow. These minerals are very important in cell signaling. Phosphate and calcium are big contributors to bone ossification and for muscle movement.

What about examples of waste products?

Carbon Dioxide, Nitrogenous Waste(Urea) made during the breakdown & reassembly of proteins

Functionally and anatomically how do they differ?

Cardiac Muscle - Only in the heart Function: propels blood into circulation by helping with the movement of blood Histology: branched, striated, mononucleated, intercalated disks throughout Not under conscious control (involuntary) Smooth Muscle - found in hollowed organs (urinary bladder) Not under conscious control (involuntary) Function: propels substances (food, urine, a baby) along internal passageways Histology: NOT striated, mononucleated, branched Skeletal Muscle - found attached to bones or skin Function: assist with: movement, manipulation of the environment, voluntary control, and facial expression Histology: striated, multinucleate Under conscious control (voluntary) and unconscious control (shivering, reflexes,etc.); ONLY voluntary muscle type

What are the 3 types of muscle? Functionally and anatomically how do they differ?

Cardiac muscle, Smooth muscle, Skeletal muscle

What are the major anatomical/ physiological systems and what are the chief functions of each?

Cardiovascular system - transport blood gases (two main gasses being O2 and CO2), Intracellular proteins (hemoglobin), nutrients, hormones and waste over a distance; heart and blood vessels Skeletal system - support, protection, movement, reservoir for calcium and phosphate (stored in bones); skeleton is your scaffolding (stiff, rigid structure) Muscular system - movement of bones and organs Nervous system - cellular communication and control; central nervous system (12 pairs of cranial nerves) and peripheral nervous system (31 pairs of nerves from the spinal cord) Integumentary system - protection and detection, body temp regulation Endocrine system - produces hormones, chemical communication and control Lymphatic system - transport of fats, immune response and regulation of interstitial fluid balance Respiratory system- gas exchange, electrolyte/pH balance Digestive system- nutrient absorption, water balance, waste excretion; breaks down materials Urinary system- waste excretion, water/pH/ion balance Reproductive system- perpetuating the species; makes reproductive cells; produce reproductive hormones; consists of both exocrine and endocrine glands (ductless).

In what types of bones does endochondral ossification occur?

Cartilage formation begins at the end of the 4th week of development. Some ossification occurs at 8 weeks and some at 18-20 years. 1. Chondroblast produce cartilage model surrounded by perichondrium. 2. Perichondrium then becomes periosteum and a bone collar is produced. 3. Chondrocytes hypertrophy and calcified cartilage forms and are vascularized 4. Primary ossification center forms in the bone as major blood vessel (periosteal bud) pushes into bone and osteoblasts and osteoclasts invade calcified cartilage. Osteoblasts form spongy bone first. 5. Calcifying cartilage(secondary ossification) forms the epiphyses and medullary cavity begins to form; osteoclasts start to clear out spongy bone in medullary cavity 6. Secondary ossification centers form in epiphyses 7. Epiphyseal plate formed; articular (hyaline) cartilage formed around epiphysis Types of bones: base of skull, part of mandible, epiphyses of clavicles, most of the remaining bones of the skeleton

What does CNS and PNS stand for?

Central Nervous System and Peripheral Nervous System

Which (CNS or PNS) is largely encapsulated within a skeletal shield?

Central nervous system- the cranial nerves are shielded by the skull, cranial cavity. Spinal cord is protected by vertebral column/spinal canal

What is the function of Volkmann's Canal?

Channels that run through the bone perpendicular to the haversian canal that bring blood vessels into the bone from the periosteum that communicate with the haversian canal; aka perforating canals

What are the different levels can one study/learn/ discuss and anatomy?

Chemical level (which involves interactions between atoms- atoms, molecules, organelles) ,Cell level, tissue level, organ level, organ system level and organisms level

What is the definition of a buffer?

Chemicals that resist changes in pH when either acids or bases are added to the solution by accepting or donating a proton to keep the pH the same

What is the precursor of all steroid hormones?

Cholesterol

What is the function of Haversian canals?

Contain blood vessels and nerve cells that run parallel through the bone.

What does the medullary cavity of long bones contain? Is there a difference in the presence of tissue in the medullary cavities of long bones in juveniles vs. adults?

Contains red/yellow marrow. Red bone marrow is in juveniles whereas yellow bone marrow is in adults. Red bone marrow in juveniles- tissue that makes all blood cells (white, red, etc); goes away as you get older Yellow bone marrow in adults- replaces red bone marrow- collection of fat and energy reserve- most of long bone in appendicular skeleton is stuffed with fat by adulthood (don't need to make red bone marrow there because the vertebrae and flat bones are making enough for the rest of the body)

Know all planes (and all equivalent names of planes) used to describe sections through the body.

Coronal/Frontal plane - cuts body into anterior and posterior (front and back) halves; through shoulders Anterior/Ventral - the front half of the plane (towards the nose) Posterior/Dorsal - the back half of the plane (toward backside) Sagittal - cuts body into right and left halves down the midline of the body Midsagittal/median - cuts body into mirror images Transverse/Horizontal - cuts body into superior/cranial and inferior/caudal portions (top and bottom)

What is the function of periosteum?

Covers the outer surface of the bone and allows blood vessels to grow along and in the bone. Also is what allows muscle to attach to bone. It has TWO layers (what are the two layers??). The inner layer is birth grounds for osteoblasts. When you bruise a bone, you are damaging the periosteum. Where tendons and ligaments attach to bone

What is cretinism and what is thyroid hormones role in preventing it.

Cretinism is due to an absence/deficiency of thyroid hormone and can cause severely stunted growth (thyroid hormone is required for growth of all tissues)

What is the defining physiological characteristic of all endocrine glands?

Ductless; secrete hormones directly into the blood; regulates function of other tissues

Why/how are the paranasal sinus's problematic?

Due to the large amount of air that it is subjected to, bacteria can build up. They are easily infected- mucous membranes can cause sinus problems

What defines electrolytes?

ELECTROLYTES: Ca2+ (calcium), Na+ (sodium), K+ (potassium), Cl- (chloride), PO4-3 (phosphate), H3O+ (hydronium/H+), OH- (hydroxide), HCO3- (bicarbonate) Electrolyte - ions that dissociate completely, making the solution able to conduct electricity In the cell there is a high concentration of potassium and a low concentration of sodium

Otolaryngologist/otorhinolaryngologist

ENT (Ear, Nose, and Throat) doctor

What are the effects of these hormones on growth?

Early in life (Child/adolescence) the sex hormones stimulate the growth of the epiphyseal plate. Later in life the same hormones exert an opposite effect and cause the epiphyseal plate to stop growing and dissolve to become the epiphyseal line

How are endocrine glands and exocrine glands different?

Endocrine = ductless & Exocrine = ducts Endocrine glands release chemical substances directly into the bloodstream of the body. The chemical substances released by the endocrine glands are known as hormones. Exocrine glands release chemical substances through ducts to outside the body or onto another surface within the body. Gonads are considered endocrine because they release sex hormones.

What two physiological systems enforce/regulate negative feedback?

Endocrine System- Hormones regulate cell activity Nervous System- think how nerve endings serve as receptors; set the set point for homeostasis

What are the different histological regions of the epiphyseal growth plate, how are they arranged with respect to one another, and what is happening to cells in each phase or layer?

Epiphyseal side Zone of reserve cartilage- cartilage is constantly multiplying, some is moving across the zone line Zone of proliferation- cartilage is organizing into stacks while undergoing mitosis (hyperplasia (growth)) Zone of hypertrophy- cell and lacunae are growing larger in size (hypertrophy), chondrocytes mature Zone of calcification- chondrocytes are dying (apoptosis); form "graveyard" Zone of ossification- osteoblasts are infiltrating cartilage and building bone over "graveyard" Diaphyseal side

What is the difference between the term epiphysis and epiphyses and epiphyseal

Epiphysis- one "head" of a long bone Epiphyses- more than one head Epiphyseal- a structure anatomically located or related to the epiphysis

What is the role of the esophagus, the stomach, gall bladder, the liver (2 things- I mentioned), the small intestine and the large intestine?

Esophagus - transport bolus of food from the oral cavity to the stomach; peristalsis contractions Stomach - begin the breakdown of food into its macromolecule components; breakdown of proteins to amino acids Gallbladder - store and secrete bile (fat emulsifier) Liver - detoxify the blood; produce bile; stores glucose in between meals to keep blood sugar levels constant Small Intestine - absorbs nutrients (carbohydrates and proteins); further breakdown of proteins and amino acids Large Intestine - most of water absorption, movement of waste, bacteria found here that help produce vitamin K (help in blood clotting), fiber is important here to scrape along the large intestine and clean you out as well as keep your feces together

Which steroid hormones take center stage in reproduction?

Estrogen and Testosterone

Know the paranasal sinus names, locations? What are postulated to be the function of these sinus' (I named 3)?

Ethmoid, frontal, sphenoid, and maxillary Functions: 1. Warm and humidify air as it enters lungs 2. Act as an "amplifier" for your voice - similar to the hole on the front of an acoustic guitar 3. Decrease the weight of the skull 4. Serve as a sort of cushion or "crumple zone" against facial trauma

What might you think could cause persistent hypercalcemia and what could this eventually lead to if untreated?

Eventually the muscles and nerves get less excitable due to high calcium concentrations, which can lead to a coma or death if untreated. Muscles may become hyperactive if there is too little calcium concentration which can lead to convulsions.

What are some details of the respiratory system?

Exchanges oxygen and carbon dioxide between the blood and air and regulates blood pH Consists of the lungs and respiratory passages **ELECTROLYTES: Ca2+, Na+, K+, Cl-, PO4-3 (phosphate), H3O+ (hydronium/H+) ← Is the main electrolyte that determines pH, OH- (hydroxide), HCO3- (bicarbonate) Surface area of lungs is covered in mini sacs (alveoli) that diffuse oxygen. 300-400 million alveoli in each (plural). Increases surface area to 70 square meters. Pharynx - throat= cartilage reinforced tube is the trachea Left lung has cardiac notch to fit heart, therefore, it is smaller than the right lung Breathing regulates pH Pressure and volume are inversely related when temp. is constant*** Sense of needing to take a breath due to buildup of CO2

What is the stomach?

Expandable muscular pouch located under the liver that absorbs water, alcohol, and other nutrients; where materials are broken down Links esophagus to small intestine

What is cranial nerve VII. What is it's entry and function?

Facial Nerve Internal Acoustic Meatus & Stylomastoid, Foramen Sensory & Motor

What is the function of yellow marrow?

Fat reserve.

Circulatory absorption of nutrients (except what class of macromolecules?) are ported directly into___________ system.

Fats; lymphatic system

What are some details of the reproductive system

Female Reproductive System Produces oocytes and is the site of fertilization and fetal development; produces milk for the newborn; produces hormones (estrogen) that influence sexual function and behaviors Consists of the ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina, mammary glands, and associated structures Male Reproductive System Produces and transfers sperm cells to the female and produces hormones (testosterone) that influence sexual functions and behaviors Consists of the testes, accessory structures, ducts, and penis

Name an exocrine gland associated with the female reproductive system. Name an exocrine gland associated with the male reproductive system?

Female exocrine gland - mammary glands Male exocrine gland - Cowper's glands; prostate

Lower limb (Anterior)

Femoral - thigh Patellar - kneecap Crural - leg (shin)

How are anatomy and physiology linked?

Form follows function; processes, structures and functions are all interwoven (Structure implies function Physiology is explainable only in terms of the underlying anatomy)

What is the gut?

GI (gastrointestinal) tract; stomach, intestines; one tube mouth to anus

Name examples of critical parameters of the body that are homeostatically controlled?

Gases - oxygen and carbon dioxide levels, holding your breath (hypoventilation) or hyperventilation can kill you-- too much acidity in the body can cause death as well Temperature - 37 C or 98.6 F, fluctuates throughout the day but stays within a couple degrees or you die pH - 7.4 is pH of life. Below 6.8 or above 7.8 means you are dead Glucose - diabetes, if blood glucose levels don't stay constant then your cells starve and you die

What is cranial nerve IX. What is it's entry and function?

Glossopharyngeal Nerve Jugular Foramen Sensory & Motor

What are circumferential lamellae?

Goes around circumference of diaphysis. Lamella that goes around the outer and inner surface of bone; form outer surface of compact bone

What is created first in this matrix?

Ground substance Proteoglycan- macromolecules (amino acid core with long sugary polymers projecting out- structure allows molecule to trap in a lot of water in between each polymer & thicken the extracellular fluid) *adds viscosity "Dry as a bone"- only refers to dead bone (AKA no water) Glycoproteins- sugar proteins - adds viscosity(makes sticky) to interstitial fluid

What hormone does it produce that is "necessary but not sufficient" for growth?

Growth Hormone

Write the full formula for hydronium ion. Write the shortened version of this formula

H3O+; H+ (hydrogen/proton)

Cardiovascular system-What are its components?

Heart Muscular pump that applies pressure to fluid in system Makes audible noise Blood vessels Veins (carry deoxygenated blood towards the heart to be oxygenated), arteries (oxygenated blood moving away from heart to go to tissues/muscles), and capillaries (smallest) Vein visits (heart), Arteries away (from heart) Blood (Type of connective tissue) Carries gases, nutrients, waste RBCs (erythrocytes), oxygen, hemoglobin (blood binding intracellular protein that binds oxygen to get enough oxygen in the blood to satisfy the tissue's rate) , platelets (thrombocytes), plasma, WBCs(leukocytes) Blood gases: CO2 & O2

Advantage of studying A&P together

Helps tie everything together The information makes the most sense this way Easier in the sense that they are interwoven so the material is easier to grasp when taught this way

What is an example of a major intracellular protein (in what cells does it exist) important for blood function?

Hemoglobin - blood protein found in RBCs responsible for binding oxygen and transporting it throughout the body (due to oxygen's poor solubility)

What organs are likely to have smooth muscle tissue as part of their makeup?

Hollow visceral organs, fill up with fluid and contract later; organs that transport something through/out of if it. Ex: bladder, stomach, intestines, uterus

What is the function of lacunae?

Home of bone cells; circular layers of bone matrix that house osteocytes. In between lamellae

What is homeostasis? Why is it so important?

Homeostasis- state of equilibrium in the body with respect to functions and composition of fluids and tissues. Physiological variables must be kept within a well defined narrow limit enforced by physiological control systems Important because as our bodies undergo every day processes; we are exposed to new conditions & homeostasis maintains our body temperature, pH of blood/other fluids, blood glucose, blood gases, etc.

What is deposited last?

Hydroxyapatite is deposited last and hardens the bone; crystalization of calcium and phosphate

How does the term hypochondriac do double duty in anatomy and in psychology/psychiatry?

Hypochondriac is a disease when you are scared about your health. Hypochondriac comes ultimately from the Greek word hypochondria, which literally means "under the cartilage (of the breastbone)." ... Because doctors were male at this time, "women's problems" were largely written off as fits of hysteria (another obsolete medical term of Greek origin, from the word for womb).

What is cranial nerve XII. What is it's entry and function?

Hypoglossal Nerve Hypoglossal Canal Motor

How is the immune system related to the immune system?

Immune system functions through cells of the lymphatic system and the products of the immune system are usually carried in the lymphatic vessels. Lymph transports elements of the immune system (WBC's) and these WBC are stationed in lymph nodes

What to the paranasal sinus's have in common with the nasal conchae? Why is this important?

Increase the surface area in the nasal cavity, thereby facilitating moistening of, removal of particles from, and warming of the air inhaled through the nose.

What gases are exchanged in the lung? In what direction does the exchange take place and why is this exchange so important?

Inhale O2 and exhale CO2 Every cell in the body needs oxygen to obtain energy from food. It regulates the pH of the blood (you are basically breathing out acid= bicarbonate ions)

What example of a hormone did I mention in class and know its significance to the extent described in class (Hint: Diabetes)

Insulin; insulin serves as a hormone secreted by the pancreas to tell cells when to absorb glucose out of the blood. Diabetics have a decreased sensitivity to *type 2 (or simply don't produce *type 1) insulin. This decrease in insulin sensitivity results in cells not absorbing enough glucose from the blood, which causes high blood sugar. The cells will also die after a short period of time - if not treated - since they are not receiving any nutrients. A key indicative trait of diabetes = sweet smelling urine; the excess glucose that is not absorbed by the cells makes it's way to the urine and is expelled from the body. Diabetics without insulin are "starving" their cells You can't take insulin supplements orally because the stomach breaks down proteins (like insulin) into amino acids. You have to inject it right into your blood.

What is endochondral ossification from start material (?) to end product(?)

Intramembranous = within the (mesenchymal) membrane; takes place in connective tissue membrane formed from embryonic mesenchyme. Trabeculae are made first. Osteoblasts then make contact with outer surface of trabecula and add new bone to the surface. Eventually, surrounding mesenchyme tissue will differentiate into compact bone (bread of sandwich). Final products include many of the skull bones, part of the mandible, and diaphyses of the clavicles.

Why is living bone hard but not brittle?

It contains collagen All the collagen roping through the hydroxyapatite helps hold the hydroxyapatite together against shattering forces- you can shatter bone but for its weight it is very strong without being brittle

What is the pituitary gland? What is this glands size and shape and where is it located?

It is a major endocrine gland that helps with muscle and skeletal growth indirectly Pea size and located under the hypothalamus

Reproductive system-Why is this system so important?

It perpetuates the species, but it is the only system you can live without (failure causes sterilization, not death)

Know why it is important to have a standard anatomical position and what that position is.

It prevents confusion when discussing anatomy. The body is erect with the feet parallel and the arms hanging at the sides with the palms facing forward (supine)

By weight, how large is the integumentary system compared to other organs of the body?

It weighs 11 pounds (heaviest organ). The brain weighs 3 pounds. The largest internal organ is the liver. It's the skin. The skeletal muscle is the heaviest for all the muscles

What properties would it have if you let all the osteoid rot away?

It would be too brittle, and break easily. (because cartilage would be lost and hydroxyapatite is very brittle on its own) **Collagen is removed.

What are interstitial lamellae?

It's what fills the space in between osteons; keeps compact bone compact; remnants of concentric or circumferential lamellae that were partially removed during bone remodeling that are located between osteons

What are electrolytes? Why are the called electrolytes?

K+, Ca2+, Na+, Cl-, PO4^-3(phosphate), HCO3-(bicarbonate), H3O+(hydronium), OH-(hydroxide) Electrolyte - ions that dissociate completely, rendering the solution able to conduct electricity

What is the function of collagen?

Keeps bone from being shattered; creates elasticity/flexibility of bone

What is the difference between the terms lamella and lamellae?

Lamallae is plural of lamella.

What do osteoclasts secrete to accomplish their degradation of bone? What is this degradation called (Hint: return of calcium to the blood

Life History is referring to that fact that they are all one cell going through different stages and the names are referring to the different stages they are in; osteoclasts are not part of the cell history Osteoclasts are bone destroying cells and they break down bone matrix by secreting a concentrated acid (H+) and release proteolytic enzymes (enzymes that break down protein); as bone is broken down, the calcium goes "back"into the blood.

If the skeleton is not made solely of bones what are the two exceptions?

Ligaments - connect bone to bone Tendons - connect muscle to bone Cartilage - avascular, flexible membrane that acts as a protective layer for articular surfaces Joints - points of articulation between two or more bones Marrow- a soft fatty substance in the cavities of spongy bones, in which blood cells are produced (often taken as typifying strength and vitality) and can also be a fat storage (yellow marrow) Connective Tissue

What is the function of endosteum?

Like the periosteum, it is a birthing ground for osteoblasts; a single layer of connective tissue that lines the internal surfaces of all cavities within bones (ex: medullary cavity of diaphysis)

Disadvantage of studying A&P together

Loads of information Details may be missed

How does this compare with that of long bone?

Long bones have an epiphysis and a diaphysis The epiphysis contains mostly spongy bone The diaphysis contains mostly compact bone around the outer edges with less spongy bone and a medullary cavity that contains bone marrow

Why is a rib not considered a long bone?

Long bones must expand at the ends (think of the condyles of the femur, humerus, tibia, etc.). The ribs maintain the same width throughout their entirety - as such, they cannot be long bones. Also, long bones are straight and cylindrical. The ribs curve and are not completely cylindrical.

What are the different classes of bone shapes and name an example of each.

Long- upper/lower limbs Flat- ribs, sternum, skull, scapulae Short- carpals/tarsals Irregular- vertebrae, facial, sphenoid Sesamoid bone- (sesame seed shaped bone) grows in a ligament; has a tendon that hooks to the proximal end and ligament in distal end) ex: kneecap/patella)

Define Surface Anatomy

Looking at the exterior of the body to visualize structures deeper inside the body

What is the central gland/germ cell producing organ for males? What about females?

Males - testes; sperm and testosterone Females - ovaries; eggs and estrogen

What bones develop from intramembranous ossification?

Many skull bones, part of mandible, diaphyses of clavicle

What are the arches of the foot and what does having an arched foot endow us with?

Medial longitudinal arch Lateral longitudinal arch Transverse Arch - causes flaat feet

which of the three types of muscle is the most prevalent in terms of its contribution to body mass? How are 3 types of muscles all the same?

Most prevalent to body mass is skeletal muscle They all have a function to contract and exert force. Act in unison. The more muscular cells contracting the greater the force generated

Skin is not just for show, it is a vital organ for survival because....

Needed for detection, protection, water balance, maintains body temperature, and helps produce Vitamin D "Skin is the #1 front to prevent the immune system from getting overloaded"

Why is negative feedback called negative feedback?

Negative means that any deviation from the set point is made smaller or resisted; therefore, in a negative-feedback mechanism, the response to the original stimulus results in deviation from the set point, becoming smaller.

Define the peripheral nervous system.

Nerves that come out of the spinal cord/brain. Sensory receptors (afferent) and motor effectors (efferent), project out of cranial.

Is the skeleton made solely of bones?

No - other components include ligaments, tendons, cartilage, and joints

Is smooth muscle ever under conscious control?

No, one of the major characteristics that distinguish smooth muscle from other types of muscle is that it is not under conscious control

Does the kidney always release the same proportion of water and salt? If not, why not and to the extent discussed in class, how does this occur?

No, the kidney filters blood to get rid of the correct amount of water and salt to keep blood in the correct homeostatic state. Problems with the pituitary gland, kidney shutdown -If you're dehydrated, it re-absorbs more water and secrets very concentrated urine. If you're over hydrated, it secreted more water and the urine is more diluted.

Do trabeculae form in completely random ways? If not, what dictates how they might align and how might these alignment patterns reveal themselves?

No, they are oriented along stress lines to increase the strength of the bone when weight is applied.

Are the right and left lungs equivalent in size? If not, give an anatomical reason why not?

No. Cardiac notch - the left lung is smaller because the heart is under it.

What is the chemical formula for hydroxide ion?

OH-

What is cranial nerve III. What is it's entry and function? What else does it do that is special?

Oculomotor Nerve Superior Orbital Fissure Motor & parasympathetic Controls 4 of the 6 extrinsic muscles of the eye

What is cranial nerve I. What is it's entry and function?

Olfactory Nerve Cribriform plate of ethmoid bone Sensory

What is the Mnemonic for the Cranial Nerves?

On Occasion Our Trusty Truck Acts Funny Very Good Vehicle Any How

What is cranial nerve V. What is it's entry and function?

Ophthalmic Branch (V1) (E: Superior Orbital Fissure. F: Sensory) Maxillary Branch (V2) (E: Foramen Rotundum F: Sensory) Mandibular Branch (V3) (E: Foramen Ovale/ Mental Foramen. F:Sensory & Motor)

What is cranial nerve II. What is it's entry and function?

Optic Nerve Optic Canal Sensory

What are names and functions of the types of bone cells, (What are their characteristics? Where does each take up residence inside bone tissue?

Osteoprogenitors: (almost bone cells but not quite- bone stem cells) either stay a osteoprogenitor cell or undergo mitosis to become osteoblasts; made in the inner layer of the periosteum or endosteum Osteoblasts: Bone building cells; found in the periosteum and endosteum; secrete collagen; remodel existing bone; important for cell signaling Osteocytes: osteoblasts that are now wrapped in their lacunae; it stops building new bone; mostly maintains existing bone; Osteoblasts are surrounded by hydroxyapatite and become osteocytes; retain their connections to neighboring osteocytes through their cell extensions Osteoclasts: they are in periosteum and endosteum; reabsorb calcified bone matrix; break down bone

How are osteoclasts different from the other bone cell types in terms of size, nuclei, and origin?)

Osteoprogenitors: (almost bone cells but not quite- bone stem cells) either stay a osteoprogenitor cell or undergo mitosis to become osteoblasts; made in the inner layer of the periosteum or endosteum Osteoblasts: Bone building cells; found in the periosteum and endosteum; secrete collagen; remodel existing bone; important for cell signaling Osteocytes: osteoblasts that are now wrapped in their lacunae; it stops building new bone; mostly maintains existing bone; Osteoblasts are surrounded by hydroxyapatite and become osteocytes; retain their connections to neighboring osteocytes through their cell extensions Osteoclasts: they are in periosteum and endosteum; reabsorb calcified bone matrix; break down bone

What are the two major "blood gases"?

Oxygen and carbon dioxide; Very poor solubility in water, so use of proteins is needed to bind to oxygen (hemoglobin) and carbon dioxide (RBC-turns to bicarbonate ions) to be transported

Which of these hormones is most critical and which is least important in day to day physiology in humans?

PTH is most important, calcitonin is least important

Which organ in the digestive system functions as both an exocrine and an endocrine gland?

Pancreas Endocrine = insulin Exocrine = digestive juices in small intestine

Know the sites of synthesis, chemical nature, and physiological function of parathyroid hormone, vitamin D and know what I said in class about calcitonin?

Parathyroid hormone (PTH) → (most important!); synthesized in the parathyroid gland, large protein hormone made of amino acids, functions to increase calcium concentration in the blood (hypercalcemic) Vitamin D→ (2nd most important!); synthesized in the skin and kidney (need both), it is a steroid hormone (or "almost steroid hormone"), it increases calcium concentration in the blood (hypercalcemic); skin initiates process when exposed to UV light Calcitonin→ (3rd most important!); produced in the thyroid, it is a peptide hormone (made of amino acids), and it decreases calcium concentration (Hypocalcemic); inhibits osteoclasts and activates osteoblasts; causes kidney's to release calcium into urine Calcitonin→ (3rd most important!); produced in the thyroid, it is a peptide hormone (made of amino acids), and it decreases calcium concentration (Hypocalcemic); inhibits osteoclasts and activates osteoblasts; causes kidney's to release calcium into urine Calcitonin→ (3rd most important!); produced in the thyroid, it is a peptide hormone (made of amino acids), and it decreases calcium concentration (Hypocalcemic); inhibits osteoclasts and activates osteoblasts; causes kidney's to release calcium into urine

What are some details of the digestive system?

Performs the mechanical and chemical processes of digestion, absorption of nutrients, and elimination of wastes Consists of the mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines, and accessory organs (one tube from mouth to anus) Everything along it is the GI tract (gut)

What is the role of smooth muscle in the digestive tract? Is this role widespread?

Peristalsis - involuntary contractions of the smooth muscle in the digestive tract to move food throughout the gut; it is widespread throughout the esophagus, stomach, and intestines

The term Cardiac refers to?

Pertaining to the Heart

Why are calcium and phosphate so important to physiology?

Phosphate is a large determinant in the production of DNA/RNA, aid in production of ATP and also act as a buffer for the blood. Calcium ions are important for cell processes. Calcium- blood clotting, exocytosis, neural transmissions, and muscle contractions.

Lower limb (Posterior)

Popliteal - hollow dorsal side of knee Sural - calf

How do these cells differ from osteoblasts and how do osteoblasts in turn differ from osteocytes?

Progenitor= parent to osteoblast Blast= "adolescent"- actively forming bone Cytes= "middle aged"- only maintain the bone around them in their lacunae

What is proprioception?

Proprioception is the ability to determine the position of your body parts in relation to one another in three dimensions. (ex. When your eyes are closed and you try to touch your nose, you know where your hand is in relation to your nose)

What are some details of the integumentary system?

Provides protection, regulates temperature, prevents water loss, and helps produce vitamin D Consists of skin, hair, nails, sweat glands, and oil glands Skin is the body's largest organ

What is contained within the spaces of spongey bone?

Red and yellow bone marrow→ blood cell birth and fat storage

What is the function of red marrow?

Red marrow is the source of all RBC/WBC production

What is the advantage/disadvantage of studying regional anatomy?

Regional Anatomy is studied by examining all structures of a particular region - Disadvantage is that it's hard to keep track of which structures pertain to each system and having to learn different parts of the systems at different times - Advantage is a holistic picture of each portion of the body and how the systems integrate

What are some details of the lymphatic system?

Removes foreign substances from the blood and lymph combats disease, maintains tissue fluid balance, and absorbs dietary fats from the digestive tract Consists of the lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, and other lymphatic organs Lymph- the fluid throughout the lymphatic system; able to defy gravity by using the movement of our muscles-from daily body movement; moves throughout body in one direction, unidirectional Lymphatic organs are cleansing depots → cleanse to find white blood cells. White blood cells regulate fluids from toxins. White blood cells (soldiers) stationed in lymph nodes (think of training/military bases). Complex array of branching tubes, but doesn't carry contents under pressure. Has no pump. Lymphatic fluid --> Circulatory system --> Interstitial fluid --> Cells (get fluid to keep hydrated) --> Repeat

What are some details of the urinary system?

Removes waste products from the blood and regulates blood pH, ion balance, and water balance Consists of the kidneys, urinary bladder, ureters, urethra

Know what right and left refer to when describing a specimen/patient or anatomical object.

Right and left refer to the patient's right and left

Recognize sagittal, coronal, and transverse sections.

Sagittal- plane runs directly between the eyes; divides specimen into 2 mirror images Coronal- plane divides body into front and back (think of where the coronal suture is located) Transverse- plane divides body into a top half and a bottom half

How do osteoclast break down the elements of this matrix (2 types of secretions are made)?

Secreting H+ (acid) and by releasing proteolytic enzymes

What is the difference between a separated shoulder and a dislocated shoulder?

Separated- The separation of the acromioclavicular joint. Dislocated- humerus out of socket

How does the lymphatics system compare to the cardiovascular system. Specifically compare and contrast the two systems in terms of : 1the fluid circulated; 2 the speed and pressure of the circulations.

Similar to cardiovascular in that in both systems, materials/fluids are being moved through tubes. Lymph is not under pressure; no pump- it is circulated by daily body movements; slower; moved/able to go against gravity by skeletal muscle contractions squeezing lymph through tubes. The heart pumps blood and other materials through the cardiovascular system. In the cardiovascular system, blood is the fluid being moved and in the lymphatic system, moves lymph. Both are a complex array of tubes branching into smaller tubes. It is a slow process with no pressure on fluid in the lymphatic system. High pressure in the cardiovascular system. Lymph is circularly absorbed and excreted. It goes from the capillaries, to the nodes, to the vessels, collecting duct and back up through the subclavian vein, and then it just keeps circularly doing the same thing.

Are they similar in both sexes? Are there differences?

Similar, both cause growth and closure of epiphyseal plates. They even look similar. Different because males start growing later and they grow longer.

How does what we are choosing dovetail with the name of both courses (eg. Integrative Anatomy and Physiology I (319) and Integrative Anatomy and Physiology II)? Mainly, what regime are we using in this class?

Since we are studying both anatomy and physiology together, we are recognizing that the two are interwoven and are integrating the two subjects (systemic approach)

In general, what defines a type of muscle that is a sphincter?

Skeletal muscle *some are voluntary* Circular muscle that helps dilate, control, or close off the diameter of an opening or tube

What organ(s) makes up the integumentary system?

Skin, hair, nails, sweat glands

What is the function of canaliculi?

Small channels that link lacunae together to deliver nutrients to osteocytes and expel waste products; plural = caniliculus

What is the role of smooth muscle in the urinary system?

Smooth muscle lines the walls of the bladder, allowing it to expand to take on urine and then contract when it is expelled from the body

Solution A has a pH of 8. How many more hydronium ions does Solution A have compared to a Solution B that has a pH of 11

Solution A has 1000x as many hydronium ions as does solution B; "10^3" more

Answer question 1, but this time figure out how many more hydroxide ions solution B has compared to solution A.

Solution B has 1000x as many hydroxide ions as does solution A; "10^3"

What is the Mnemonic for the Cranial Never Functions?

Some Say Marry Money But My Brother Says Big Brains Matter More

Where does water and drinking alcohol begin absorption into the blood?

Stomach

What does the gall bladder store and where is this material manufactured? What is its physiological role?

Stores bile that is made from the liver; bile acts as a fat solvent - makes fat more easy to break down and absorb while it travels through the lymphatic system Bile emulsifies fat in the small intestine to allow further breakdown for absorption via small intestines into the lymphatic system. While other nutrients are absorbed into the blood, fats are absorbed into the lymph through the villi.

How does a strong acid differ from a weak acid?

Strong acids dissociate completely, meaning they donate all of their protons into the solution

Know examples of how the skeletal system has a major role in support, movement and protection. Name some organs that the skeleton protects.

Support - gives humans our shape Spinal curvatures help accommodate our upright posture by aligning our body weight with our pelvis and lower limbs Movement - bones work with muscles to provide movement When muscles contract, they pull on bones Protection - Ribs and sternum protect the heart and lungs, skull protects the brain The spinal cord is protected by the body of the vertebrae and the vertebral arch Pelvic girdle protects organs in pelvic cavity

Where is the peripheral nervous system found?

System found outside of the brain and spinal cord

What is the advantage/disadvantage of studying systematic anatomy?

Systematic Anatomy is studied system by system -Disadvantage would be that it can be difficult to integrate the systems together -Advantage would be going in depth about what the system itself does

What is the mathematical definition of pH?

The (negative) logarithm (to the base 10) of the reciprocal of the hydrogen ion concentration, [H+]. The pH is approximately equal to the negative logarithm of the H+ ion concentration expressed in molarity. pH= -log of [H+]

Which (CNS or PNS) is mainly charged with integrating information, making decisions, and initiating commands to muscles and or glands?

The Central Nervous System (CNS

Understand how the epiphyseal growth plate remains more or less the same thickness as it serves as the wellspring for long bone growth.

The actual cartilaginous thickness never changes, it only moves upwards. The diaphysis elongates, "pushing" the plate upward.

how are the terms biceps branchii and branchial regions related?

The biceps brachii is located in the brachial region and flexes the elbow joint and supinates the forearm.

What is the rationale for the numbering of the cranial nerves?

The cranial nerves are numbered from the most anterior foramen containing cranial nerves (CN I) to the most posterior foramen containing cranial nerves (CN XII) (an exception is the hypoglossal and accessory nerves)

What is the diaphragm and in which position does it assume during contraction and relaxation?

The diaphragm is a muscle that divides the abdominal and thoracic cavities. When breathing in the diaphragm is pulled down (contracting) to increase chest cavity area which decreases pressure and causes air to enter the lungs (reverse for breathing out).

What are the relative amounts of compact bone vs spongey bone in the diaphysis versus the epiphysis?

The diaphysis contains more compact bone than spongy whereas the epiphysis contains more spongy bone More Compact = Diaphysis & More Spongy = Epiphysis (aka sandwich meat)

Can the activity of the respiratory system effect blood pH?

The exhalation of CO2 decreases the acidity of the blood since HCO3- makes blood acidic The chemical equation is CO2 + H2O → H3CO2 → 2H+ HCO3-

What is the relationship between the nodes and the vessels?

The fluids traveling through the circulatory system must always pass through the lymph nodes from the vessels to be "checked" for infectious materials

how do cranial nerves relate to foramina? What is the singular for formina?

The foramina serve as passages through which cranial nerves exit the skull as they travel to the structures to which they attach. The singular form of foramina is foramen.

What is the one very important exception to this (an internal organ made up predominantly of its own specific type of muscle tissue?

The heart is made up of cardiac muscle which is only in the heart.

Explain the following: The lungs are inflatable sacs each made of the 300-400 hundred million tiny sacs? What are these tiny sacs called in the singular and plural

The large number of sacs greatly increases the surface area (70 sq. m.) for oxygen to diffuse into the blood 300-400 sacs per lung/ 600-800 total

Is the Nervous system a "a command and control system"? If so, how? Is it relatively fast in its decisions and actions?

The nervous system IS a command and control due to sending and receiving information throughout the body. The response is fast due to impulses sent along axons to receiving dendrites.

For a given homeostatically controlled variable, do they always work together? Do they sometimes work together? Never?

The nervous system recognizes the deviation and signals the endocrine system to release a certain hormone to fix the deviating variable In general they can be independent from each other, but also can work together (but in negative feedback, they usually work together)

Why is the curved parietal bone considered a "flat" bone?

The parietal bone is considered a flat bone cause it's like a sandwich. The bread is made of hard bone, while the internal portion (or the meat) is made of spongy bone.

What is the pharynx the trachea a bronchus (bronchi) and how do they relate to the lungs?

The pharynx- "throat"; connects nasal and oral cavities to larynx and esophagus The trachea-"windpipe"; begins just under larynx and runs behind the sternum. Divides into two smaller tubes called bronchi, one bronchus for each lung Bronchus/bronchi- two divisions of the trachea that branch to each lung

What is anatomy?

The scientific discipline that investigates the body's structures (form) & examines the relationship between the structure of a body part

What is physiology?

The scientific investigation of the processes or functions of living things

Which organ initiates vitamin D synthesis and which organ completes it?

The skin initiates synthesis when exposed to UV light, and the kidneys complete synthesis after receiving signals from the parathyroid gland

How does the spinal column curve normally from the lateral perspective? Why is the curvature important? Are we born with? If not, when do we develop it?

The spinal column assumes a sigmoidal shape - somewhat like an "s" with an extra curve. This curvature of the spine makes it easier to effectively balance your center of mass. We are not born with this spinal shape. As a child, the spine "bows" out anteriorly (Aside: primates have an anterior "bowing" of their spine throughout their entire life). The spine begins to assume the standard sigmoidal shape as the child learns to hold their head up, and as they begin to walk upright.

Are there organs in that are part of the reproductive system that are also part of the endocrine system?Give other examples of endocrine glands vs. exocrine glands.

The testes and ovaries are part of both the reproductive and endocrine system Endocrine: pituitary, thyroid, adrenal, pancreas, pineal, testes, ovaries Exocrine: salivary, breast, sweat, pancreas (both), oil glands

In the broadest categories how many tissue types are there and what are they called?

There are four tissue types: epithelial, nervous, muscle, and connective

Are the reproductive organs active between birth and puberty? What about after puberty?

These organs are not active prior to puberty; they are active starting at puberty. Menopause in women stops some of the reproductive functions, usually in 50s!

Can anatomy and physiology be studied separately or together?

They can be studied together or separately, but there is a greater benefit in studying them together

What is the function of lamellae?

Thin layer of compact bone that surrounds the central canal/Haversian canal; singular = lamella

Why do you think people invented the pH scale as an index for hydronium ion concentrations in aqueous solutions? (Hint: Why not just use the raw concentration of the hydronium ion concentration?)

To simplify the numerical system - uses a low range of numbers (ex. 1-14) Think of how hard it would be to know the -log of each and every concentration. By providing a numerical (simplified) version it is quicker and easier to use

What is cranial nerve IV. What is it's entry and function?

Trochlear Nerve Superior Orbital Fissure Motor

What is the gross anatomical structure of flat bone (Hint: sandwich analogy).

Two layers of compact bone (bread) with spongy bone in between (meat)

Quadrants

Upper Right Upper Left Lower right Lower Left

What type of metabolic Urea (nitrogenous waste product)waste is specifically gotten rid of by urinary system (hint: its reminiscent of what the urine is named after)

Urea (nitrogenous waste product)

What is an example discussed in class of a smooth muscle lined organ that can expands its volume as it takes on fluid and then contract to expel the fluid? Do you have conscious control of this contraction? If not, how do you have conscious control of voiding urine every 2-4 hours?

Urinary Bladder You do not have conscious control of your bladder, but you have conscious control of the sphincter (made of skeletal muscle) and urethra which allows you to consciously control the release of urine from your body

What is cranial nerve X. What is it's entry and function?

Vagus Nerve Jugular Foramen Sensory & Motor

For PTH regulation of Calcium, what is the variable, the receptor, the controller and the effectors?

Variable- calcium concentration in the blood Receptor- parathyroid gland regulatory receptors Controller- Parathyroid gland Effectors- parathyroid hormone, vitamin D, and calcitonin

What are their individual characteristics and how do they work together to exert negative feedback?

Variable- the thing that is deviating from a set point Receptor- monitors the value of a variable Control Center- part of the brain, which establishes the set point around which the variable is maintained through communication with the receptors and effectors Effector- produces a response that maintains homeostasis

What is cranial nerve VIII. What is it's entry and function?

Vestibulocochlear Nerve Internal Acoustic Meatus Sensory

Why is vitamin D called a vitamin even though it is also known as a hormone

Vitamin D can be consumed as a whole vitamin or in foods, but the body can also produce some vitamin D on its own There are different forms of vitamin d and depending on the form makes it a vitamin or hormone

Is this talking about if hormone is a modified amino acid, a polypeptide, or a lipid?

Vitamin D is a cholesterol precursor but is not a sterol you take take it orally and you will not digest it which is why people thought it was a vitamin originally, Growth hormone and thyroid hormones are proteins so they have to be injected and not taken orally because if you took them orally then your stomach would digest them along with the other proteins you eat, testosterone and estrogen are sterols which aren't digested but taken up by the blood so you can take oral birth control pills and they still work.

Name the hormones that influence bone growth?

Vitamin D-promotes absorption of calcium from intestines (ingested or made) Vitamin C- necessary for collagen synthesis by osteoblasts (scurvy is caused by inadequate Vitamin C) Hormones that influence growth (not sure if he is looking for the ones listed above or the ones below) Growth hormone from anterior pituitary. Thyroid hormone Sex hormones such as estrogen and testosterone

What are examples of nutrients carried by the blood?

Water, oxygen, amino acids, proteins, glucose Fats are not carried by the blood, but by the lymphatic system

How are we studying A&P?

We are studying anatomy and physiology using a systems approach

Which hormone, if not produced properly, will lead to a hypocalcemia that could cause fatal convulsions?

When PTH is secreted, osteoclast activity increases, as well as blood Ca++. we know that PTH is hypercalcemic (hyper+making a lot of), so if PTH activity increases to the point of being too much, then comas can happen. HOWEVER When PTH levels are low and Ca++ is not being produced in adequate amounts, THAT is when fatal convulsions can happen; hyperexcitability in muscles PTH is an osteoclast inducer, because calcium is supposed to make your bones strong, but when there is too much calcium circulating, then the bone starts to weaken and break down

What type of cells colonize lymphatic tissue and function as soldiers in your defense? Why does this make sense in terms of swollen lymph nodes often observed in the vicinity of an infection?

White blood cells (Leukocytes) colonize lymphatic tissue

Does the nervous system and cardiovascular system infiltrate bone? If so, what are the canals called that allow this and how are they arranged?

Yes Central/Haversian canal (north to south) and Volkmann's canal (east to west).

Is the stomach itself muscular and if so what role does its muscular serve?

Yes - composed of smooth muscles. Mixes/churns food and stomach acid to further break down the food into its constituent macromolecules, also has sphincters that keep food from going back up your esophagus (GERD), or down your small intestine too fast

Do the kidneys play a role in the body's water balance, ion (electrolyte balance)? If so, what system(s) would you make as an informed guess, that control the kidney to change solute (ion) content and solvent (water amount)?

Yes, homeostasis (nervous system- pituitary gland), the left kidney is higher than the right Kidneys can regulate filtering of Ca2+ ions by Parathyroid Hormone (PTH) , among other hormones, secreted by endocrine glands. Also regulate filtering of saline (water and salt solution) what about water?

Can anatomy and physiology be studied "regionally"?

Yes, you can just study it regionally -- definition for that is below (this approach was used in learning the cranial nerves) (studied area by area)

Can a gland be both exocrine and endocrine? If so, what is an example?

Yes. The pancreas can function as an exocrine gland when it secretes enzymes to break down proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids in food. The pancreas can also function as an endocrine gland when it secretes hormones such as insulin and glucagon to control blood sugar levels.

Are there holes in the skull that transmit cranial nerves aside from foramina?

Yes: Foramen magnum: spinal accessory nerve Superior Orbital Fissure: oculomotor nerve (CN III), trochlear nerve (CN IV), Ophthalmic division (V1) of trigeminal nerve (CN V), abducens nerve (CN VI) Internal Auditory Canal (Meatus): vestibulocochlear nerve (CN VIII), Facial nerve VII Hypoglossal Canal: Hypoglossal nerve (CN XII) Optic Canal: Optic Nerve (CN II)

Do foramina conduct other things besides nerves? If so what?

Yes: Jugular foramen houses the jugular vein Carotid Canal (though not formally labeled as a "foramen") conducts the internal carotid artery

Is the endocrine system an example of a "command and control" system. If so, how so? What other system does this? How do the two compare and contrast?

Yes; the endocrine system controls the production of hormones which regulates/controls certain cells and in turn, structures. BUT it is much slower which is good because you wouldn't want hormonal changes to happen instantly Nervous and endocrine are command and control systems. The nervous system is faster and this is useful in situations when you need to react quickly. The endocrine system is slower and useful for things that need time to develop.

Abdomino-pelvic region

abdomen and pelvis region (abdomen ends at top of hips)

Compact bone

also known as cortical bone- found in the diaphyseal wall; found in both epiphysis and diaphysis but proportionally greater in the diaphysis; more matrix and denser with fewer pores than spongy bone

Spongy bone

also known as trabecular (meaning "little beams"), woven, or dipole(bone and marrow) bone- is visible at the gross anatomical level- found in both diaphysis and epiphysis but proportionally greater in the epiphysis; consists of interconnecting rods, beams or plates of bone called trabeculae which in life are filled with bone marrow and blood vessels

What is a ganglion/ganglia?

any group/cluster of nerve cell bodies in the PNS (outside of CNS)

Perineal region

between the anus and groin area

Hallux

big toe

Define Structure.

can be physically described (Size, shape, location, made of a group of substructures, links to other structures)

Medullary cavity

cavity in the shaft of the bone that contains either red bone marrow (kids) or yellow bone marrow (adults); aka medulla *No medullary cavity in epiphysis!

Thorax

chest (thoracic region)

Medial

closer to center of body (towards the midline)

Lateral

closer to outside of body (away from the midline)

Superficial/external

closer to surface of body

Superior/cranial

closer to the head (used for head, neck and torso)

Proximal

closer to trunk of body (used for appendages)

What is a nucleus/nuclei?

cluster of cell bodies (neurons)- in the CNS

Clavicular

collar bone; connects sternum and scapula

Periosteum

connective tissue membrane that coats the outer surface all living bone (except where bones join together which is articular cartilage)- allows blood vessels to penetrate at various points- birthing ground for osteoblasts to grow bone thicker and wider; when you "bruise" bone you injure the periosteum Any ligament or tendon is actually attached to the periosteum

Pelvic cavity

contains reproductive organs, part of the colon, and the bladder

Pericardial cavity

contains the heart; "peri=around"

Visceral peritoneum

covers organs; inner membrane

Diaphragm

divides the thoracic cavity from abdominopelvic cavity; contracts- pulls downward to increase volume of chest

Mediastinum

divides the thoracic cavity, which is in the chest, hold the heart, trachea and blood vessels, thymus; what's not in the pleural cavity

About how many cells are there in a human body that need to be served by capillaries?

every 3 to 5 cells; branching of capillaries allows for greater surface area for gas exchange and ensures that all cells are close to a capillary

Define Histology

examines tissues, subcomponent of organs, which are composed of cells and the materials surrounding them; microscopic study of tissues (groups of similar cells); 4 major types of tissue: muscle, nervous, epithelial, & connective

Mesenteries

extension of peritoneum that anchors the visceral pericardium of abdominopelvic organs to parietal pericardium on the wall of the abdominopelvic cavity, acts as scaffolding to anchor arteries and veins

Define Cardiovascular physiology

function of heart and blood vessels

Define Neurophysiology

function of nervous system

Deep/internal

further away from surface of body

Distal

further away from trunk of body (used for appendages)

Cephalic region

head (cephalon)

Define Function.

how things work

Clinical condition of Pericarditis

inflammation of the pericardium

Clinical condition of Peritonitis

inflammation of the peritoneum

Clinical condition of Pleuritis

inflammation of the pleura

What does the term autonomic mean?

involuntary

How does this "blood protein" circumvent the problem of low oxygen solubility in water?

it binds and increases the solubility of Oxygen in the blood. Hemoglobin is a tetramer, and competitively binds oxygen (more oxygen bound leads to conformational changes and increased oxygen affinity). Sickle cell anemia is when the protein misfolds so it can't carry as much oxygen.

Epiphyseal line

line left when bone stops growing in length and the epiphyseal plate becomes ossified

Pleura

lines pleural cavity & covers lungs

Parietal peritoneum

lines the wall of cavities; outer membrane

What are some details of the muscular system?

maintains posture, and produces body heat Consists of muscles attached to the skeleton by tendons Cardiac, smooth, skeletal By far the heaviest body system

What are some details of the cardiovascular system?

plays a role in the immune response and the regulation of body temperature Consists of the heart, blood vessels, and blood The term "cardiac" refers to "pertaining to the heart"

Define Cell physiology

processes occurring in cells

What are some details of the skeletal system?

produces blood cells (red marrow), and stores minerals; adipose (yellow marrow) in older people, red marrow younger people Consists of bones, associated cartilages, ligaments, and joints

Define the term "gross" as defined in the term "gross anatomy"?

refers to large body structures, seen with the naked eye. Gross anatomy can be done regionally or systemically

Pleurae

sac that surrounds lungs

Pericardium

sac that surrounds the heart

Pleural cavities

sacs that each contain a lung

Peritoneum

serous membrane that forms the lining of the abdominopelvic cavity

Diaphysis

shaft with medullary cavity in it; composed primarily of compact bone but can contain some spongy bone

Dorsal (back)

shoulder blades to hips Lumbar (loin) - lower back

Endosteum

single cell layer of connective tissue that lines the internal surfaces of all cavities within bones and serves as a birthing ground for osteoblasts (bone builder)- lines medullary cavity in bone

Define Developmental anatomy

structural changes that occur between conception and adulthood

Define Cytology

structural features of cells

Define Gross Anatomy

study of structures that can be viewed without a microscope; can be approached systemically or regionally; can be viewed by the naked eye; "large"

Define Embryology

subspecialty of developmental anatomy that considers changes from conception to the end of the eighth week of development

What are the two wings of the autonomic nervous system? Which is associated with executing the "fight or flight" response; which is associated with "resting and digesting" physiology?

sympathetic (fight or flight), parasympathetic (rest and digest- needed for vagus nerve)

What is efferent?

the CNS propagates a signal targeting a muscle, gland, etc to signal it to do something- Brain controls it; "away from brain" (SAME= Sensory, Afferent. Motor, Efferent.)

What is afferent?

the CNS receives a signal→ only sensory; "to brain"

Define Regional anatomy

the body is studied area by area, and all systems within the area are studied simultaneously (head/neck anatomy in dental school)

Define Systemic anatomy

the body is studied system by system. A system is a group of structures that have one or more common functions (cardiovascular system, digestive system, etc.); how we study anatomy

Define Systemic physiology

the function of organ systems

Epiphysis

the part of a long bone that develops from a center of ossification distinct from that of the diaphysis; located on proximal and/or distal end of bone; epiphyses (plural) Allows for appositional growth

What is histology and what piece of equipment is needed to do histology?

the study of tissues where we look at the subcomponents. You need a microscope.

Inferior/caudal

towards "tail" (used for head, neck and torso)

An organ is composed of at least_____tissue types.

two or more tissue

From neutrality, as pH goes down, hydronium ion concentration goes ____?

up Acidic- 0 to 7

From neutrality, as pH goes up, hydroxide ion concentration goes ____?

up Basic- 7-14