All APUSH Terms

Hiram Revels

*Who*: 1st A.A. senator *What*: out of 125 southerners elected to congress only 16 = A.A. (Revels = the 1st) - traveled to Indiana and Illinois to receive the education that was denied him in the South - Revels = Repub. + was anxious not to encourage race friction w/ white Southerners - supported legislation that would have restored the power to vote and to hold office to disenfranchised members of the former Confed. - Jan 1870 he was elected to the U.S. Senate to take the seat vacated by Albert G. Brown in 1861 - performed competently in office, advocating desegregation in the schools and on the railroads *Where*: DC (Congress) *When*: 1870-71 *Why*: Wanted to practice polit. freedom + voice opinions about desegregation in Senate

Theodore Roosevelt

*Who*: 26th Pres. *What*: Repub. (& Demo b/c did not believe in pure party polit.) - very energetic, used force of personality to get what he wanted - had a problem w/ big powerful businesses - sued JP morgan (Morgan's monopoly = crushed) - acted for the people - became known as the great "trust buster" for his strenuous efforts to break up industrial combinations under the Sherman Antitrust Act - won a Nobel Peace Prize for his negotiations to end the Russo-Japanese War & spearheaded the beginning of construction on the Panama Canal - believed Panama Canal would be necessary to protect Amer. - believed it was his maj. contribution - dedicated conservationist, setting aside some 200 million acres for national forests, reserves and wildlife refuges during his presidency - formed the new progressive party - 1912, Roosevelt was so incensed w/ Taft and the conservative Republicans that he chose to break from the party and form his own Progressive Party - "Square Deal" = domestic program included a promise to battle large industrial combinations, or trusts, which threatened to restrain trade *Where*: Wash DC *When*: 1901-1909 *Why*: wanted to limit the pow. of big businesses

William Lloyd Garrison

*Who*: Abolitionist (most radical of), anti-slavery activist *What*: spoke out against slavery & for rights of America's black inhabitants - wrote anti-slavery newspaper, *the Liberator* - advocated the immediate emancipation of all slaves - believed that all blacks would be equal in every way to white citizens. They, too, were Americans and entitled to "life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness." - approach to emancipation stressed nonviolence and passive resistance + attracted a following - 1832 he helped organize the New England Anti-Slavery Society + following year the American Anti-Slavery Society (were the first organizations dedicated to promoting immediate emancipation) *Where*: Mass *When*: 1831, until after the end of the Civil War in 1865 *Why*: to emancipate the slaves

Great Compromise

*Who*: Agreement at Constitutional Convention *What*: - 2 branch legislature - proportional representation in lower house, but required the upper house to be weighted equally between the states - Each state would have two representatives in the upper house - each state had equal votes in the senate *Where*: Connecticut *When*: 1787 *Why*: make state representation equal btw large + small states

Patriots and loyalists

*Who*: Amer. Colonies split into 2 groups *What*: - Patriots = wanted the American colonies to gain their independence from Britain (pro-independence) -> lead by sons of liberty + continental congress - Loyalists = against indepen. b/c British rule = beneficial; loyal to monarch *When*: 1770-1776 *Where*: Amer. Colonies *Why*: Patriots wanted independence under one gov. , loyalists did not

Commonwealth v. Hunt

*Who*: Amer. Legal case + Mass supreme court *What*: ruled that the common-law doctrine of criminal conspiracy did not apply to labour unions *Where*: Mass supreme Judicial court *When*: 1842

standard time zones

*Who*: Amer. Railroads *What*: Amer. railroads began using four continental time zones to end the confusion of dealing w/ thousands of local times - need of 4 continental time zones stemmed directly from the problems of moving passengers & goods over the thousands of miles of rail line that covered North America by the 1880s - railroads began to shrink travel time btw cities from days or months to hours - Efficient rail transportation demanded more uniform time-keeping system - pow railroad companies took it upon themselves to create a new time code system - companies agreed to divide continent into 4 time zones; close to present day ones - not until 1918 that Congress officially adopted the railroad time zones and put them under the supervision of the Interstate Commerce Commission *Where*: U.S. + Canada *When*: Nov 18, 1883 *Why*: Standard time zones required for transport/arrival times of goods. Important to know travel time

Pullman strike

*Who*: Amer. railway union vs. the Pullman co. *What*: nationwide railroad strike - boycotted the injustices in the railway industry *Where*: Chicago + then spread nationwide *When*: 1894 *Why*: turning point in US labor movement (directly led to the progressive era) j

the religious right

*Who*: American Citizens *What*: 1/4 of Amer. adults say they were born again Christians - many = evangelical - a term used mainly in the US to label right-wing Christian polit. factions that are characterized by their strong support of socially *conservative* policies - Christian conservatives principally seek to apply their understanding of the teachings of Christianity to politics and to public policy by proclaiming the value of those teachings or by seeking to use those teachings to influence law and public policy *Where*: US *When*: 1980s (most of the 20th century) *Why*: In the U.S., the Christian right is an informal coalition formed around a core of evangelical Protestants & Roman Catholics

James K. Polk

*Who*: Considered himself the "Old Hickory" + Democrat *What*: reduced tariffs, reformed the national banking system + settled a boundary dispute (54'40) w/ the British that secured the Oregon Territory for the US - Polk led the nation into the Mex-Amer. War (1846-48), in which the US acquired CA + New Mex and much of the present-day Southwest - Polk kept his campaign promise to be a one-term president and did not seek reelection - believed highly in *manifest destiny* (the belief that the US was fated to expand across the North American continent) - by the end of his four years in office, the nation extended, for the first time, from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean *Where*: DC *When*: 1845-1849 = Pres. *Why*: Served as a compromise Pres. and ultimately achieved all his goals

Trail of Tears

*Who*: Enforced by Martin Van Buren *What*: on behalf of white settlers who wanted to grow cotton on Indians' land, fed gov. forced them to leave their homelands + walk thousands of miles to a specially designated "Indian territory" across Mississippi River - marched Indians 1,200 miles+ to Indian territory - Whooping cough, typhus, dysentery, cholera and starvation = the epidemic along the way - approx. more than 5,000 Cherokee died as a result of the journey *Where*: Georgia to across Mississippi River *When*: 1830's *Why*: Jackson wanted Indians gone to use land for cotton production

black codes

*Who*: Enforced by white southerners *What*: restricted A.A. lives - prohibited activities such as traveling w/out permits, the right to bear arms (or knife's), serving on juries, testifying in court, etc. - Under lenient Recon. policies of Pres. Andrew Johnson, white southerners reestablished civil authority in the former Confed. states in 1865 + 1866 - They enacted a series of restrictive laws known as which were designed to restrict freed blacks' activity & ensure their availability as a labor force now that slavery had been abolished. *Where*: South (Confed. states) *When*: 1865-77 *Why*: Wanted to limit A.A. political and social pow. + believed in white supremacy

minstrel shows

*Who*: Entertainers *What*: Form of entertainment - Each show = comic skits, variety acts, dancing, and music - shows = performed by white people in make-up or blackface for the purpose of playing the role of black people - Minstrel shows = popular before slavery was abolished - segregationists thought such shows were "disrespectful" of social norms - Minstrelsy lost popularity during the war - New entertainments such as variety shows, musical comedies and vaudeville appeared in the North started to become more popular *Where*: US *When*: 1830s-1910 *Why*: American form of entertainment - comedies provided temporary relief for hardworking peoples

1969 seizure of Alcatraz island

*Who*: American Indians *What*: 89 American Indians boarded boats in Sausalito, CA, & made a 5mi trip across foggy SF Bay to Alcatraz Island - Upon landing, they declared the former prison Indian land "by right of discovery" & demanded the U.S. gov. provide funding to turn it into a Native Amer. cultural center & university. - When their terms = ignored, the activists spent more than 19 months occupying the island in defiance of the authorities - Fed. officials finally removed the last of the protestors from "the Rock" in June 1971, but not before the occupation had started a national dialogue about the plight of American Indians *Where*: SF, CA *When*: November 20, 1969 *Why*: Since the mid-1960s, American Indians had been on a mission to break into Alcatraz. - After the famed prison shuttered its doors in 1963, Bay Area Native Americans began lobbying to have the island redeveloped as an Indian cultural center and school

Hudson River Valley School

*Who*: American Landscape Painters(early leaders = Thomas Doughty, Asher Durand, & *Thomas Cole*) *What*: First native school of painting in U.S. - very nationalistic (natural beauty of Amer. landscape & the desire of artists to become independent of European schools of painting) - painted pictures of untouched wilderness in the Hudson River valley + nearby locations in New England - North paintings differed from the western paintings b/c diff landscapes *Where*: NY *When*: 1825 - 1870 (19th cent) *Why*: To showcase American nature in a romanticized type of way

the Louisiana Purchase

*Who*: *What*: United States purchased approximately 828,000,000 square miles of territory from France (Napoleon) + doubling size of Repub. - stretched from the Mississippi River in the east to the Rocky Mountains in the west + from the Gulf of Mexico in the south to the Canadian border in the north -Part or all of 15 states were eventually created from the land deal, which is considered one of the most important achievements of Thomas Jefferson's presidency - Territory for the bargain price of less than three cents an acre - 1804 a territorial government was established - April 30, 1812, 1st state to be carved from the territory-Louisiana-was admitted into the Union as the 18th U.S. state. *Where*: Louisiana territory *When*: 1803, France transferred authority over the region to the United States. *Why*: American expansion westward

Little Rock crisis

*Who*: "Little Rock 9" *What*: 9 A.A. students enrolled at formerly all-white Central High School testing a landmark 1954 U.S. SC ruling that declared segregation in public schools unconstitutional - September 4, 1957, 1st day of classes at Central High, Governor Orval Faubus of Arkansas called in the state National Guard to bar the black students' entry into the school - Later in the month, Pres. Eisenhower sent in fed. troops to escort the "Little Rock Nine" into the school, & they started their first full day of classes on September 25 *Where*: Little Rock, Arkansas *When*: September 1957 *Why*: court had mandated that all public schools in the country be integrated "with all deliberate speed" in its decision related to the groundbreaking case Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka

Marbury v. Madison

*Who*: "Written" by Chief SC justice, John Marshall *What*: first U.S. Supreme Court case to apply the principle of "judicial review" (the power of federal courts to void acts of Congress in conflict w/ the Constitution) - 1st time that a court may declare an act of Congress void if it is inconsistent w/ Constit. - William Marbury = appointed a justice of the peace for the District of Columbia in the final hours of the Adams administration - When James Madison, Thomas Jefferson's secretary of state, refused to deliver Marbury's commission, Marbury, joined by three other similarly situated appointees, petitioned for a writ of mandamus (a command to perform a duty) compelling delivery of the commissions. *Where*: District of Columbia, Washington *When*: Written in 1803 *Why*: conflict btw Madison + Marbury based on a commission sent by John Adams

Cesar Chavez and Dolores Huerta

*Who*: *Dolores Huerta* = activist & labor leader who co-founded what would become the United Farm Workers - *Cesar Chavez* dedicated his life to improving treatment, pay and working conditions for farm workers *What*: Dolores Huerta worked to improve social & econ. conditions for farm workers & to fight discrimination - To further her cause, she created the Agricultural Workers Association (AWA) in 1960 & co-founded what would become the United Farm Workers (UFW) - Dolores met Cesar Chavez during this time, a fellow CSO official, who had become its director - 1962, both Huerta & Chavez lobbied to have the CSO expand its efforts to help farm workers, but the organization was focused on urban issues and couldn't move in that direction - Frustrated, they both left the organization and, w/ Gilbert Padilla, co-founded the National Farm Workers Association (NFWA) - The two made a great team. Chavez was the dynamic leader and speaker; and Huerta the skilled organizer and tough negotiator. - 1965, the AWA and the NFWA combined to become the United Farm Workers Organizing Committee (later, simply the United Farm Workers). *Where*: US *When*: 1960s *Why*: wanted to help farm workers

Prohibition

*Who*: 18th Amend. *What*: Made it illegal to buy/consume/sell alcohol - Result = more organized crime (gangs rivaled for control of the liquor business -- Al Capone) - Bootleggers - speakeasies - general disregard for the law - became the norm to drink illegally - gov. did not have enough officers to enforce the law *Where*: US *When*: 1920 *Why*: to create a more "pure" society and decrease violence rates - supported by religious rural white protestants

Second Great Awakening

*Who*: 19th cent movement *What*: Individual responsibility for seeking salvation = emphasized + need for personal + social improvement - preachers rejected 18th cent calvinistic belief that God predetermined one's salvation/damnation - emphasized *individual responsibility* for people to improve themselves *Where*: - large gatherings to discuss a democratic God -> Revival = emotional meeting made to awaken religious faith through impassioned preaching & prayer - brought Christianity to African Amer.s *When*: 19th cent *Why*: wanted to enforce individualism

the Philippine American War

*Who*: Btw US & Philippines *What*: war = a continuation of the Philippine struggle for independence - conflict arose when the First Philippine Republic objected to the terms of the Treaty of Paris under which the United States took possession of the Philippines from Spain (ending the Spanish-American War) - war known as: Second Battle of Manila - estimated 200,000 to 250,000 total Filipino civilians dead *Where*: Philippine islands *When*: 1899 to 1902 *Why*: wanted to be an independent country, free of US annexation

détente

*Who*: Btw US & Soviet Union *What*: *French word meaning release from tension* - name given to a period of improved relations btw the US & the Soviet Union that began tentatively in 1971 and took decisive form when Pres. Nixon visited the secretary-general of the Soviet Communist party, Leonid I. Brezhnev, in Moscow, May 1972. - May 22 Nixon became the first U.S. president to visit Moscow. He and Brezhnev signed seven agreements covering the prevention of accidental military clashes - June 1973, Brezhnev visited the US for Summit II; this meeting added few new agreements, but did symbolize the two countries' continuing commitment to peace *Where*: Russia *When*: 1970s *Why*: trip to Russia, like his historic trip to China a few months earlier, permitted him to keep public attention focused on his foreign policy achievements rather than his domestic problems

Treaty of Paris of 1783

*Who*: Btw US + Brit. *What*: ended the revolutionary war + representatives of US, G. Brit, Spain + France signed on this day; Boundaries of new republic were agreed upon: Florida north to the Great Lakes and the Atlantic coast west to the Mississippi River = Amer. *When*: 1783 *Where*: Signed in Paris by representatives *Why*: signing signified America's status as a free nation + Britain formally recognized the independence of its 13 former American colonies

the Treaty of Paris

*Who*: Btw US + Spain *What*: Ended Spanish-American war - Spain signed an armistice on April 9th - Dec 10, Spain met in Paris to agree on a treaty *1.* Cuba became a U.S. protectorate & independent *2.* Turned over the Islands of Guam + Puerto Rico to US *3.* Sold Philippines to US for $20 mil *Where*: Paris, France *When*: 1898 *Why*: US wanted Spanish withdrawal from Cuba to protect Amer. citizens & surrendered after US destroyed the Spanish fleet in Santiago

vaudeville

*Who*: Entertainers (ex./comedians, singers, plate-spinners, ventriloquists, dancers, musicians, acrobats, animal trainers, etc.) *What*: most popular form of entertainment in Amer. - variety entertainment = popular among frontier settlements & urban centers - These shows (intended for all-male audiences) = obscenely comical - w/ mass arrival of immigr. quickly growing urban populations, vaudeville soon became a central point for Amer. cultural life - great acts of physical talent; contortionists, tumblers, dancers, Actors performed plays, magicians put on shows, jugglers juggled, but real focus = comedy *Where*: U.S. (common in NY) *When*: 1880s-1920s *Why*: symbolic of the cultural diversity of early twentieth century America - vaudeville = earliest entertainment form to cross racial & class boundaries

the Freedmen's Bureau

*Who*: Established by Congress *What*: Organization of (white + A.A. men & women) - assisted former slaves + poor whites in the south by distributing clothing + food, housing & medical aid - set up 40+ hospitals, 4,000 schools + 74 teacher training centers - 4 mil slaves gained freedom as result of Union victory in war, which left many communities in ruins + destroyed the South's plantation-based econ. - attempted to settle former slaves on Confed. lands confiscated or abandoned during the war - bureau = prevented from fully carrying out its programs due to a shortage of funds + personnel + politics of race & Reconstruction - 1872, Congress, in part under pressure from white Southerners, shut the bureau *Where*: *When*: Feb. 1866 - 1872 *Why*: To aid people in need (former slaves or poor white men + women)

Judicial review

*Who*: Exercised by John Marshall *What*: - power of the courts of a country to examine the actions of the legislative, executive, and administrative branches of the government & determine whether such actions are consistent w/ the constit. -Actions judged inconsistent = unconstitutional - institution of judicial review in this sense depends upon the existence of a written constitution. *Where*: Washington *When*: considered to have begun w/ the assertion by John Marshall, fourth chief justice of the United States (1801-35), in Marbury v. Madison (1803), that the Supreme Court of the United States had the power to invalidate legislation enacted by Congress. *Why*: to examine whether or not the branches of gov. are consistent w/ the constit.

Newlands Reclamation Act

*Who*: Fed Gov. *What*: Funded irrigation projects - brought thousands of new acres under cultivation - placed fed gov. front & center in the water distribution question in the West - money set aside from selling public lands to fund maintenance of irrigation projects - led to the eventual damming of nearly every major western river - loans made to farmers—loans funded by the sales of federal land—were never repaid *Where*: arid lands in the west (act passed in 20 states) *When*: 1902 *Why*: To cultivate arid lands in order to create farmland for crops and grains

Federal Trade Commission

*Who*: Fed. agency of US Gov. *What*: investigate + stop unfair business practices & violations of regulatory statues - created by the Federal Trade Commission Act (was one of President Woodrow Wilson's major acts against trusts) *Where*: US *When*: 1914 *Why*: mission = promotion of consumer protection & elimination + prevention of anticompetitive business practices (forced monopolies)

National Origins Act of 1924/1927

*Who*: Fed. law *What*: law that severely restricted immigration by establishing a system of national quotas that blatantly discriminated against immigrants from southern and eastern Europe & virtually excluded Asians - law = primarily aimed at further restricting immigration of Southern Europeans and Eastern Europeans, especially Italians and Eastern European Jews - severely restricted the immigration of Africans and outright banned the immigration of Arabs and Asians - For next 4 yrs, until June 30, 1927, the 1924 Act set the annual quota of any nationality at 2% of the number of foreign-born persons of such nationality resident in the United States in 1890 *Where*: US *When*: 1924 & 1927 *Why*: purpose of the act was "to preserve the ideal of American homogeneity" (the same kind --racial purity)

Ellis Island

*Who*: Federal Gov't *What*: immigration stations were inspections took place - 20% of immigrants = detained for 1 day or more to be inspected (took 5hrs) - In order to pass immigrants had to: 1. pass physical exam 2. Gov't inspector approval (checked docs + questioned) - 1892 - 1924 = chief immigr. station in U.S. (17 mil immigr. passed through *Where*: NY harbor *When*: 1892 - 1924 *Why*: Immigrants coming to NY for a better life had to pass through stations to be granted entrance (access granted if immigr. passed all the stations)

Civil Rights Act of 1964

*Who*: First proposed by Pres. JFK & signed into law by Pres. LBJ *What*: ended segregation in public places (courthouses, parks, restaurants, theaters, sports arenas & hotels) & banned employment discrimination on the basis of race, color, religion, sex or national origin - created an Equal Employment Opportunity Commission w/ the pow. to file lawsuits on behalf of aggrieved workers - the act forbade the use of federal funds for any discriminatory program *Where*: US *When*: 1964 *Why*: Act considered one of the crowning legislative achievements of the civil rights movement

Democratic-Republicans

*Who*: Formed by Thomas Jefferson *What*: - believed in a decentralized, democratic gov. (did not want ratification of constitution) + a strict interpretation of Constit. - think Fed's have aristocratic attitudes + their policies placed too much power in the central gov. + benefitted the wealthy at the expense of the common man - supported France *Where*: Amer. States *When*: Organized in 1792, but held power in 1801-1825 *Why*: wanted a state gov. + a strict interpretation of Constit.

Shakers

*Who*: Founded by Ann Lee *What*: Believed in equality - derived originally from a small branch of English Quakers founded by Jane and James Wardley in 1747. - shared goods w/ each other - men + women are equal (but couldn't marry or have kids) - practicing social, sexual, economic, and spiritual equality for all members - Shaker aspirations were divine, not social or material - Work = currency of their service. - If the world = redeemed + restored to God, the Shakers would accomplish it by dedicated labor. - member of the United Society of Believers in Christ's Second Appearing *Where*: NY + New Eng. on frontier *When*: 1770's - 1840's *Why*: to create a utopian like society were equality was emphasized

Knights of Labor

*Who*: Founder = Uriah Stephens (most important leader = Terence V. Powderly) *What*: Largest of the Amer. labor organizations - membership = open to all workers - advocated equal pay for wrk - demanded an 8 hr wrk day, abolition of child labor, equal pay for equal work, & polit. reforms (including graduated income tax) - did not use strikes as a form of resistance - 1886 = 700,000 members *Where*: US *When*: 1869 *Why*: advocated for *all* people (ex. men/women, black/white)

Lowell System

*Who*: Francis Cabot Lowell *What*: Developed the country's first working power loom, - established the Boston Manufacturing Company along the Charles River in Waltham in 1814. - **Lowell + his fellow entrepreneurs, called the "Boston Associates," transformed the country's textile industry - power loom and related machinery = production of cloth under a single roof - did not rely on traditional family labor, the company recruited young single women from the surrounding countryside. - fortunes grew = Boston Associates turned to -establishing hospitals + schools-and to politics, playing a prominent role in the Whig Party in Mass - til the Civil War, the Boston Associates = New England's dominant capitalists *Where*: U.S. (esp. New Eng.) *When*: 1814 - 1850 *Why*: expand company through textile

Ulysses S. Grant

*Who*: General of the Union army and later 18th Pres. (1869 to 1877) *What*: commanded victorious Union army during the Civil War - July 1863, Grant's forces captured Vicksburg, Mississippi, (Confed. stronghold) - Grant (tenacious & determined leader) = appointed lieutenant general by Lincoln, March 1864 + given command of all U.S. armies - led a series of campaigns that ultimately wore down the Confed. army + helped bring the deadliest conflict in U.S. history to a close - April 9, 1865, Confed. General Robert Lee (1807-1870) surrendered to Grant at Appomattox Court House in Virginia (ending the Civil War) *Where*: Vicksburg, Miss & captured 2 confed. forts in Tenn *When*: 1861-65 (during Civil War = Union Gen.) *Why*: Leads a union victory

Committee on Public Information

*Who*: George Creel *What*: independent agency of the gov. of the US-- created to influence U.S. public opinion regarding Amer. participation in WWI - used every medium available to create enthusiasm for the war effort & enlist public support against foreign attempts to undercut America's war aims - It primarily used propaganda techniques to accomplish these goals - Creel's organization, employed some 150,000 workers at home and oversees - He proved that words were indeed weapons *Where*: US *When*: 1917-1919 *Why*: purpose of CPI = to influence Amer. public opinion toward supporting U.S. participation in WWI via a prolonged propaganda campaign

Whiskey Rebellion

*Who*: George Wash. = Pres. at time, Revol. started by US citizens *What*: tax protest by citizens against unfair taxation on whiskey ( tax = proposed by Hamilton to ensure stability and gov. control) - 13,000 militia troops, led by Hamilton and Virginia governor Henry Lee, marched into western Pennsylvania to stop the rebellion *Where*: Penn (largely) *When*: 1791 *Why*: federal government had proven it could keep order ( Order = necessity if the U.S. was to avoid instability)

Battles of Vicksburg and Gettysburg

*Who*: Gettysburg = Gen. Robert Lee, Vicksburg = Gen. Ulysses Grant *What*: - The Battle of *GETTYSBURG* July 1 to July 3, 1863 = most important engagement of the American Civil War - After victory @ Chancellorsville, Lee marched his Army of Northern Virginia into Penn (late June 1863) - July 1, the advancing Confeds clashed w/ the Union's Army of the Potomac, commanded by General George G. Meade, at the crossroads town of Gettysburg - nxt day saw even heavier fighting, as the Confeds attacked the Federals on both left and right - July 3, Lee ordered an attack by fewer than 15,000 troops on the enemy's center at Cemetery Ridge - The assault, known as "Pickett's Charge," managed to pierce the Union lines but eventually failed, at the cost of thousands of rebel casualties, and Lee was forced to withdraw his battered army toward Virginia on July 4. - *Lee could never again invade the north* Battle of *VICKSBURG* May 18, 1863 - July 4, 1863 - Union forces waged a campaign to take the Confederate stronghold of Vicksburg, Mississippi = gateway to Mississippi River - To force surrender, Ulysses S. Grant holds the rebel forces under siege for 6 weeks - David Porter (1813-91) had run his fleet of ships past the Vicksburg defenses in early May (as a distraction) as Grant marched his army down the west bank of the river opposite Vicksburg - After defeating a Confed. force near Jackson (capital state), Grant turned back to Vicksburg - May 16, he defeated a force under General John C. Pemberton (1814-81) at Champion Hill - Pemberton retreated back to Vicksburg - Starving Confed. soldiers told their commander: "No food = surrender" - July 3, 1863: Confed. commander asked Grant 4 surrender *Where*: Gettysburg, Penn & Vicksburg, Miss *When*: 1863 *Why*: capture of Vicksburg divided the Confederacy & proved the military genius of Union General Ulysses S. Grant (1822-85)

Gibbons v. Ogden

*Who*: Gibbons = *NJ* shipping owner, Ogden = *NY* shipping owner *What*: NY has shipping monopoly btw NJ + NY (The North River) - NY = running shipping company - NJ wants to ship on river, but NY refuses - *RESULTS*: National gov. (congress) controls interstate trade *Where*: River btw NY + NJ *When*: 1824 *Why*: Article 1, sec 8: Congress' job to oversee interstate trade

Angel Island

*Who*: Gov. *What*: Immigration Station - processed approx. 1 mil Asian immigr. entering into U.S. (only 50,000 went through) - b/c restrictions of Chinese Exclusion Act (1882) many Chinese immigr. spent yrs on the island waiting for entry - immigr. endured harsh questioning + long detentions in filthy buildings *Where*: San Francisco Bay *When*: 1910 - 1940 *Why*: The military no longer needed the island for artillery + gov. needed a place to process/regulate the incoming immigr. (most Asians coming to W. Coast.)

Erie Canal

*Who*: Governor DeWitt Clinton of NY = driving force behind the project *What*: connected the Great Lakes w/ the Atlantic Ocean via the Hudson River - made trade more efficient - Goods = transported at one-tenth the previous fee in less than half the previous time *Where*: canal from Buffalo (eastern point of Lake Erie) to Albany (upper Hudson), passing through the gap in the mountains in the Mohawk Valley region *When*: Opened: Oct 26, 1825 *Why*: wanted to make shipping goods easer, Shipping goods west from Albany = costly + tedious affair

the Farmers' Alliances

*Who*: Groups of farmers *What*: sent lecturers from town to town to educate people about agricultural and rural issues (lower interest rates on loans, gov control over railroads and banks, etc.) - membership grew to 4 mil+ (mostly in south + west) - discontent b/c of crop failures, falling prices, & poor marketing & credit facilities - 1891 the leaders of the alliances formed the People's (Populist) Party. *Where*: West & South *When*: 1888 and 1890 *Why*: collapse of the boom & falling prices of agricultural products forced many farmers to seek relief through political action

Uncle Tom's Cabin

*Who*: Harriet Beecher Stowe *What*: novel that portrayed slavery as a great moral evil - stirred reactions from north + south (caused an increase in northern abolitionist protest against the fugitive act - South criticized book as an attack on the south as a whole - 2nd most popular book after the Bible *When*: 1852 *Where*: read across the US *Why*: written to enforce the malicious intention behind slavery

Bank War

*Who*: Jackson against Bank of U.S. (BUS) *What*: Jackson wanted to destroy the 2nd national bank - to prevent 2nd bank's renewal of its charter Jackson tried to reduce bank's econ. power - Jackson announced that (Oct. 1, 1833) fed. funds = no longer deposited in BUS -> Instead placed funds in various state banks; (end of 1833, twenty-three 'pet banks') - Pres. of the Bank, Nicholas Biddle, anticipating Jackson's actions, began a countermove in August 1833 - started presenting state bank notes for redemption, calling in loans + no giving out loans & generally contracting credit - bank's charter expired in 1836 + Fed deposits were not returned - Jackson won Bank War *Where*: Philly *When*: 1833 *Why*: Didn't want a 2nd national bank b/c didn't trust private banks run by individuals

Era of Good Feelings

*Who*: James Monroe = Pres. at time (1817-1825) *What*: ending of the Napoleonic Wars = Amer. citizens could afford to pay less attention to European polit. & military affairs - "The good feelings" = stimulated by two events of 1816, during the last year of the presidency of James Madison: 1. the enactment of the first U.S. avowedly protective tariff 2. the establishment of the second National Bank - Declining Feds. in United States = one-party state rule for Demo.-Repubs *Where*: Amer. *When*: 1815 (ending of Madison's Presidency) to 1825 *Why*: sectionalism turned to nationalism

"54'40 or Fight"

*Who*: James k. Polk *What*: Campaign slogan by Polk - referred to latitude (54'40) of Northern limit of Oregon territory - Polk wanted a *division line* at this parallel *Where*: Oregon *When*: 1844 *Why*: Polk wanted Oregon territory to complete manifest destiny

Hiroshima and Nagasaki

*Who*: Japanese cities *What*: an American B-29 bomber dropped the world's first deployed atomic bomb over the Japanese city of *Hiroshima* - plane dropped the bomb-"Little Boy"-by parachute @ 8:15am & it exploded 2,000 ft above Hiroshima in a blast equal to 12-15,000 tons of TNT (destroying five sq mi of city) - explosion wiped out 90% of the city and immediately killed 80,000 people; tens of thousands more would later die of radiation exposure - 3 days later a second B-29 dropped another A-bomb on *Nagasaki*, killing an estimated 40,000 people - the plutonium bomb "Fat Man" was dropped @ 11:02am (More powerful than the one used at Hiroshima) & the bomb weighed nearly 10,000 pounds + was built to produce a 22-kiloton blast - destruction = 2.6 sq mi of city bc Nagasaki = nestled in narrow valleys btw mountains which reduced the bomb's effect - *Japan's Emperor, Hirohito, announced his country's unconditional surrender in WWII in a radio broadcast on August 15, 1945* citing the devastating power of "a new and most cruel bomb." *Where*: Hiroshima (500 mi from Tokyo) & Nagasaki, Japan *When*: August 6, 1945 (*Hiroshima*) & August 9, 1945 (*Nagasaki*) *Why*: military commanders favored continuing the bombing of Japan already in effect & following up w/ a massive invasion, codenamed "Operation Downfall." - They advised Truman that such an invasion would result in U.S. casualties of up to 1 million - In order to avoid such a high casualty rate, Truman decided (over the moral reservations of Secretary of War Henry Stimson, General Dwight Eisenhower and a number of the Manhattan Project scientists) to use the atomic bomb in the hopes of bringing the war to a quick end

Pearl Harbor

*Who*: Japanese military *What*: hundreds of Japanese fighter planes attacked the American naval base at Pearl Harbor - barrage lasted two hours - Japanese managed to destroy nearly 20 American naval vessels, including eight enormous battleships, and more than 300 airplanes - More than 2,000 Americans soldiers and sailors died in the attack, and another 1,000 were wounded - day after the assault, Pres. FDR asked Congress to declare war on Japan; - Congress approved his declaration with just one dissenting vote - 3 days later, Japanese allies, Germany & Italy also declared war on the US, & again Congress reciprocated - More than two years into the conflict, America had finally joined WWII *Where*: Honolulu, Hawaii *When*: December 7, 1941 *Why*: Marks the entrance of the US into WWII

442nd Regimental Combat Team

*Who*: Japanese-American unit *What*: composed of two distinct units: the 442nd Regimental Combat Team and the 100th Infantry Battalion (first U.S. Army unit of Japanese Americans activated in WWII) - composed of Japanese American volunteers from the internment camps, Hawaii, states outside of the west coast exclusion zone, and Japanese American soldiers who were already serving in the U.S. Army when the war broke out. - These Japanese American soldiers already in the Army would become the cadre for the new 442nd RCT. - less than two years of combat, the unit earned more than 18,000 awards, including 9,486 Purple Hearts, 4,000 Bronze Stars and 21 Medals of Honor - Beginning in 1944, the regiment fought primarily in Europe during World War II (esp. Italy, southern France, & Germany) *Where*: Camp Shelby, Mississippi *When*: February 1, 1943 *Why*: the record of the Japanese Americans serving in the 442nd helped change the minds of anti-Japanese American critics in the U.S. and resulted in easing of restrictions, but the unit's exemplary service & many decorations did not change the attitudes of the general U.S. population to people of Japanese ancestry after WWII

Revolution of 1800

*Who*: Jefferon vs. Adams *What*: Jefferson is elected Pres. instead of Adams - Revolution b/c: Leadership changed from Federalist (John Adams) to Repub. (Jeff = Repub.) - Fed's lost control of Presidency + congress - defeat of the Federalists ended their attempt to lead America on a more conservative and less democratic course *When*: 1800 *Why*: Jefferson makes changed to the gov. leading the people into the Jeffersonian era

New Frontier

*Who*: John F. Kennedy *What*: used by Democratic presidential candidate John F. Kennedy in his acceptance speech in the 1960 US presidential election to the Democratic National Convention at the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum as the Democratic slogan to inspire America to support him - The phrase developed into a label for his administration's domestic and foreign programs. - in US, space = seen as the next frontier, a logical extension of the grand American tradition of exploration, and it was crucial not to lose too much ground to the Soviets *Where*: US *When*: 1960s *Why*: under John F. Kennedy, more new legislation was actually approved and passed into law than at any other time since the Thirties

Chief Justice John Marshall

*Who*: John Marshall *What*: Leader of the federalist party in 1790's -lead Marbury v. Madison - served 34 yrs as chief justice - wrote nearly half the Court's opinions in all fields of law and two-thirds of those involving constitutional questions - exercised judicial review, firmly over state statutes and state courts, prudently over acts of Congress - expanded the Court's jurisdiction. *Where*: *When*: 1801 appointed to the Supreme Court by John Adams *Why*: was a huge influence in the judiciary branch

Scopes trial

*Who*: John T. Scopes (biology teacher) *What*: court case in which John T. Scopes = tried for challenging Tennessee law that outlawed the teaching of Darwin's theory of evolution - case = a fight over evolution + role of science vs. religion in pub. schools + Amer. society - prosecutor = William Jennings Bryan - Defender = Clarence Darrow *Where*: Dayton, Tenn *When*: 1925 *Why*: Law created b/c of Christian fundamentalism - everything written in bible = literally true - rejected growing trust in science + other religious faiths (immigr.) - believed God created the world w/ plants/animals in 6 days and that we did not evolve from apes

Johnson's impeachment trial

*Who*: Johnson = U.S. senator from Tennessee *What*: Pres. Andrew Johnson stood accused of having violated the controversial Tenure of Office Act, passed by Congress over his veto in 1867 - Congress greatly opposed Johnson's Recon. program + passed the "Radical Reconstruction" by repeatedly overriding the president's vetoes. - Under the Radical Reconstruction, local Southern govs. gave way to fed. military rule, & A.A. men in the South were granted the constitutional right to vote - In March 1867, in order to further weaken Johnson's authority, Congress passed the Tenure of Office Act to try to overide his vetos - The act prohibited the Pres. from removing fed. office holders, including Cabinet members (who had been confirmed by the Senate) w/out consent of Senate - It was designed to shield members of Johnson's Cabinet like Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton, who was appointed during the Lincoln administration + leading ally of the so-called Radical Republicans in Congress - In the fall of 1867, Johnson attempted to test the constitutionality of the act by replacing Stanton w/ Gen. Ulysses S. Grant - U.S. Supreme Court refused to rule on the case, + Grant turned the office back to Stanton after the Senate passed a measure in protest of the dismissal - judged not guilty and remained in office *Where*: DC *When*: March 13, 1868 *Why*: Congress wanted to limit Johnson's pow b/c did not agree w/ his Recon. plan

barbed wire

*Who*: Joseph F. Glidden *What*: Ranchers fenced land w/ barbed wire to turn open plains into a fenced-in ranches - harder for cattle to escape - cheap and easy *Where*: Great Plains *When*: Oct 27, 1873 *Why*: Cowboys didn't want their cattle wondering on neighbors land or escaping.

Mormons

*Who*: Joseph Smith = founder, belong to The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints *What*: emphasize family life, belief in continuing revelation, desire for order, respect for authority, + missionary work - obey strict prohibitions on alcohol, tobacco, coffee, + tea & promote education & a vigorous work *Where*: NY to Utah (b/c being persecuted) *When*: 1820's *Why*: beliefs center around Jesus Christ

Eugene V. Debs

*Who*: Labor organizer & socialist leader *What*: one of the best known socialists in the US - organized the American Railway Union, which waged a strike against the Pullman Company of Chicago in 1894 - union included laborers (skilled/unskilled) in a specific indust. - failed after a major strike - turned to socialism (gov. control over property + dist. of wealth) - became the party's leading figure in five pres. elections - Debs sentenced to 10 yrs in prison for his opposition to US involvement in WWI *Where*: US *When*: 1870's - 1920's (died in 1926) *Why*: serious advocate for socialism

the Northwest Ordinances

*Who*: Laws over land and states *What*: Land of Ordinance = established a plan for surveying + selling federally owned lands west of Appalachian Mt.s Northwest Ordinance = established a procedure for the admission of new states to the union + divided land into territories *Where*: Settlements *When*: 1785 & 1787 *Why*: Confederation's greatest achievement + created a blueprint for the future

World Trade Organization

*Who*: Leader = Roberto Azevêdo *What*: global international organization dealing w/ the rules of trade btw nations - WTO deals w/ regulation of trade btw participating countries by providing a framework for negotiating trade agreements & a dispute resolution process aimed at enforcing participants' adherence to WTO agreements Functions: • Administering WTO trade agreements • Forum for trade negotiations • Handling trade disputes • Monitoring national trade policies • Technical assistance and training for developing countries • Cooperation with other international organizations *Where*: Geneva, Switzerland *When*: January 1, 1995 *Why*: main function is to ensure that trade flows as smoothly, predictably and freely as possible

Washington's Farewell Address

*Who*: Letter written by George Wash. *What*: intended for the "People of Amer." - letter began w/ reasoning as to why he was stepping down from office - warned that the forces of geographical sectionalism, political factionalism, & interference by foreign powers in the nation's domestic affairs threatened stability of the Repub. - feared that local factors might be the source of petty differences that would destroy the nation - union brought clear advantages to every region, Union promised "greater strength, greater resource, [and] proportionately greater security from danger" than any state or region could enjoy alone - To Washington POLITICAL PARTIES were a deep threat to the health of the nation for they allowed "a small but artful and enterprising minority" to "put in the place of the delegated will of the Nation, the will of a party." - predicted greatest threat to young US = foreign powers -European powers embarked on a long war, each hoping to draw the U.S. to its side, Washington admonished the country "to steer clear of permanent Alliances." - Foreign nations could not be trusted to do anything more than pursue their own interests when entering international treaties *Where*: Congress hall in Philly *When*: September 19, 1796 *Why*: wanted to leave office with a warning and recommendations about how to maintain a unified country

Emancipation Proclamation

*Who*: Lincoln *What*: all slaves in the rebellious states "shall be then, thenceforward, and forever free." - no slavery behind Confed. lines - border states (Delaware, Maryland, Kentucky, Missouri) still had slavery - Lincoln = no power behind Confed. lines + E.P. doesn't end up freeing a single slave - E.P. becomes a symbol + makes the war moral (to free slaves) -transforming the fight to preserve the nation into a battle for human freedom - *considered a military strategy to get people motivated to fight for the Union* *Where*: DC *When*: Issued after the Union victory at Antietam, *Jan 1, 1863* *Why*: Lincoln = convinced that abolition had become a sound military strategy, as well as the morally correct path

Lincoln's "House Divided" speech

*Who*: Lincoln *What*: gives "house divided speech" (either all slave or all free) - became launching point for his unsuccessful campaign for Senate seat held by Stephen A. Douglas; this campaign would climax w/ Lincoln-Douglas debates of 1858 - "A house divided against itself cannot stand. I believe this government cannot endure, permanently, half slave and half free. I do not expect the Union to be dissolved — I do not expect the house to fall — but I do expect it will cease to be divided. It will become all one thing or all the other..." *When*: 1858 *Where*: Lincoln-Douglas Debate in Illinois *Why*: arguing against slavery

Lincoln-Douglas Debates

*Who*: Lincoln (Repub.) vs. Douglas (Demo.) *What*: *Douglas* = 2 term senator w/outstanding record + large campaign chest - *Lincoln* = self-educated, successful lawyer + politician; 1846 = a Whig but broke w/ party after Neb.-Kansas act + became a Repub. 2 yrs later and challenged Douglas to 7 open-air debates about slavery - *Douglas* = self-confident, believed deeply in pop. sovereignty, did not think slavery = immoral, but thought it unsuitable - *Lincoln* = believed slavery = immoral labor system based on greed & believed slavery would would not cease to spread w/out legislation outlawing it - *Douglas* = belied pop. sover. would allow slavery to pass on its own + accused Lincoln of being an abolitionist + an advocate of racial equality - *Lincoln* = tried to make Douglas look like a defender of slavery + the Dred Scott decision *When*: 1858 *Where*: Illinois *Why*: Debate over the allowance of slavery

Transcendentalism

*Who*: Literary group, centered about Ralph Waldo Emerson + Henry David Thoreau (who urged civil disobedience) *What*: trying to find the most simple way to live - arose from liberal New England Congregationalists, who departed from orthodox Calvinism - sift of individualism (praised imagination + personal emotion) - relied on *nature* to find oneself - rejected materialism - artistic group = Hudson river valley school - 1840s Emerson + Thoreau w/ other transcendentalists, were engaged in social experiment of *Brook Farm* - by the 1850s involved in an urgent critique of American slavery - believed in the importance of human striving, as opposed to the Puritan belief of inescapable human moral corruption - emphasized the unity rather than the "Trinity" of God *Where*: NY *When*: 19th cent *Why*: wanted more individualism + believed in a new era

muckrakers

*Who*: Magazine Journalists *What*: exposed the corrupt side of business + the public life - provided detailed, accurate journalistic accounts of polit. & econ. corruption + social hardships caused by the pow of big business - political corruption, industrial monopolies, and fraudulent business practices = prevalent journalist topics - Ida Tarbell = important journalist + wrote in McClure's Magazine *Where*: US *When*: 1903 *Why*: work grew out of the yellow journalism (1890s)

Social Gospel

*Who*: Mainly promoted by liberal Protestant ministers *What*: religious social-reform movement - Labor reforms: abolition of child labor, shorter workweek, living wage, & factory regulation = most prominent concerns *Where*: US *When*: 1870 - 1920 *Why*: offered social & individual salvation - sought betterment of industrialized society through application of the biblical principles of charity & justice

McCulloch v. Maryland

*Who*: McCulloch vs. State of Maryland *What*: McCulloch worked (cashier) for U.S. national bank + being taxed by state of Maryland who opposed the national bank - Maryland gov. claimed to have the right to regulate state + federal banks - McCulloch = tried at court for not paying taxes - *RESULTS*: National banks = constitutional + states have no power to tax/ control constitutional laws *Where*: Maryland *When*: 1816 *Why*: "The power to tax is the power to destroy", McCulloch = taxed + tried unfairly

the Lewis and Clark expedition

*Who*: Meriwether Lewis + William Clark sent off by Jefferson *What*: Sent to look for a water route across North America and explore the uncharted West (observe natives) - expedition spanned 8,000 mi *Where*: Louisiana territory (starting in Missouri, down the Ohio River, up the Missouri River, across the Continental Divide, and to the Pacific Ocean) *When*: After Louisiana purchase, 1804-1806 *Why*: Were to report back to Jefferson to inform on wildlife + living condition in order for Amer. to expand

baby boom

*Who*: Post WWII families *What*: More babies were born in 1946 than ever before: - 3.4 million (20% more than in 1945) - Many people in the postwar era looked forward to having children bc they were confident that the future would be one of comfort & prosperity - Corporations grew larger & more profitable, labor unions promised generous wages + benefits to their members, & consumer goods were more plentiful and affordable than ever before - As a result, many Americans felt certain that they could give their families all the material things that they themselves had done without - more than 4 million were born every year from 1954 until 1964 *Where*: US *When*: 1946 - 1964 *Why*: Caused by the reuniting of families after the war and bc of growing prosperity - it was a part of a desire for normalcy after 16 years of depression and war

dollar diplomacy

*Who*: Pres. Taft *What*: US policy of using the nations econ. power to exert influence over other countries - used to justify keeping Euro. powers out of the Caribbean - used to ensure the financial stability of a region while protecting and extending U.S. commercial & financial interests *Where*: US *When*: 1909-1913 *Why*: exchanging money for political influence in Latin America and the Caribbean

Teapot Dome scandal

*Who*: Pres. Warren G. Harding *What*: Albert B. Fall (served as secretary of the interior in Harding's cabinet) = found guilty of accepting a bribe while in office - Fall = 1st individual to be convicted of a crime committed while a pres. cabinet member. - Hall accepted a $100,000 interest-free "loan" from Edward Doheny (of Pan-American Petroleum & Transport Comp.,) who wanted Fall to grant his firm a valuable oil lease in the Elk Hills naval oil reserve in CA - The site & the Teapot Dome naval oil reserve in Wyoming, had been previously transferred to the Department of the Interior on the urging of Fall *Where*: Wyoming *When*: 1929 *Why*: Fall saw the personal gains he could achieve by leasing the land to private corporations.

missionary diplomacy

*Who*: Pres. Wilson *What*: Foreign policy based on belief that it was America's responsibility + destiny to spread its institutions & values universally - & America's duty to spread democracy + freedom to all people - U.S. would not recognize any South American countries if they were not democratic or if hostile to Amer. interests *Where*: US *When*: 1913-1921 *Why*: promote democracy and avoid Euro. affairs

League of Nations

*Who*: Pres. Wilson *What*: voices in US & Brit. began calling for the establishment of a permanent international body to maintain peace in the postwar world - Pres. Wilson suffered a stroke + league proceeded w/out the US, holding its first meeting in Geneva - League incorporated new members + successfully mediated minor international disputes but was often disregarded by the major powers - The League's authority challenged in early 1930s, when a series of events exposed it as ineffectual - 1946, the League of Nations was officially dissolved w/ the establishment of the United Nations - The UN = modeled after the former but with increased international support and extensive machinery to help the new body avoid repeating the League's failures *Where*: Headquarters = Geneva *When*: 1920 *Why*: to maintain world peace by diminishing conflicts before solving it w/ war

Wilson's Fourteen Points

*Who*: Pres. Woodrow Wilson *What*: series of proposals which outlined a plan for achieving a lasting peace after World War I - Fourteen Points were liberal, democratic and idealistic 1. *F*reedom of seas 2. *A*bolishing secret treaties 3. *R*emoval of economic barriers 4. *R*eduction of armaments 5. *C*hanging colonial claims to help both colonizers and native people (*FARRC*) - Most famously -- called for the establishment of a general association of nations (*League of Nations*) to guarantee political independence & protect the territorial lines of great and small States alike *Where*: US *When*: 1917 *Why*: purpose in delivering the speech = to present a practical alternative to traditional notion of an international balance of power preserved by alliances among nations - *led to the league of nations*

Mikhail Gorbachev

*Who*: Pres. of the Soviet Union (1990-91) *What*: Gorbachev = Pres. Reagan's counterpart - His efforts to democratize his country's political system and decentralize its economy led to the downfall of communism and the breakup of the Soviet Union in 1991 *Relations w/ US*: - 1987: Reagan + Gorbachev signed INF treaty (agreed to limit nuclear arms) - 1988: soviet troops agreed to leave Afghanistan - 1989: Berlin wall comes down & East Euro countries start to elect non-communist leaders - 1991: Soviet union = broken up (Russia becomes independent) - because he partly ended the Soviet Union's postwar domination of eastern Europe, Gorbachev = awarded the Nobel Prize for Peace in 1990. *Where*: Soviet Union *When*: 1990-1991 *Why*: Wanted to democratize the Soviet Unions political system to help the Russian economy come out of stagnation

Battle of New Orleans

*Who*: President Andrew Jackson vs. superior British force *What*: Jackson = victorious (made him famous) - bloody battle btw Brit. + Amer. - New Orleans b/c = a vital seaport considered the gateway to the United States' newly purchased territory in the West *Where*: New Orleans *When*: January 8, 1815 *Why*: Happened after the Treaty of Ghent b/c news of treaty failed to spread quickly

NSC-68

*Who*: President Harry S. Truman *What*: National Security Council Paper Number 68 - the report = a group effort, created w/ input from the Defense Department, the State Department, the CIA, and other interested agencies - NSC-68 formed the basis for America's Cold War policy for the next two decades - in the face of U.S. foreign policy concerns (Soviet explosion of an atomic device China's fall to communism the following October, 1949) Pres. Truman requested a complete review and re-evaluation of America's Cold War diplomacy strategy - The result = NSC-68, a report that took four months to compile and was completed in April 1950. - According to the report, the US should vigorously pursue a policy of "containing" Soviet expansion - NSC-68 recommended that the United States embark on rapid military expansion of conventional forces and the nuclear arsenal, including the development of the new hydrogen bomb *Where*: US *When*: April 14, 1950 *Why*: NSC-68 remained the foundation of U.S. Cold War policy until at least the 1970s

Selective Training and Service Act

*Who*: Signed by FDR + passed by Congress *What*: requires all male citizens btw the ages of 26 and 35 to register for the military draft, beginning on October 16 - "A few weeks have seen great nations fall. We cannot remain indifferent to the philosophy of force now rampant in the world. We must and will marshal our great potential strength to fend off war from our shores. We must and will prevent our land from becoming a victim of aggression." *Where*: US *When*: 1940 *Why*: US = not yet involved in WWII, but Roosevelt considered it a prudent step to train Amer. men for military service in case the U.S. would have to defend itself against the growing threat of fascist and militarist regimes in Europe and Japan

Jay's Treaty

*Who*: Signed by Lord Grenville (British foreign minister, & John Jay, U.S. chief justice + representative) *What*: Treaty Btw US + G. Britain - Britain agreed to evacuate Northwest Territory by June 1, 1796; (to compensate for its attacks against American shipping; + end discrimination against American commerce; + to grant U.S. trading privileges in England & British East Indies) - Mississippi River open to both countries - provided for payment of debts incurred by Americans to British merchants before the Amer. Revol. - established joint commissions to determine the boundaries btw U.S. + British North America in the Northwest & Northeast. *Where*: Signed in London *When*: Nov. 19, 1794 *Why*: To create commerce and neutrality btw US + Britain

the Gold Standard Act

*Who*: Signed by Pres. William McKinley *What*: established gold as the standard for all of the nation's currency - monetary system in which the basic unit of currency = defined in terms of a set amount of gold - people regarded paper $ as worthless if no exchange for silver/gold - Standard Act = more stable, but expensive currency *Where*: US *When*: 1900 *Why*: US agreed to convert paper money into a fixed amount of gold

the Meat Inspection Act

*Who*: Signed into law by Pres. TR *What*: Amer. law: makes it a crime to adulterate or misbrand meat & meat products being sold as food, - ensures that meat & meat products are slaughtered & processed under sanitary conditions - law reformed the meatpacking industry, mandating that the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) inspect all cattle, swine, sheep, goats, and horses both before and after they were slaughtered and processed for human consumption *Where*: US *When*: 1906 *Why*: Upton Sinclair's novel, The Jungle, impacted Pres. TR and wanted to make a change to the working and sanitary conditions

Americans with Disabilities Act

*Who*: Signed into law by President George H.W. Bush *What*: prohibits discrimination against individuals w/ disabilities in all areas of public life including: jobs, schools, transportation, public accommodation, communications, & gov. activities - gives civil rights protections to individuals w/ disabilities similar to those provided to individuals on the basis of race, color, sex, national origin, age, and religion - The ADA is divided into five titles (or sections) that relate to different areas of public life. *Where*: US *When*: 1990 *Why*: purpose of the law is to make sure that people with disabilities have the same rights and opportunities as everyone else

settlement house

*Who*: Social Welfare reformers (most = mid-class/college edu. women - Founders = Charles Stover + Stanton Coit *What*: community center that provided assistance to residents (esp. immigr.) in a slum neighborhood - provided educational, social, + cultural services - sent visiting nurses to homes to care for the sick - 1st important house = Hull House (Chicago) *Where*: U.S. slums in urban areas (popular esp. in NY) *When*: 1866 *Why*: Goal = to get the rich & poor in society to live more closely together in an interdependent community

Era of Redemption

*Who*: South = successful when North looses interest *What*: seeking to drive out Radical Republs. + coalition of freedmen, "carpetbaggers", and "scalawags" (poorer non-slaveholding whites) - They generally were led by the rich landowners, businessmen and professionals, and dominated Southern politics in most areas from the 1870s to 1910. - state gov. promoted interests of planters + businessmen over those of small farmers & laborers, including sharecroppers, while doing virtually nothing to protect the interests of black citizens --- widespread dissatisfaction on the part of small farmers and laborers of both races - Jim Crowe laws = Discrimination laws -Plessy v. Ferguson - no vote (A.A.'s) - KKK = prominent - lynchings (way to intimidate A.A.'s) *Where*: Georgia *When*: 1877-1965 *Why*: want to emphasize white supremacy

Korean War

*Who*: South Korea v. North Korea *What*: Korea = controlled by Japan during WWII - August 1945 Korean peninsula = divided in 1/2 along the 38th parallel - *The Russians occupied the area north of the line & the US occupied the area to its south* - south, the anti-communist dictator Syngman Rhee (1875-1965) enjoyed the reluctant support of the Amer. gov. - in north, the communist dictator Kim Il Sung (1912-1994) enjoyed the slightly more enthusiastic support of the Soviets - North Korean invasion came as an alarming surprise to American officials - many feared it was the first step in a communist campaign to take over the world - both countries withdraw in 1949 - division remains until 1950 when S. Korea invades N. Korea - 1953 = an Armstice (ceasefire) *Where*: Korean peninsula *When*: 1950 - 1953 *Why*: Fighting against communism

Lexington and Concord

*Who*: Tensions btw Amer. + Brit. *What*: kicked off the American Revolutionary War (1775-83); 100's of British troops marched from Boston to nearby Concord in order to seize hidden weapons. Paul Revere + other riders sounded the alarm, and colonial militiamen began mobilizing to intercept the Redcoat column. A confrontation on the Lexington town green started off the fighting, and soon the British were hastily retreating under intense fire. Many more battles followed, and in 1783 the colonists formally won their independence. *When*: 1775 *Where*: Lexington + Concord, Boston *Why*: 1764 Britain enacted a series of measures aimed at raising income from 13 colonies. (Sugar Act, Stamp Act and Townshend Acts, generated fierce resentment among the colonists, who protested against "taxation without representation.")

Texas Annexation

*Who*: Texas *What*: after congress of Repub. of Tex. accepts U.S. annexation (adding) of the territory, Texas is admitted into the US as 28th state - 1836, midst of armed conflict w/ Mex. gov. b/c Amer. quickly outnumbered Mex residents - Tex declared its independence from Mex - 1844, Congress finally agreed to annex the territory of Tex as a slave state - Dec. 29, 1845, Texas entered US as slave state, broadening the differences in US over the issue of slavery + set off the Mex-Amer. War *Where*: Texas (was Mex. territory) *When*: 1845 *Why*: Wanted independence from Mexico

domino theory

*Who*: US Gov. *What*: held that a communist victory in one nation would quickly lead to a chain reaction of communist takeovers in neighboring states - U.S. government provided covert military and financial aid to the French; the rationale = that a communist victory in Indochina would precipitate the spread of communism throughout Southeast Asia - Using this same logic, Truman would also give aid to Greece and Turkey during the late 1940s to help contain communism in Europe & the Middle East. *Where*: US & Europe *When*: April 1954 *Why*: governed much of U.S. foreign policy & the need to contain the spread of communism throughout the world

Nativism

*Who*: US born citizens *What*: favoring interests of native-born people over foreign-born people - led to anti-immigrant groups + demand for restrictions - problems = caused by immigr. from the "wrong" countries (Slav, Latin, Asiatic) - severe immigration laws to discourage & discriminate against foreigners *Where*: US *When*: 1870-1910 *Why*: US born citizens believed immigr. would corrupt Amer. values

Navajo Code Talkers

*Who*: US soldiers *What*: obscure languages used as a means of secret communication during wartime - used their knowledge of Native American languages as a basis to transmit coded messages - Code talkers transmitted these messages over military telephone or radio communications nets - service improved the speed of encryption of communications at both ends in front line operations during WWII - Name "code talkers" = strongly associated w/ bilingual Navajo speakers specially recruited during WWII by Marines to serve in their standard communications units in the Pacific Theater *Where*: US *When*: 20th century (during WWI & WWII) *Why*: To make it harder for opposition forces (ex./ Japanese militants) to intercept American radios/military communications

Old lights vs. new lights

New lights: Who: People like Jonathan Edwards + George Whitefield who converted people with preachings What: messengers of the renewal of faith and the increase in church membership + defended the transformative effect of emotion in religious experience Old Lights: Who: people like Charles Chauncy What: considered revivalists to be ill-guided motivators offering sensationalist theater as religious experience, damaging true religious growth Where: during Great Awakening When: mid 18th century Why: Had different opinions on revivalists

Proprietary colonies

Who: King giving colony to a ruler of his choice + owned by England What: King would give a colony to a single ruler as a reward for loyalty (Sir Edmund Andros = New England ruler, William Penn = Pennsylvania, George Calvert = Maryland) + had courts, + an assembly of free men) Where: Northern colonies When: Approx. 1660's-1690's Why: territorial expansion + to repay political and economic debts + a reward for loyalty to king

indentured servitude

Who: Orphans & Poor people from England What: free passage to America in exchange for 4-7 years of free labor Where: Created in England, used in N. America When: After Headright system, Age of exploration (early 1600's) Why: was a change for poor people to start over & escape poverty in England

Puritans

Who: People who wanted to eliminate Roman Catholic beliefs from the church of England, believed in a form of conversion and predestination determined by God What: left England to create a "holy" community in New England Where: left England, settled in New England (Massachusetts Bay Colony When: Sept., 1630 Why: wanted to create a utopia-like society & escape the church of England

Pequot War

Who: Pequot indians vs. Puritans What: a war over land & ended when Puritans burned down a Pequot fort (killed 500-600 men, women, children) Where: Connecticut When: 1637, ended in May 1637 Why: boosted Puritan's confidence & further progressed N. American persecution

Mayflower Compact

Who: Pilgrims (Separatists + John Carver) aboard the "May-Flower" What: an agreement to form a govn't Where: signed aboard "May-Flower", carried out in Plymouth colony When: Nov., 1620 Why: 1st written example of self govn't in the colonies

Powhatan Confederacy

Who: Powhatan (Chief of Powhatan tribe) What: powerful N. Amer. tribe that had relationship w/ Jamestown & Virginia; very organized Govn't Where: Coastal plain of Virginia When: early 1600's, age of exploration & establishment of English colonies Why: had on unstable relationship w/ English colonists (Jamestown)

Triangular trade

Who: Used by Europeans What: system of trade in which goods & slaves were exchanged btwn. Africa, England,Europe, West Indies & North Amer. Where: Across the atlantic ocean, to Europe, West indies, and North Amer. When: 17th cent. (1600's - 1700's) Why: The net work of trade routed, exports and important came in from diff countries to build econ.

the Stono Rebellion

Who: a group of about 20 African slaves What: revolted against slave owners, killed planter families Where: Stono R. Southwest of Charles town, FL When: Sunday, Sept. 1739 Why: Slaves wanted to flee spanish - held in FL

Regulator Movement

Who: citizens of the North Carolina colony What: rebellion initiated by residents of the North Carolina colony (believed that royal government officials were charging them excessive fees, falsifying records, and engaging in other mistreatments), Citizens wanted to regulate their own affairs Where: North Carolina When: 1764-71 Why: sought to obtain reforms/changes b/c refused to pay unfair taxes or fees (punished public officials, and interfered with the courts)

Paxton Boys

Who: group of Scots-Irish men living in the Appalachian Mountains that wanted protection from Native attacks What: killed 20 innocent Conestoga Indians in 1763, then marched to Philly with 600 armed men in Jan 1764 to fight for more protection from the Natives Where: Near Lancaster, Penn, then to Philly When: December 14, 1763 Why: Wanted protection from Natives

starving time

Who: imposed on Jamestown colonists by Powhatan tribe (killed there crops + lifestock) What: When Jamestown experienced great famine after Powhatan's burned their crops + livestock Where: Jamestown (Virginia) When: Winter, 1609 Why: Powhatan's were afraid of the larger # of colonists arriving on their land

Headright system

Who: introduced by Virginia company What: granted 50 acres of land to each settler & to each family member who accompanied him Where: Virginia When: 1618 Why: Virginia company needed field laborers to grow tobacco

Bacon's Rebellion

Who: led by Nathaniel Bacon (a planter) What: Marched his illegal army into Jamestown to confront Governor Berkeley about no protection from Natives & turned to violence Where: Jamestown (burned by Bacon ** example of a class war**) When: Sept. 1675-1676 Why: b/c Bacon was tired of getting no protection from the Natives

Jonathan Edwards

Who: member of clergy & wanted to revive Puritan religion What: called for revival in Puritan Church, said that church attendance wasn't enough, but people needed to acknowledge their sinfulness & see God's love Where: Northampton, Mass When: about 1741 (mid 1700's) Why: Want more strict Puritan laws & wanted Puritan revival

the Navigation Acts

Who: passed by English Parliament (legislative body of England) What: A series of laws intended to tighten control of trade in American colonies,passed all foreign good through England first (to control the market + make money), only English/colonial ships could carry goods Where: The colonies & England When: began in 1651 Why: So Britain could control the goods coming in & out & produced by the colonies

Great Awakening

Who: religious men in colonies (Puritans, Anglicans, etc.) who wanted to revive religious beliefs What: preached around the colonies, appealed to everyone (more acceptance), a lot of individualism, colonies became more religiously tolerant Where: 13 colonies When: 1730's & 1750's Why: people wanted to rededicate themselves to God

Atlantic Slave Trade

Who: slaves from America, Slave workers/traders from Europe What: Salves brought across Atlantic Ocean to the Americas & West Indies from Africa Where: Africa -> Atlantic Ocean -> West indies & America When: late 1600's & 1700's - 1800's Why: Americas needed workers for tobacco, rice, indigo, & sugar production

mercantilism

Who: used by British in American colonies What: goal = more exports than imports -> & increase gold & silver Where: colonies, Britain, & Europe When: mid-late 1600's Why: Increase Britain's power & wealth (in gold & silver)

Middle Passage

Who: victims = African slaves & leaders/slave traders (bad guys) = White European men What: the voyage that brought enslaved Africans to the West Indies & later to N. Amer. by ship Where: West Africa -> West Indies -> N. Amer. When: 1700's Why: slaves (for labor of tobacco, sugar, rice, indigo, etc. plantations) needed b/c indentured servant pop. decreasing

Three-fifths compromise

*Who*: proposed by James Wilson + Roger Sherman, (both delegates for the Constitutional Convention) *What*: - Slaves are to be counted as 3/5ths of a person - The pop. of slaves would be counted as three-fifths in total when dividing Representatives + Presidential electors & taxes. - those who opposed slavery only wanted to consider the free people of a population; those in favor wanted to include slaves in the population count (This would provide for slave holders to have many more seats in the House of Representatives + more representation in the Electoral College) - greatly increased the representation + political power of slave-owning states (south) *Where*: Constit. Convention *When*: 1787 *Why*: States wanted to include slaves in population count to have more representatives in the house & states who opposed slavery did not

20th Amendment

*Who*: proposed by Sen. George W. Norris *What*: moved Presidential terms & VP terms from March 4 to January 20 - moved Congressional terms from March 4 to January 3 - It also has provisions that determine what is to be done when there is no president-elect *Where*: DC *When*: January 23, 1933 *Why*: designed to remove the excessively long period of time a defeated president /member of Congress would continue to serve after his/ her failed bid for reelection

Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions

*Who*: resolutions = written by James Madison & Thomas Jefferson *What*: measures passed by the legislatures of Virginia & Kentucky as a protest against the Federalist Alien & Sedition Acts. - Jefferson's principal arguments = - national gov. = compact btw states - exercise of undelegated authority = invalid, & states had right to decide when their powers had been infringed & to determine the mode of redress. - The Kentucky resolutions declared the Alien & Sedition Acts to be "void and of no force." *Where*: Virginia & Kentucky *When*: November 16, 1798 *Why*: protests against the limitations on civil liberties contained in the Alien and Sedition Acts

Underground Railroad

*Who*: run by free African Americans + White abolitionists who helped fugitive slaves *What*: a secret system of routes along which runaway slaves were helped to escape to Canada or safe areas in free states - conductors hid fugitives in secret tunnels + false cupboards - most famous conductor = *Harriet Tubman* (former slave abolitionist) *When*: 19th century *Where*: slave states to free states/Canada *Why*: Abolition practice to help free slaves

the flapper

*Who*: young Western women *What*: wore short skirts, bobbed their hair, listened to jazz - wore excessive makeup, drank, drove automobiles - *Women wanted to be men's social equals* - They wanted to be treated as a man and go smoking and drinking - rise of consumerism promoted the ideals of "fulfillment and freedom" that encouraged women to have their own thoughts on garments, career, social activities *Where*: US (big cities-- Chicago, NY) *When*: 1920s *Why*: horror of WWI & Spanish flu epidemic (1918) inspired in young people a feeling that life is short and could end at any moment - young women wanted to spend their youth enjoying their life & freedom rather than just staying home and waiting for a man to marry them

XYZ Affair

*Who*:incident btw US + France *What*: led to an undeclared war (Quasi-War) when Amer. signed Jay treaty w/ Britain - French seized many Amer. merchant ships - John Adams sent 3 diplomats to Paris to restore peace between the two countries. Pinckney, John Marshall + Elbridge Gerry were put off by France's foreign minister, Charles de Talleyrand and said that in order to see him they first would have to pay him a hefty bribe and provide France with a large loan, among other conditions - Adams handed congress over w/ names of the French agents replaced with the letters X, Y and Z (XYZ Affair) - Congress created Department of the Navy + construction of warships - July 1798, authorized American ships to attack French vessels, launching an undeclared naval war (Quasi-War) *Where*: France + Amer. *When*: 1797-1798 *Why*: France = mad about the Jay Treaty

Iroquois

- "people of the long house" - extremely powerful - complex political system - New York (Eastern Woodlands)

4 Geo regions

- Eastern Woodlands - Great plains - Southwest - Far West

Cherokee

- Georgia (Eastern Woodlands) - Andrew Jackson = President at time - 1840 - written lang + advanced polit. system

Clovis Points

- New mexico 1932 - finger long spear points - chipped from fine brittle stone, sharp edges, on-cave grooves - hunting tools

Chumash

- Santa Barbara (near ocean) (Far West) - fished, gathered, hunted - permanent in area (were not nomadic); only moved to hunt

Treaty of Tordesillas

- Signed btw Portugal + Spain to split land/territory - Portugal = east (brazil) - Spain = west

Mesa Verde

- Southwestern Colorado - contains hundreds of pueblo (Indian village) ruins up to 13 centuries old - Pueblo people made pottery + built clusters of semi-subterranean pit houses on the mesa tops - cultivated corn (maize), beans, and squash - usually sufficient rainfall for their crops, and springs and seeps provided drinking water. - Constructed houses with vertical walls and flat roofs, all joined together in long row

Hernan Cortes

- Spanish explorer - went to new world looking for gold - defeated Aztec empire + capital: Tenochtitlan (1519-1521) - went against governor of cuba to proceed in his expedition - alliance with the independent city of Tlaxcala, with whose aid he conquered the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlán (now Mexico City

Bartolome de Las Casas

- Spanish missionary - critic of the Spanish Empire + its actions against the indigenous peoples of the Americas - soldier, landowner, priest, and later Bishop of Chiapas - witnessed firsthand horrors inflicted on Amerindian peoples in the Caribbean islands - wrote an extensive chronicle of the period of conquest following the arrival of Christopher Columbus - 1552 work: The Devastation of the Indies = one of most frequently cited primary sources in European colonialism studies and the history of human rights

Columbian Exchange

- Transfer of animals, plants, diseases between Western hemisphere (new world) and Eastern hemisphere (Europe) and vice versa - smallpox, horses, cattle, wheat (Europe -> N.A.) - corn, potatoes, (changes diet of Europeans + population will grow) tobacco, chocolate, syphilis (N.A. -> Europe)

conquistadores

- any of the leaders in the Spanish conquest of America, especially of Mexico and Peru, in the 16th century - Spanish conquerer esp. of Mexico + Peru

Cahokia

- large city w/ diff ethnic groups + languages - north of Mexico - abandoned 500 yrs before Columbus -Mississippi river - home to 10,000 people (as large as Philly) -lifestyle: worked in fields, fished, hunted - worshipped cosmology (stars, moon, sun)

encomienda system

- offered the Indians protection and elements of Christian civilization in exchange for their labour

Christopher Columbus

- sailed in 1492 for K. Ferdinand + Q. Isabella - Italian - 4 voyages total - landed in Caribbean (thought it was India) - imposed European culture + religion to natives - discovered/conquered land for Spain

Sioux

-Montana (Great Plains) - known for bison - nomadic, lives in teepees (used every part of bison) - religious - Gov. controlled them by killing bison

Algonquian

-Nebraska (Eastern Woodlands) - grew corn -advanced planting system

Pueblos

-descendants of the Anasazi - grew corn, made pottery, studied stars, architects, agricultural society, advanced irrigation system - Lived in Mesa Verde

William Howard Taft

*Who*: 27th Pres. *What*: 1904 = Pres. TR's secretary of war - more conservative than Roosevelt - lacked expansive view of presidential power & was generally a more successful administrator than politician - 1912, Roosevelt, dissatisfied with Taft's presidency - never wanted to be Pres. (9yrs after leaving office, achieved lifelong goal of chief justice of the U.S. Supreme Court) - initially active in "trust-busting," *initiating some 90 antitrust suits against large industrial combinations*(twice as many as Roosevelt) -he later backed away from these efforts, and in general aligned himself with the more conservative members of the Republican Party - 1909, Taft's convention of a special session of Congress to debate tariff reform legislation spurred the Republican protectionist majority to action and led to passage of the Payne-Aldrich Act - did little to lower tariffs - more progressive Repubs (Roosevelt) expected Taft to veto the bill, he signed it into law and publicly defended it as "the best tariff bill that the Republican Party ever passed - 1912, Roosevelt was so incensed w/ Taft and the conservative Republicans that he chose to break from the party and form his own Progressive Party *Where*: Wash DC *When*: 1909 - 1913 *Why*: Conservative decisions led to a split in Repub. party + led to Woodrow Wilson's election

Woodrow Wilson

*Who*: 28th Pres. *What*: Won election of 1912 (btw himself, TR, & Taft) - led America through World War I (1914-1918) - advocate for democracy and world peace - was a college professor, university president and Democratic governor of New Jersey before winning the White House in 1912 - pursued an ambitious agenda of progressive reform that included the establishment of the *Federal Reserve (provides a system for regulating the nation's banks, credit and money supply) and Federal Trade Commission (investigates and prohibits unfair business practices)* - tried to keep the United States neutral during World War I but ultimately called on Congress to declare war on Germany in 1917 - After the war, helped negotiate peace treaty that included a plan for the League of Nations - Although the Senate rejected U.S. membership in the League, Wilson received the Nobel Prize for his peacemaking efforts. - accomplishments included child labor laws, an eight-hour day for railroad workers and government loans to farmers - Wilson's second administration saw the passage of two significant constitutional amendments: 1. The era of Prohibition January 17, 1920 2. Women's right to vote - 19th Amend. (Wilson pushed Congress to pass this) *Where*: Wash DC *When*: 1913- 1921 *Why*: advocated world peace and protection of the people

Franklin D. Roosevelt

*Who*: 32nd Pres. *What*: won election of 1932 against Herbert Hoover - created the *New Deal* (programs to end the Depression) & redefined the role of fed. gov. in the lives of Americans - EX./ programs aimed at providing econ. relief for workers & farmers + creating jobs for the unemployed & initiated a slate of reforms for the financial system - Main Goals (3 R's): 1. *Relief*: direct aid to the people 2. *Recovery*: fixing the economy 3. *Reform*: financial/gov. reform - Roosevelt began first 100 days of his presidency by closing all banks for several days until Congress could pass reform legislation (*bank holiday*) - After passage of Emergency Banking Relief Act, 3/4 banks were open within a week - restored public confidence though *fireside chats* (speaking directly to the public in a series of radio broadcasts) - 1935 = *Second New Deal*: - Social Security Act (provided Amers w/ unemployment, disability, and pensions for old age) - Works Progress Administration - Demo.-led Congress also raised taxes on large corps & wealthy individuals - FDR led US from isolationism to victory over Nazi Germany & its allies in WWII - spearheaded the successful wartime alliance btw Britain, Soviet Union & US - helped lay the groundwork for the post-war peace organization that would become the *United Nations* - FDR got sick (polio) and was in a wheelchair for a big part of his Pres. - never liked to reveal his legs to the public b/c didn't want to show weakness *Where*: DC *When*: 1933 - 1945 *Why*: FDR ran on a platform of a "New Deal" to help lift the Amer. people out of the Depression by providing econ., social, + financial reforms

Iroquois policy of neutrality

*Who*: 5 Iroquois tribes in midst of French + English conflict *What*: Didn't fight for the British or the French, fought for their own liberty. Ended up siding with Britain *When*: During French Indian War (1756 - 1763) *Where*: Ohio River Valley *Why*: Aliened w/ Brit. b/c saw a monarch as a distant ruler rather than the aggressive French who were impeding on their land

the Constitutional Convention

*Who*: 55 land owning male delegates (educated, lawyers, + helped w/ state gov, approx. 40 yrs old) *What*: - began w/ James Madison's "virginia plan" - not supposed to happen under the Articles of Confederation - 3rd day of convention, delegated overthrow gov. - men fear a gov. that is too powerful - Final agreement: a government w/ upper house made up of equal numbers of delegates from each state + a lower house with proportional representation based upon population (active in 1789) *Where*: Philadelphia *When*: May 14, 1787 *Why*: to discuss revisions to the Articles of Confederation

Sons of Liberty

*Who*: A Secret organization of American colonists (later leaders of the Revolution) *What*: formed to protect the rights of the colonists + fight taxation by the British gov. (Played maj. role in in battling the Stamp Act in 1765 + the Boston Tea party in 1773) *When*: 1765 - 1773 *Where*: British Colonies & Boston, Mass *Why*: Thought that empire + liberty = same, fought for rights and identity

the Harlem Renaissance

*Who*: A.A. Society *What*: a literary, artistic, and intellectual movement that kindled a new black cultural identity - Cultural rebirth - Alain Locke = through art, "A.A. life is seizing its first chances for group expression and self determination." - Harlem = center of a "spiritual coming of age" - Locke's "New A.A." transformed "social disillusionment to race pride." - the Renaissance included the visual arts but excluded jazz, despite its parallel emergence as a A.A. art form - key figures = Langston Hughes, Louis Armstrong, Duke Ellington, Zora Neale Hurston - publishing industry, fueled by whites' fascination w/ exotic world of Harlem, sought out and published black writers *Where*: NY *When*: 1920s - mid-1930s *Why*: Gave recognition to A.A. artists and writers - new contributions to Amer. society gave the "new A.A.'s" pride

Treaty of Ghent

*Who*: Btw G. Brit + Amer. Diplomats *What*: peace treaty to end fighting - 1815, commercial treaty reopened trade btw them - Agreed to 10 yr joint occupation of Oregon territory - treaty returned US-British relations to the status they had had before the war: neither side gained or lost territory - Issues like the Orders in Council + Impressment = never addressed *Where*: city of Ghent, Belgium *When*: Xmas eve 1814 *Why*: Ended war of 1812

Congress of Racial Equality

*Who*: A.A. activists *What*: became one of the leading activist organizations in the early yrs of the Amer. Civil Rights Movement - early 1960s, CORE, working w/ other civil rights groups, launched a series of initiatives: 1. the Freedom Rides (aimed at desegregating public facilities) 2. the Freedom Summer voter (registration project and the historic 1963 March on Washington) - CORE initially embraced a pacifist, non-violent approach to fighting racial segregation, but by the late 1960s the group's leadership had shifted its focus towards the political ideology of A.A. nationalism & separatism - The group first drew national attention in 1960 w/ its active support of the sit-in movement at lunch counters that refused to serve A.A.'s *Where*: founded on the University of Chicago campus *When*: 1942 *Why*: it placed increasing emphasis on A.A. autonomy and having A.A. political power

"Double V" campaign

*Who*: A.A. citizens *What*: The Double V refers to the "V for victory" sign prominently displayed by countries fighting "for victory over aggression, slavery, and tyranny," - 2nd "V" adopted to represent the double victory for A.A.'s fighting for freedom overseas and at home - Pitched as "Democracy - Double Victory, At Home - Abroad", the campaign highlighted the risks African Americans took while they fought in the military campaign against Axis powers while denied their rights as citizens within the US *Where*: US *When*: 1942 *Why*: slogan & drive to promote the fight for democracy abroad and w/in the US for A.A.'s

Malcolm X

*Who*: A.A. nationalist & religious leader *What*: Malcolm X = influenced by teachings of Elijah Muhammad, the leader of the Nation of Islam, whose members are popularly known as A.A. Muslims - The Nation of Islam advocated A.A nationalism & racial separatism - Muhammad's teachings had a strong effect on Malcolm, who entered into an intense program of self-education & took the last name "X" to symbolize his stolen African identity - after 6 yrs, in prison Malcolm = released & became a loyal + effective minister of the Nation of Islam in Harlem, NY - *In contrast w/ civil rights leaders such as MLK, Malcolm X advocated self-defense & the liberation of A.A.'s "by any means necessary." (even if that retaliating)* - February 21, 1965, Malcolm X = shot to death by Nation of Islam members while speaking at a rally of his organization in NY City *Where*: NY *When*: 1960's (esp. 1963 - 1965) *Why*: Malcolm X & MLK = trying to achieve the same goal of ending racial segregation but in a diff way

"Tuskegee Airmen"

*Who*: A.A. servicemen *What*: first black servicemen to serve as military aviators in the U.S. armed forces, flying w/ distinction during WWII - Though subject to racial discrimination both at home & abroad, the 996 pilots & more than 15,000 ground personnel who served with the all-black units would be credited with some 15,500 combat sorties & earn over 150 Distinguished Flying Crosses for their achievements - The highly publicized successes of the Tuskegee Airmen helped pave the way for the eventual integration of the U.S. armed forces under President Harry Truman in 1948 - All A.A. military pilots who trained in the US trained at Moton Field, the Tuskegee Army Air Field, & were educated at Tuskegee University, located near Tuskegee, Alabama *Where*: US *When*: WWII *Why*: Tuskegee Airmen = some of the best pilots in the U.S. Army Air Forces due to a combo of pre-war experience & the personal drive of those accepted for training - Nevertheless, the Tuskegee Airmen cont'd to have to fight racism - Their combat record did much to quiet those directly involved w/ the group, notably bomber crews who often requested them for escort, but other units continued to harass these airmen

W.E.B Du Bois

*Who*: A.A. sociologist, writer & activist *What*: earned fame for publication of *Souls of Black Folk (1903)* - founding officer of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People *(NAACP)* & editor of its magazine - resigned from the NAACP in June 1934 in a dispute over organizational policy & direction - *leader of the Niagara Movement* (group of African-American activists who wanted equal rights for blacks) - clashed w/ other black leaders over appropriate strategies for black advancement (Booker T. Washington whose strategy of accommodation & emphasis on industrial education for blacks he rejected) - believed that African Americans needed the chances for advanced education to develop leadership *Where*: US *When*: 1868-1963 *Why*: insisted on full civil rights & increased polit. represen., which he believed would be brought about by the A.A. intellectual elite

Great Migration

*Who*: A.A.'s *What*: relocation of more than 6 million A.A.'s from rural South to cities of the North, Midwest and West - A.A.'s headed north b/c took advantage of the need for industrial workers that first arose during WWI - during the migration: A.A.'s began to build a new place for themselves in public life - actively confronting economic, political and social challenges + creating a new black urban culture *Where*: From South to North Amer. *When*: 1916 - 1970 *Why*: went north b/c driven from their homes by unsatisfactory econ. opportunities and harsh segregationist laws

Exodusters

*Who*: A.A.'s migration (encouraged by Sen. William Windom, a White republican) *What*: name given to A.A.'s who migrated from states along Mississippi River to Kansas in the late nineteenth century, as part of the Exoduster Movement or Exodus of 1879 - It was the first general migration of blacks following the Civil War - influenced by the outcome of 1878 elections in the state of Louisiana,(Dem. Party made major gains by winning several congressional seats & governorship) - Freed A.A.'s (largely Repub. supporters) = coerced, threatened, assaulted and even murdered to keep them away from the ballot box - When the final tallies were in and the Democrats claimed almost total victory, many black Louisianans knew that the time had come for them to abandon their state and join those already in Kansas - 1879 exodus removed approximately 6,000 African-Americans primarily from Louisiana, Mississippi and Texas *Where*: Miss River to Kansas *When*: 1879 *Why*: To avoid Democratic gov. + suppression

Montgomery Bus Boycott

*Who*: A.A.'s part of civ. rights movement *What*: regarded as the 1st large-scale demonstration against segregation in the U.S. - Dec. 1, 1955, 4 days b4 the boycott began, *Rosa Parks*, an A.A. woman, refused to yield her seat to a white man on a Montgomery bus - She was arrested & fined - The boycott of public buses by A.A.'s in Montgomery began on the day of Parks' court hearing and lasted 381 days - U.S. SC ultimately ordered Montgomery to integrate its bus system - one of the leaders of the boycott, a young pastor, *Martin Luther King Jr.* (1929-68), emerged as a prominent national leader of the Amer. civil rights movement in the wake of the action *Where*: Montgomery, Alabama *When*: December 5, 1955 - December 20, 1956 *Why*: A.A.'s refused to ride city buses to protest segregated seating

New Right

*Who*: American conservatives -- Arizona Sen. Barry Goldwater's 1964 presidential campaign is often viewed as a key event in the rise of the New Right, &Pres. Reagan is often seen as its iconic hero *What*: nicked named the "new right" partly in contrast to the New Left counterculture of the 1960s - the New Right consisted of conservative activists who voiced opposition on a variety of issues: 1. abortion 2. homosexuality 3. the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) 4. the Panama Canal Treaty 5. affirmative action 6. most forms of taxation - The "newness" of the New Right refers to the redefined forms of conservative polt. activity - organizations shared demographic characteristics (white, middle-class, Protestant, suburban) & were frustrated with a perceived decline in morality - including rampant drug use and more-open and public displays of sexuality as well as rising crime rates, race riots, civil rights unrest, and protest movements against the Vietnam War - New Right conservatives often blamed the nation's ills on liberalism, which they saw as contributing to the mismanagement & corruption of the fed. gov. *Where*: US *When*: 1960s and 1970s *Why*: New Right ideals grew rapidly in part to organizations such as Young Americans for Freedom and College Republicans

Clara Barton

*Who*: American nurse, suffragist and humanitarian *What*: best remembered for organizing the American Red Cross - independently organized relief for the wounded, often bringing her own supplies to front lines - *Helped at the battle of Antietam* - As the war ended, helped locate thousands of missing soldiers - Barton lobbied for U.S. recognition of the International Committee of the Red Cross - became president of the American branch when it was founded in 1881 - Barton continued her humanitarian work throughout several foreign wars and domestic crises before her death in 1912 *Where*: Battle grounds (anywhere there was a war/battle involving the US) *When*: 1870's - 1900's (resigned in 1904) *Why*: Believed in relief for the wounded and wanted the American Red Cross to thrive

rationing

*Who*: Americans *What*: in order to provide U.S. troops & allies w/ the sustenance required to maintain their strength and vitality, posters urging citizens to reduce their personal consumption of meat, wheat, fats and sugar were plastered throughout communities - the Emergency Price Control Act granted the Office of Price Administration (OPA) the authority to set price limits & ration food & other commodities in order to discourage hoarding + ensure the equitable distribution of scarce resources - Americans were unable to purchase sugar w/out gov.-issued food coupons - Vouchers for coffee were introduced in November - March of 1943, meat, cheese, fats, canned fish, canned milk & other processed foods were added to the list of rationed provisions - Despite the fact that ration books = explicitly intended for the sole use by the named recipient, a barter system developed whereby people traded one type of stamp for another - black markets began cropping up all over the country in which forged ration stamps or stolen items were illegally resold - By the end of the war, restrictions on processed foods and other goods like gasoline and fuel oil were lifted *Where*: US *When*: WWII (1941-1945) *Why*: Restrictions on imported foods, limitations on the transportation of goods due to a shortage of rubber tires & diversion of agricultural harvests to soldiers overseas all contributed to the U.S. government's decision to ration certain essential items

Gospel of Wealth

*Who*: Andrew Carnegie *What*: Essay published in, "North American Review," about the responsibility the wealthy need to have when handling their money - proposed best way of dealing w/ wealth inequality = for wealthy to redistribute their surplus means in a responsible + thoughtful manner - argued that surplus wealth = best used when it is administered carefully by the wealthy *Where*: NY *When*: 1889 *Why*: argues against wasteful use of capital (money) in the form of extravagance, irresponsible spending, or self-indulgence - wants to use $$ over the course of one's lifetime toward reducing the differences btw rich + poor

OPEC oil embargo

*Who*: Arab-dominated Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) *What*: announced a decision to cut oil exports to the US & other nations that provided military aid to Israel in the Yom Kippur War of October 1973 - According to OPEC, exports were to be reduced by 5 % every month until Israel evacuated the territories occupied in the Arab-Israeli war of 1967 - In Dec., a full oil embargo was imposed against the US & several other countries, prompting a serious energy crisis in the US & other nations dependent on foreign oil. - March 1974, the embargo against the United States = lifted after U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger succeeded in negotiating a military disengagement agreement between Syria and Israel *Where*: Middle East & US *When*: 1973 *Why*: OPEC was founded in 1960 by Saudi Arabia, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, and Venezuela with the principle objective of raising the price of oil

transcontinental railroad

*Who*: Asa Whitney (presented in Congress the fed. funding of a railroad that would stretch to the Pacific) *What*: Pacific Railroad Act chartered the Central Pacific and the Union Pacific Railroad Companies - tasked them with building a transcontinental railroad that would link U.S. from east to west - easier migration west - bigger trade market b/c shipping goods = easier (cattle) - info travels faster - created standard time + time zones - 3 main routes: 1. Omaha, Nebraska- Sacramento, California 2. New Orleans, Louisiana-Los Angeles, California 3. Duluth, Minnesota-Seattle, Washington *Where*: Railroads connecting East to West *When*: 1862 *Why*: Easier transportation of goods/cattle, faster

Sandra Day O'Connor

*Who*: Associate justice of the Supreme Court *What*: A *moderate* conservative nominated by Pres. Reagan - she was known for her dispassionate and meticulously researched opinions - 2009 her accomplishments = acknowledged by President Obama who honored her with the Presidential Medal of Freedom - As a judge, Sandra Day O'Connor developed a solid reputation for being firm, but just - Outside of the courtroom, she remained involved in Republican politic - 1979, O'Connor = selected to serve on the state's court of appeals - Only two years later, Pres. Reagan nominated her for associate justice of the U.S. Supreme Court - O'Connor received unanimous approval from the U.S. Senate. - She broke new ground for women in the legal field when she was sworn in as the first female justice on the Supreme Court *Where*: US *When*: served SC from 1981 - 2006 *Why*: first woman to serve as a justice on the US Supreme Court in 1981

the Oregon Treaty

*Who*: Btw GB and US *What*: agreement that set the boundary btw the US and Canada at the 49th parallel west of the Rocky Mountains - By 1843, increased American immigration on the Oregon Trail to the Territory made the border issue a burning one in Congress - Polk used the slogan of "54 degrees 40 minutes or fight." b/c supporter of Manifest Destiny = eager to settle the boundary of the Oregon Territory + proposed a settlement on the 49 degree line to Great Britain *Where*: Oregon Territory *When*: 1846 *Why*: Polk wanted Oregon to complete manifest destiny of expanding from coast to coast

stock market crash

*Who*: Banks/big businesses *What*: Stock prices began to decline in September and early October 1929, & on October 18 the fall began - Panic set in, and on October 24, Black Thursday, a record 12,894,650 shares were traded (which drove prices down even further) - *Black Tuesday* (October 29), in which stock prices collapsed completely and 16,410,030 shares were traded on the New York Stock Exchange in a single day - Billions of dollars were lost, wiping out thousands of investors - aftermath of Black Tuesday, America and the rest of the industrialized world spiraled downward into the Great Depression (1929-39) -- (longest-lasting economic downturn in the history of the Western industrialized world ) *Where*: Wall Street, NY *When*: October 29, 1929 (Black Tuesday) *Why*: causes of the eventual market collapse = low wages, the proliferation of debt, a struggling agricultural sector and an excess of large bank loans that could not be liquidated. - "buy now, pay later" = debt

Albany Plan of Union

*Who*: Benjamin Franklin *What*: wanted to create a unified government for the Thirteen Colonies *When*: July 10, 1754 *Where*: Albany, New York at the Albany Congress *Why*: ("Grand Council," & "president General.") These two branches of the unified government would regulate colonial-Indian relations and also resolve territorial disputes between the colonies

"corrupt bargain"

*Who*: Between 4 candidates: Andrew Jackson, John Quincy Adams, William H. Crawford, Henry Clay *What*: No candidate received the majority of electoral votes + Pres. decision went to House of Representatives - House chose John Quincy Adams to be Pres. on Feb. 9, 1825 (decision influenced by Henry Clay) - Clay = appointed as 1st secretary of state & Jackson + his supporters thought of the decision as a corrupt agreement - With little popular support, Adams' presidency = threatened by "Corrupt Bargain" + haunted his administration -1828, he was defeated in his reelection bid by Andrew Jackson, who received more than twice as many electoral votes than Adams *Where*: Wash DC *When*: Election of 1824 *Why*: Clay influenced the house to elect John Q. Adams and Jackson called the decision corrupt

Virtual representation

*Who*: British *What*: "No taxation w/out representation"; -Americans = having actual representation + actual legislators seated + voting in London -British = virtual representation (a Member of Parliament virtually represented every person in the empire + no need for a specific representative from Virginia or Mass, etc.) *When*: 1765 (1760's) *Where*: Amer. Colonies *Why*: British response to the First Continental Congress in Amer. Colonies

Proclamation of 1763

*Who*: British Gov. *What*: Passed after Pontiac's rebellion; sought to halt colonist expansion west of the Appalachian mountains *When*: 1763 *Where*: West of Appalachian Mt.s *Why*: To avoid conflicts w/ the Natives

Iron Curtain speech

*Who*: British Prime Minister, Winston Churchill *What*: condemns Soviet Union's policies in Europe & declares, "From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic, an iron curtain has descended across the continent." - Churchill began by praising the US, which he declared stood "at the pinnacle of world power." - Churchill warned against the expansionist policies of the Soviet Union - In addition to the "iron curtain" that had descended across Eastern Europe, Churchill spoke of "communist fifth columns" that were operating throughout western and southern Europe - Churchill's "iron curtain" phrase immediately entered the official vocabulary of the Cold War - In the Soviet Union, Russian leader Joseph Stalin denounced the speech as "war mongering," & referred to Churchill's comments about the "English-speaking world" as imperialist "racism." *Where*: Westminster College in Fulton, Missouri *When*: March 5, 1946 (Cold War period) *Why*: primary purpose of Churchill's talk = to argue for an even closer "special relationship" btw the US & GB—the great powers of the "English-speaking world"—in organizing and policing the postwar world

Boston Massacre

*Who*: British Soldiers *What*: British red coats/soldiers killed 5 civilians/protesters (patriots) outside the statehouse - were protesting b/c British troops occupying their city (were sent to Boston in 1768 to enforce unpopular taxation laws passed by a British parliament that lacked American representation) *When*: 1770 *Where*: Boston, Mass (outside statehouse) *Why*: colonists protested the guards of the city by throwing snowballs + other objects at the British (Brit. soldier hit, causing firing of riffle followed by rest of soldiers)

Neolin and Pontiac

*Who*: Brothers and Chiefs of the Ottawa tribe *What*: Pontiac lead the Pontiac Rebellion to perserve their land against the British *When*: 1763 *Where*: Great Lakes region *Why*: French loss = Native's loss b/c had a compatible relationship w/ French (traded + friendly) not English. N. Amer's captured 8 Brit forts and this rebellion caused the drawing of the proclamation line)

Battle of Saratoga

*Who*: Btw Brit + Amer *What*: turning point of the Revolutionary War; secured a critical French alliance w/ Amer.'s during the Amer. Revol., providing monetary + military support to outlast the British *When*: 1777 *Where*: From Canada to Saratoga, NY *Why*: helped to induce the French to recognize American independence and to give open military assistance

Battle of Antietam

*Who*: Btw Confederate and Union troops in the Civil War *What*: clash near Maryland's Antietam Creek in the bloodiest one-day battle in Amer. history - Robert E. Lee's first invasion of the Northern states - George B. McClellan in charge of the Union troops responsible for defending Washington, D.C., against Lee's invasion - Confederates = pushed back but not beaten (15,000 casualties) - That night, Lee turned his forces back to Virginia - His retreat gave President Lincoln the moment he had been waiting for to issue the Emancipation Proclamation - The Union wins the battle w/ Lee's retreat to Virginia *Where*: Antietam Creek, Maryland *When*: Sep 17, 1862 *Why*: promoted the issuing of the Emancipation Proclamation after the Union victory

Treaty of Paris of 1763

*Who*: Btw France + Britain *What*: Treaty signed by both countries that divided land; British received Canada from France and Florida from Spain, but permitted France to keep its West Indian sugar islands + gave Louisiana to France *When*: 1763 *Where*: signed in Paris by representatives *Why*: Treaty ended the 7 yrs war + benefitted Brit b/c got more land (treaty strengthened Amer. colonies by removing their European rivals (French) to the north and south + opening Mississippi Valley to westward expansion

the War with Mexico

*Who*: Btw Mex and Amer. *What*: Mex = mad about Tex independence - When James Polk's offer to purchase CA, New Mex., Southwest, etc = rejected, he instigated a fight by moving troops into a disputed zone btw Rio Grande & Nueces River that both countries had previously recognized as part of the Mexican state of Coahuila - April 25, 1846, Mexican cavalry attacked a group of U.S. soldiers in the disputed zone under the command of General Zachary Taylor, killing about a dozen -Taylor called in reinforcements, and-with the help of superior rifles + artillery-was able to defeat the Mexicans at the battles of Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma - Mexico turned to General Antonio López de Santa Anna - Santa Anna convinced Polk that, if allowed to return to Mexico, he would end the war on terms favorable to US, But when he arrived, he immediately double-crossed Polk by taking control of the Mexican army and leading it into battle - At the Battle of Buena Vista in February 1847, Santa Anna suffered heavy casualties and was forced to withdraw - Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ended war when Santa Anna resigned *Where*: *When*: 1846-1848 *Why*: Started b/c of the Tex annexation and b/c of Mexico's refusal to sell lands to Polk

the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo

*Who*: Btw Mex. + U.S. *What*: Ended war w/ Mexico - 1847, the Mexican government surrendered and peace negotiations began 1. Mex. going to recognize U.S. border @ Rio Grande 2. U.S. going to get present-day Arizona, California, Colorado, Nevada, New Mexico, Utah and Wyoming (paid Mex. $15 mil) 3. added 525,000 square miles to US *Where*: Mexico *When*: Feb 2, 1848 *Why*: Mexican gov. surrendered

the 1987 INF treaty

*Who*: Btw Pres. Reagan & Gorbachev *What*: *a treaty designed to eliminate U.S. & Soviet medium-range nuclear missiles from Europe* - Gorbachev & Pres. Reagan had been wrestling w/ the issue of nuclear arms reduction in Euro since 1985 - discussions broke down when Gorbachev linked the issue of the elimination of U.S. & Soviet INF in Euro to U.S. termination of its development of the Strategic Defense Initiative (the so-called "Star Wars" anti-missile defense system) - However, both Reagan and Gorbachev faced pressures to reach a settlement. - dropping his insistence on including SDI in the negotiations, Gorbachev agreed to the treaty in Feb. 1987 - the Soviets eliminated about 1,500 medium-range missiles from Europe and the US removed nearly half that number *Where*: US & Russia *When*: 1987 *Why*: *For US*: Reagan = under pressure by "no-nuke" forces both in the US & in western Euro to create an agreement - By late 1986 and early 1987, he was also faced with the fallout from the Iran-Contra scandal *For Gorbachev*: - wanted to achieve a cut in nuclear armaments, both to bolster his prestige on the world stage & to provide some much-needed relief for a Soviet economy sagging under the burden of massive military expenditures

nullification crisis

*Who*: Btw South Carolina + Fed Gov. *What*: SC wanted to nullify (make invalid) tariff - confrontation btw state of South Carolina + fed. gov. in 1832-33 over SC's attempt to declare null and void (separation of state from US) from Tariffs of 1828 and 1832 - SC threatening succession - Jackson passes *Force Bill* b/c thought SC = being treasonous + threatened to send military troops to SC & hang John C. Calhoun - Congress eventually lowers the tariff *Where*: SC *When*: Nov. 1832 *Why*: SC wanted to put protective tariff out of use to stop benefitting the north

the Red Scare

*Who*: Btw Soviet Union & US *What*: period characterized by the fear of communist influence and communist infiltration into Amer. society (Communists were often referred to as "Reds" for their allegiance to the red Soviet flag) - Federal employees were analyzed to determine whether they were sufficiently loyal to the gov. - intense rivalry btw two superpowers raised concerns in US that Communists & leftist sympathizers inside America might actively work as Soviet spies and pose a threat to U.S. security - 1947, Pres. Harry S. Truman issued the Loyalty Order, which mandated that all federal employees be analyzed to determine whether they were sufficiently loyal to the government *Where*: US *When*: late 1940s - early 1950s *Why*: Amer. citizens = worried about security & safety b/c of growing soviet espionage & communist influence

Little Big Horn

*Who*: Btw U.S. Army (Gen. Custer) & Sitting Bull (Lakota tribe + Chief Crazy Horse) *What*: also called "Custer's Last Stand" - b/c of Sitting Bull's vision of soldiers falling off of their horses in the Lakota camp, Oglala Lakota war chief, Crazy Horse, set out for battle w/ band of 500 warriors - June 17 he surprised Custer's troops w/ 3,000 Native warriors & forced them to retreat - marked the most decisive Native American victory & the worst U.S. Army defeat in the long Plains Indian War - Meanwhile, U.S. gov. increased efforts to subdue the tribes - Within 5 years, almost all of the Sioux & Cheyenne would be confined to reservations - 4 yrs later, impossible to feed his people b/c buffalo = almost extinct, Sitting Bull finally came south to surrender *Where*: Montana, near Little Big Horn River *When*: 1876 *Why*: To defend homeland against U.S. army who ignored previous treaties and invaded the land anyway

Iran-contra affair

*Who*: Btw US & Iran *What*: Eugene Hasenfus = captured by troops of the Sandinista regime *(backed by soviets)* in Nicaragua & under questioning confessed that he was shipping military supplies into Nicaragua for Contra use, an anti-Sandinista force *(created & funded by the US)* - Hasenfus claimed that operation = really run by the U.S. CIA - Result: Congress, reacted to complaints about corruption & brutality against the Contras, by passing the Boland Amendment in 1984 (specifically forbidding the CIA or any other U.S. agency from supporting the Contras) - Pres. Reagan saw the Sandinista gov. in Nicaragua as a puppet of the Soviet Union, + had secured U.S. funding for the Contras in 1981 -- signed off on the Boland Amendment reluctantly - Despite denials from the president, persistent investigations by journalists & Congress began to unravel the so-called Iran-Contra scandal - *The scandal involved the secret sale of U.S. weapons to Iran (which was supposed to help in the release of U.S. hostages in the Middle East)* -Some of the *proceeds from sales were used to covertly fund the Contra war in Nicaragua* - A Congressional investigation, begun in December 1986, revealed the scheme to the public - 11 members of the Pres. admin. eventually = convicted of a variety of charges related to the scandal - Hasenfus = tried & sentenced to 30 yrs imprisonment by a Nicaraguan court, but later released *Where*: Nicaragua *When*: Oct 5, 1986 *Why*: The resulting scandal rocked the Reagan administration & shook the public's confidence in the U.S. government

Morrill Land Grant Act

*Who*: Congress/ Justin Morrill (Congressmen) *What*: provided grants of Fed. land to states to finance the establishment of colleges specializing in "agriculture and the mechanic arts" - granted each state 30,000 acres for each of its congressional seats *Where*: Across the States *When*: 1862 and 1890 *Why*: To learn how to cultivate the land to make it easier to live off of

the Spanish-American War

*Who*: Btw US + Spain *What*: ended Spanish colonial rule in the Americas - gave U.S. territories in the western Pacific and Latin America - Made the U.S. a World Power - war originated in the Cuban struggle for independence from Spain (1895) - Spain's cruel measures to halt the rebellion + guerrilla war = graphically portrayed for U.S. public by several sensational newspapers - American sympathy for the rebels rose - resulted in growing popular demand for U.S. intervention esp. after unexplained sinking of USS Maine battleship in Havana harbour (had been sent to protect U.S. citizens and property after anti-Spanish rioting in Havana) - Spain announced an armistice on April 9 & new program to grant Cuba limited powers of self-government - U.S. Congress soon afterward issued resolutions that declared: 1. Cuba's right to independence 2. demanded the withdrawal of Spain's armed forces from the island 3. authorized the President's use of force to secure that withdrawal while renouncing any U.S. design for annexing Cuba *Where*: Cuba *When*: 1898 *Why*: Sparked by the Cuban independence movement & unexplained sinking in Havana harbor of the battleship USS Maine

Franco-American alliance

*Who*: Btw. France + US *What*: Treaty of Amity + Commerce recognized US as indepen nation + encouraged trade btw France + Amer. -Treaty of Alliance = military alliance against G. Britain, -> absolute independence of US be recognized as condition for peace + France would be permitted to conquer the British West Indies. *When*: 1778, during Amer. Revol. War *Where*: Amer. Colonies *Why*: Motivations = appreciation of Amer. revolutionaries' democratic ideals + bitterness at having lost most of their American empire to the British at the conclusion of the French and Indian Wars in 1763

"model tenements"

*Who*: Built by Alfred Tredway White (wealthy business man) *What*: urban dwellings that housed multiple families - small crowded apartments (sanitation = a big problem) - many people threw garbage into airshafts which created huge odor issue - led to the NY State Tenement Act (1901): - law that banned the construction of dark, poorly ventilated tenement buildings in NY - law required that new buildings = built w/ outward-facing windows in every room, open courtyard, proper ventilation systems, indoor toilets, & fire safeguards *Where*: NY *When*: 1870s *Why*: fast/cheap housing, sometimes was all people could afford - no regulatory garbage disposals/sanitation systems led to reforms to improve the standard of living

John D. Rockefeller

*Who*: Captain of the Oil Indust. *What*: 1870,established the Standard Oil Company of Ohio - participated in secret trust agreements - used a trust to gain control of the oil indust. - 1870 controlled 90% of refining - paid workers low wages - Standard Oil gained a monopoly in the oil industry by buying rival refineries and developing companies for distributing and marketing its products around the globe - donated to education (U of Chicago) and medical institutes - became one of the world's wealthiest men and a major philanthropist - 1890: U.S. Congress passed Sherman Antitrust Act - first federal legislation prohibiting trusts & combinations that restrained trade - Two years later, the Ohio Supreme Court dissolved the Standard Oil Trust *Where*: throughout US (mostly NY + Ohio) *When*: 1870s-1890s *Why*: expanded business interests in the growing oil industry b/c kerosene (derived from petroleum & used in lamps) = becoming an economic staple

Andrew Carnegie

*Who*: Captain of the Steel Indust. *What*: 1873 Carnegie entered the steel business - 1899 Carnegie Steel Co. manufactured more steel than all factories in G.B. - attracted workers by offering them stock in the company - used vertical integration (bought out suppliers) to control raw materials & transportation systems - used horizontal integration (comp. using similar products to merge) *Where*: Penn + throughout US *When*: 1873 (entered steel business) - early 1900s *Why*: Embodiment of the American dream; one of the wealthiest Amer.s

Sumner-Brooks affair

*Who*: Charles Sumner (Mass Sen.) vs. Brooks (Sen. Butler's nephew) *What*: Sumner delivered a speech in senate verbally attacking his colleagues (especially Sen. Butler - Brooks Uncle) for their support of slavery - Brooks went into the senate and struck Sumner on the head with a cane multiple times - North Condemned the incident, but the South sent more canes to Brook's (supporting the act) *When*: May 22, 1856 *Where*: Senate *Why*: Brooks avenging his uncle from Sumner's accusations

March on Washington

*Who*: Civil rights and religious groups *What*: more than 200,000 Americans gathered in Washington for Jobs & Freedom - The march became a key moment in the growing struggle for civil rights in the US - culminated in MLK's "I Have a Dream" speech, the march = a spirited call for racial justice & equality - Consequence: - police used police dogs and fire hoses to attack people & break apart the march *Where*: Washington, DC *When*: August 28, 1963 *Why*: event was designed to shed light on the political and social challenges A.A's continued to face across the country

Boston Tea Party

*Who*: Colonists, many women & Son's + Daughter's of liberty *What*: Boycotted and threw Tea cargo into the Boston Harbor b/c the Tea was imported by Britain (cost Brit.'s $18,000) *When*: 1773 *Where*: Boston Harbor, Mass *Why*: protest of the British Parliament's Tea Act of 1773 (bill designed to save faltering East India Company by greatly lowering its tea tax + low tax allowed East India Company to undercut even tea smuggled into America by Dutch traders + many colonists viewed the act as another example of taxation tyranny)

House Committee on Un-American Activities

*Who*: Committee of the U.S. House of Representatives *What*: investigated allegations of communist activity in U.S. - committee used power to send ppl to court as a weapon & called citizens to testify in high-profile hearings before Congress - intimidating atmosphere often produced dramatic but questionable revelations about Communists infiltrating American institutions - they paid special attention to the motion picture industry, which was believed to harbor a large number of Communists - By the late 1950s and early 1960s, HUAC's influence was in decline, *Where*: US *When*: 1938 *Why*: HUAC's controversial tactics contributed to the fear, distrust and repression that existed during the anticommunist hysteria of the 1950s

Camp David Accords

*Who*: Egyptian President Anwar el-Sadat and Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin *What*: sign the Camp David Accords, laying the groundwork for a permanent peace agreement between Egypt and Israel after three decades of hostilities - The accords were negotiated during 12 days of intensive talks at President Jimmy Carter's Camp David retreat in the Catoctin Mountains of Maryland - Sadat and Begin were jointly awarded the 1978 Nobel Peace Prize for their efforts *Where*: Camp David retreat in Maryland *When*: sep. 17, 1978 *Why*: treaty ended the state of war between the two countries and provided for the establishment of full diplomatic and commercial relations.

Ku Klux Klan

*Who*: Confed. veterans + bitter southerners (1st leader = Nathan Bedford Forrest, who had been a Confederate general during the Civil War) *What*: Secret organization that used terrorist tactics in an attempt to restore white supremacy in S. states after war - Originally founded as a social club for former Confederate soldiers, Klan evolved into a terrorist organization - 1868 - KKK existed in almost every state - Their method: prevent A.A.'s from using their polit. pow (killed tons of people + burnt down property) - A.A.'s who owned land = susceptible to attacks + as a result & out of econ. necessity had to work for white landowners as wage laborers or sharecroppers - 1880 KKK = successful b/c able to restore white supremacy *Where*: formed in Pulaski, Tennessee *When*: 1866 *Why*: KKK used violence to scare A.A. from voting and to restore white supremacy

General Robert E. Lee

*Who*: Confederate General *What*: June 1861, Lee assumed command of the Army of Northern Virginia, which he would lead for the rest of the war - Lee & army achieved great success at Second Bull Run - spring of 1863, Lee invaded the North, only to be defeated at the Battle of Gettysburg - w/ Confederate defeat a near certainty, Lee continued battling Union General Ulysses S. Grant in a series of clashes in Virginia in 1864-65 - finally surrendering what was left of his army in April 1865 - Lee's most brilliantly fought battle = Chancellorsville on May 1-4, 1863 *Where*: Confederate States *When*: 1860's *Why*: wanted to lead the confed. states to victory to stay slave states

Chinese Exclusion Act

*Who*: Congress *What*: Banned entry to all Chinese expect students, teachers, merchants, tourists, + gov. officials - 1st law restricting specific immigr. - kept getting renewed until 1943 *Where*: U.S. + *Mostly effective in West Coast* *When*: 1882 *Why*: population on the west coast wanted to eliminate Chinese immigr. b/c thought they were competing against them for jobs (since immigr. took jobs at lower wages) - also wanted to maintain white "racial purity."

Fifteenth Amendment

*Who*: Congress *What*: No one can be kept from voting b/c of "race, color, or previous condition of servitude" - granted voting rights to A.A.'s *Where*: DC *When*: March 30, 1870 *Why*: To protect suffrage laws/rights of A.A's

16th Amendment

*Who*: Congress *What*: Permitted a Fed. income tax (w/out dividing it among the states) - exempted income taxes from constitutional requirements regarding direct taxes, after income taxes on rents, dividends, and interest were ruled to be direct taxes *Where*: US *When*: 1913 *Why*: to have pow. over taxes on incomes w/out dividing among the states/consulting w/ a census

Fourteenth Amendment

*Who*: Congress *What*: Provided Constit. basis for the Civil Rights Act - granted citizenship & equal civil & legal rights to A.A.'s & slaves who had been emancipated after the American Civil War - including them under the umbrella phrase "all persons born or naturalized in the United States." - prohibited the states from depriving any person of "life, liberty, or property, without due process of law" *Where*: DC *When*: 1868 *Why*: To protect A.A. citizenship rights

17th Amendment

*Who*: Congress *What*: Provides for the election of U.S. senators by the people rather than by state legislatures - increased #'s of women into public life -renewed attention on the issue of woman suffrage *Where*: US *When*: 1913 *Why*: to force senators to be more responsive to the public (didn't want more power to go to party bosses + wealthy corporation heads by allowing state legislatures to choose US senators)

Homestead Act of 1862

*Who*: Congress *What*: any head of the household gets 160 acres of land + has to stay there for 5 yrs - have to cultivate, farm, + develop land - Negative effects: - no H20 for irrigation - no trees for homes - Had to defend against Natives - Bad weather - isolated (hard to replace things) - 500,000 people took advantage of it - Solutions: - dry farming - Newlands Reclamation Act (irrigation project - gov.) - Morill Land act (set up agriculture schools) - Mail catalog orders (free delivery) - Transcontinental railroads *Where*: Great Plains *When*: 1862 *Why*: To incentivize crop growth and provide homes at the same time

19th Amendment

*Who*: Congress *What*: granted Amer. women the right to vote (woman suffrage) - not until 1848 that the movement for women's rights launched on a national level with a convention in Seneca Falls, New York - Stanton & Mott, along w/ Susan B. Anthony (1820-1906) & other activists, formed organizations that raised public awareness & lobbied the gov. to grant voting rights to women - abolitionists Lucy Stone (1818-93) and Henry Blackwell (1825-1909) founded the American Woman Suffrage Association (AWSA) *Where*: US *When*: 1920 *Why*: 1869, Stanton & Anthony formed the National Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA) w/ their eyes on a fed. constit. amend. that would grant women the right to vote - equal rights for women

Pure Food and Drug Act

*Who*: Congress *What*: halted the sale of contaminated foods & drugs + to ensure truth in labeling - directed U.S. Bureau of Chemistry to inspect products & refer offenders to prosecutors - Required that active ingredients be placed on the label of a drug's packaging and that drugs could not fall below purity levels established by the United States Pharmacopeia or the National Formulary - The Jungle by Upton Sinclair = an inspirational piece that kept the public's attention on the important issue of unsanitary meat processing plants that later led to food inspection legislation *Where*: US *When*: 1906 *Why*: to ban foreign and interstate traffic in adulterated or mislabeled food and drug products

Espionage and Sedition Acts

*Who*: Congress *What*: imposed harsh penalties on anyone interfering with or speaking against US participation in WWI - *Espionage Act (1917)*: - made it a crime for any person to convey info intended to interfere w/ U.S. armed forces prosecution of the war effort or to promote the success of the country's enemies - Anyone found guilty of such acts would be subject to a fine of $10,000 & a prison sentence of 20 yrs - *Sedition Act (1918)*: - imposed similarly harsh penalties on anyone found guilty of making false statements that interfered w/ the prosecution of the war - insulting or abusing the U.S. government, the flag, the Constitution or the military - agitating against the production of necessary war materials; or advocating, teaching or defending any of these acts *Where*: US *When*: 1917 & 1918 *Why*: Both pieces of legislation = aimed at socialists, pacifists & other anti-war activists during WWI & were used to punishing effect in the yrs immediately following the war

Lend-Lease Act

*Who*: Congress *What*: principal means for providing U.S. military aid to foreign nations during WWII - authorized the Pres. to transfer arms or any other defense materials for which Congress appropriated money to "the government of any country whose defense the President deems vital to the defense of the United States. - Britain, the Soviet Union, China, Brazil, and many other countries received weapons under this law - By allowing the Pres. to transfer war material to a struggling Britain (& w/out payment as required by the Neutrality Act of 1939) the act enabled British to keep fighting until events led Amer. into the conflict - Lend-Lease brought US 1 step closer to entry into the war *Where*: US *When*: March, 1941 *Why*: By allowing the transfer of supplies w/out compensation to Britain, China, the Soviet Union & other countries, the act permitted the US to support its war interests w/out being overextended in battle

18th Amendment

*Who*: Congress *What*: prohibited the manufacture, transportation and sale of intoxicating liquors - Prohibition = difficult to enforce + failed to have intended effect of eliminating crime & other social problems (contrary, it led to rise in organized crime b/c bootlegging - illegal manufacture & sale of liquor- of alcohol became very popular) - 1933: widespread public disillusionment led Congress to ratify 21st Amend. which repealed Prohibition *Where*: US *When*: 1920 - 1933 (during the prohibition) *Why*: "A noble experiment", wanted to create a "pure" culture b/c alcohol led to crime and uncleanness - promoting moral improvement - alcohol = destroying Amer. values

policy with Cuba

*Who*: Congress *What*: Platt Amendment - US maintained troops in Cuba for 2 yrs after the Spanish-Amer. war - limited the right to make treaties with other nations - restricted Cuba in the conduct of foreign policy & commercial relations - required seven pledges: 1. Two of the seven pledges were to allow US intervention unilaterally in Cuban affairs 2. a pledge to lease land to the United States for naval bases on the island *Where*: Cuba *When*: signed in 1901 *Why*: defined the terms of Cuban-U.S. relations to essentially be an unequal one of U.S. dominance over Cuba

Interstate Commerce Act

*Who*: Congress *What*: made the railroads the first industry subject to federal regulation - law established a five-member enforcement board (Interstate Commerce Commission) largely in response to public demand that the railroads' conduct should be constrained - sought to address the problem or railroad regulation by setting guidelines for how the railroads could do business - law sought to prevent monopoly by promoting competition & outlaw discriminatory rate-setting - most successful provisions: 1. requirement that railroads submit annual reports to the ICC 2. a ban on special rates the railroads would arrange among themselves *Where*: DC *When*: 1887 *Why*: minimize railroad monopolies and discriminatory rates

the Dawes Severalty Act

*Who*: Congress & Pres. Cleveland *What*: Aiming to "Americanize"/ *assimilate* Natives by distributing reservation land to individual owners - *160 acres for 25 yrs* to cultivate the land - sent children to boarding schools (*Carlisle* Boarding School) - stripped of their native identity (wore white clothes and were forbidden to speak the Native language - split up reservations held communally by Native American tribes into smaller units - law changed legal status of Natives from tribal members to individuals subject to federal laws - tried to "improve" Native American lives by incorporating them into white culture & rejecting earlier policies toward Natives forcing them to live on desolate reservations where it was difficult to make a living *Where*: Great Plains *When*: 1887 *Why*: To assimilate + impose white culture and strip Natives of their "savage" beliefs/ways of life. *encourage Native Americans to integrate into American agrarian culture*

National Defense Education Act

*Who*: Congress & Pres. Eisenhower *What*: U.S. federal legislation passed by Congress & signed into law by Pres. Eisenhower - provided funding to improve Amer. schools & promote postsecondary education - goal of the legislation = to enable the country's educational system to meet the demands posed by national security needs - purpose of the NDEA = to improve and strengthen all levels of the American school system and to encourage students to continue their education beyond high school - Of particular concern was bolstering the US' ability to compete w/ the Soviet Union in the areas of science & technology *Where*: US *When*: September 2, 1958 *Why*: The NDEA stands as a major act of reform - It marked the beginning of large-scale involvement of the U.S. federal government in education

No Child Left Behind Act

*Who*: Congress (proposed by Pres. George W. Bush) *What*: requires all public schools receiving fed. funding to administer a statewide standardized test annually to all students - Schools that receive Title I funding through the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 must make Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP) in test scores - Schools that miss AYP for a 2nd consecutive year are publicly labeled as "In Need of Improvement," & must develop a 2-yr improvement plan for the subject that the school is not teaching well *Where*: US *When*: 2001 *Why*: expanded the fed. role in public education through further emphasis on annual testing, annual academic progress, report cards, and teacher qualifications, as well as significant changes in funding

USA Patriot Act

*Who*: Congress (signed into law by Pres. George W. Bush) *What*: *U*niting and *S*trengthening *A*merica by *P*roviding *A*ppropriate *T*ools *R*equired to *I*ntercept and *O*bstruct *T*errorism - law passed due to 9/11 attacks - sought to prevent further terrorist attacks by allowing greater government access to electronic communications & other information - intended to deter & punish terrorist acts in the US & around the world - enhance law enforcement investigatory tools - strengthen measures to prevent and detect terrorism *Where*: US *When*: October 26, 2001 *Why*: In response to 9/11, today it is criticized by some as violating civil liberties

Sherman Anti-Trust Act

*Who*: Congress but named for U.S. Senator John Sherman of Ohio (expert on the regulation of commerce) *What*: first legislation enacted by the US Congress - to curb concentrations of power that interfere with trade and reduce economic competition - 2 main provisions: 1. outlaws all combinations that restrain trade btw states or w/ foreign nations 2. all attempts to monopolize any part of trade or commerce in US = illegal - Its only effective use = against trade unions (which were held by the courts to be illegal combinations) - 1st vigorous enforcement = during the administration of President Theodore Roosevelt (1901-09) *Where*: DC *When*: 1890 *Why*: to minimize concentrations of power that interfere w/ trade & reduce econ competition

open range ranching

*Who*: Cowboys *What*: more than 5,000,000 cattle = driven to fatten & be shipped off to slaughter - open ranges of western Kansas, Nebraska, Dakotas, Montana, Wyoming, & other western states + territories = huge pasturelands for the herds of the Texas ranchmen - cattle trails = from western Texas northward, thru Native territory into the vast public-domain lands in the central and northern Great Plains - open range = no barbed wired lands - Foreign enthusiasm formed cattle companies to reap big profits of raising beef 4 domestic consumption/ overseas shipment. - gov. cooperated by banning the fencing of lands on either the public domain or Indian reservations and by awarding beef contracts to the cattle companies - cold winter of 1886-87 sent the open-range cattle industry into decline - homesteads started fencing their lands *Where*: north of Texas *When*: 1866 to 1890 *Why*: Cattle could wonder/ not closed in. Many people = able to buy/sell cattle easily

long drive

*Who*: Cowboys *What*: 20 million cattle = herded from Texas to railheads in Kansas - $30-50 for cattle - Cowboy only paid $1 a day - cowboys drove herds of cattle (approx. 2,500) overland to railheads on the northern Plains - typically took from six weeks to two months - long distances covered, the need for periodic rests by riders and animals, and the establishment of railheads led to the development of "cow towns" across the frontier - To herd cattle, crew of at least 10 cowboys = needed w/ 3 horses per cowboy - Cowboys worked in shifts to watch cattle 24 hours a day, herding them in the proper direction in the daytime and watching them at night to prevent stampedes and deter theft - The crew included a cook, who drove a chuck wagon, usually pulled by oxen, and a horse wrangler to take charge of the spare horses. *Where*: From Tex to Kansas *When*: 1866-1890 *Why*: To transport cattle either for personal consumption or for selling

Cotton gin

*Who*: Created by Eli Whitney *What*: machine for rapidly cleaning seeds from cotton fibers - made it possible for southern farmers to grow short-staple cotton for a profit - pop. of slaves increased due to excess labor needed - mid-19th century, cotton had become America's leading export *Where*: Mass *When*: 1793 *Why*: faster way of cleaning cotton for export + cotton became a cash crop

Republican Party

*Who*: Created by a groups of slavery opponents (Northern Whigs, antislavery Demo.'s, + Free Soilers) later Pres. Lincoln = face of this party *What*: opposed the Kansas-Nebraska Act + slavery out of territories - main competition = the Know-Nothing Party b/c targeted the same group of voters - south = Demo. - slavery - north = pop. sover. - Douglas - Repubs. did not want the expansion of slavery *When*: 1854 *Where*: DC *Why*: against expansion of slavery

Wounded Knee

*Who*: Custer vs. Natives *What*: Custer's men rounded up 350 Sioux & took them to camp Wounded Knee - Nxt. day soldiers demanded Natives to give up their weapons a shot was fires + started a massacre - Cuter's men (7th Cavalry), slaughtered 300 unarmed Natives (including children) - final clash between federal troops and the Sioux - 1973, members of the American Indian Movement occupied Wounded Knee for 71 days to protest conditions on the reservation. *Where*: Pine Ridge Indian Reservation, South Dakota *When*: Dec 28, 1890 *Why*: 7th Calvary trying to get rid of Ghost Dancer's b/c didn't want Natives reverting to old ways

Hartford Convention

*Who*: Delegates from Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, New Hampshire, and Vermont sent delegates to Hartford (they met in secret for three weeks) *What*: Meeting of the Fed.'s to discuss issues w/ the war (eventually Fed. Party dies out as a Polit. Party) - gov = no longer a 2 party system - single party -> Demo- Repub.s "Era of Good Feelings" *Where*: Hartford, Connecticut *When*: December 15, 1814 - January 5, 1815 *Why*: to express their concerns on the war of 1812

Lincoln's Second Inaugural

*Who*: Delivered by Lincoln *What*: Lincoln reiterates the cause of the war = slavery - "slaves constituted a peculiar and powerful interest. All knew that this interest was somehow the cause of the war". - reiterates his condemnation of slavery as a theft to labor + writes about the institutions physical brutality - reminding the country that the "terrible violence of the civil war has been preceded by 2.5 centuries of terrible slavery" - Shifts the moral "equation" from what was due to the slaveholders to the nations obligations to the slaves -Lincoln = asking nation to confront the legacy of the long hist. of slavery - Left unresolved in the 2nd inuag. address = tension btw mercy to the former slaveowners or justice to the former slaves *Where*: Wash. DC *When*: March 4, 1865 *Why*: Believed slavery = moral evil + is within everyone's right to enjoy the pursuit of happiness

carpetbagger

*Who*: Dem. name for northerners who moved south after the war *What*: included Freedmen's Bureau agents, teachers, ministers, etc.) - driven by hopes of economic gain - or a desire to work on behalf of the newly emancipated slaves - South viewed carpetbaggers as opportunists looking to exploit & profit from the region's misfortunes -supported the Republican Party, and would play a central role in shaping new southern governments during Recon *Where*: South *When*: Post Civil War *Why*: White southerners held hostility/ did not agree w/ Northerners who moved south

scalawag

*Who*: Demo. name for white southerners who joined Repub. party *What*: refers to a "worthless person" - Hoped for political office - were established planters (mostly in the Deep South) who thought that whites should recognize blacks' civil & political rights while still retaining control of polit. & econ. life - Many = former Whigs (conservatives) who saw the Repubs. as the successors to their old party - maj. of the scalawags = non-slaveholding small farmers + merchants, artisans & other professionals who had remained loyal to the Union during the Civil War - Many lived in the northern states of the region, & number had either served in the Union Army or been imprisoned for Union sympathies - many had strong anti-black attitudes *Where*: South *When*: Post Civil War *Why*: South = hostile to Republ. supporters

Seneca Falls

*Who*: Elizabeth Cady Stanton & Lucretia Mott conceived + directed the convention (two feminist leaders met b/c excluded from participating in the 1840 World Anti-Slavery Convention in London) *What*: launched the woman suffrage movement in U.S. - the Dec. of Sentiments by Stanton was read at the convention - 300 men + women gathered (women only on 1st day, men + women on second day) - Fredrick Douglas attended on the 2nd day - detailed the injustices inflicted upon women in the United States and called upon U.S. women to organize and petition for their rights - That day, the Declaration of Sentiments and Grievances was adopted and signed by the assembly - The convention also passed 12 resolutions-11 unanimously-which called for specific equal rights for women *Where*: Seneca Falls, NY *When*: July 19-20, 1848 *Why*: called upon U.S. women to organize and petition for their rights

1968 Democratic National Convention

*Who*: Democratic delegates from across the country *What*: tens of thousands of Vietnam War protesters battle police in the streets, while the Democratic Party falls apart over an internal disagreement concerning its stance on Vietnam - A faction led by Eugene McCarthy (committed anti-war candidate) began to challenge the long-held assumption that the US should remain in the war - As the debate intensified, fights broke out on the convention floor, and delegates and reporters were beaten and knocked to the ground - Meanwhile, on the streets of Chicago, several thousand anti-war protesters gathered to show their support for McCarthy and the U.S. withdrawal of troops from Vietnam - situation then rapidly spiraled out of control, with the policemen severely beating and gassing the demonstrators *Where*: Chicago *When*: 1968 *Why*: the ensuing riot, known as the "Battle of Michigan Avenue," = caught on television, & sparked a large-scale change in American society - For the 1st time, many Amers. came out in virulent opposition to the Vietnam War, which they had begun to feel was pointless & wrongheaded. No longer would people give the national government unrestrained power to pursue its Cold War policies at the expense of the safety of U.S. citizens.

Jacksonian Democrats vs Whigs

*Who*: Democrats (Jacksonian's) vs. Whigs (supports of Henry Clay) *What*: People believed Whigs interests = of wealth + aristocracy - Whig party = united in their antagonism to Jackson's war on the Second Bank of US + his ignoring Supreme Court decisions, the Constitution, and Indian rights embodied in federal treaties - Whigs supported Second BUS, a high tariff, distribution of land revenues to the states - Jacksonian Democrats = movement dedicated to egalitarian ideals (mainly for white men) - Jacksonians' basic policy = to rid gov. of class biases + dismantle credit-driven engines of the market revolution - war on the Second BUS + unelected private bankers from the levers of the nation's economy - To aid hard-pressed farmers + planters, pursued act (some say unconstitutional) of Indian removal - Jacksonian leaders built a democratic ideology aimed primarily at voters who felt injured by or cut off from the market revolution *Where*: Washington *When*: 1820's - 1840's *Why*: Whigs = yes to national bank....Democrats = no to BUS

Birth of a Nation

*Who*: Directed &co-produced by D. W. Griffith & starring Lillian Gish *What*: American silent film - highlights the relationship of 2 families in the Amer. Civ. War and Reconstruction era over the course of several years: the pro-Union Northern Stonemans & the pro-Confederacy Southern Camerons - *controversial* for its portrayal of black men (some played by white actors in blackface) as unintelligent & sexually aggressive towards white women - & the portrayal of the Ku Klux Klan as a heroic force - widespread A.A. protests against the film began in Boston - NAACP led unsuccessful campaign to ban the film - Under President Woodrow Wilson = first Amer. motion picture to be screened at White House *Where*: US *When*: 1915 *Why*: film used as a recruiting tool for the KKK

Virginia Plan

*Who*: Drafted by James Madison *What*: proposed a strong central gov. composed of 2 legislative branches & the system of checks + balances & that each state would represented according the # of pop. (larger states had more representatives than smaller states) *Where*: presented at the Constitutional Convention *When*: 1787 *Why*: revise the Articles of Confederation

Dred Scott case

*Who*: Dred Scott *What*: Supreme court case (Justice Taney = decision maker) - suing for his freedom b/c owner dies when he was working in a free state - Taney's decision: 1. slaves = property (no rights in court) 2. congress cannot take away someone's property 3. Missouri Compromise of 1820 (No slavery N. of 36'30) = unconstitutional b/c people couldn't buy property *When*: 1857 *Where*: Supreme Court *Why*: Court case discussing the freedom of a slave

the Dust Bowl

*Who*: Drought affected Ranchers & farmers *What*: Great Plains region devastated by drought in 1930s - little rainfall, light soil, & high winds - soil lacked the stronger root system of grass as an anchor, so the winds easily picked up the loose topsoil and swirled it into dense dust clouds - people who left the area = "exodusters" + went to agricultural areas 1st & then to cities (esp. Far West) - In response: fed. gov. mobilized several New Deal agencies (esp. *Soil Conservation Service* formed in 1935 to promote farm rehabilitation) *Where*: Great Plains region (Oklahoma & Texas panhandles + neighboring sections of Kansas, Colorado, & New Mexico) *When*: 1934 - 1937 *Why*: dust storms wreaked havoc, choking cattle & pasture lands & driving 60% of the population from the region

Berlin

*Who*: East Germany (Soviets) vs. the 3 other occupational zones in West Germany (US, Britain, France) *What*: After WWII, defeated Germany = divided into Soviet, American, British & French zones of occupation - city of Berlin (though technically part of the Soviet zone) was also split, w/ the Soviets taking the eastern part of the city - After a massive Allied airlift in June 1948 foiled a Soviet attempt to blockade West Berlin, the eastern section was drawn even more tightly into the Soviet fold - August, Walter Ulbricht (Communist leader of East Germany) began the sealing off of all access btw East & West Berlin - Soldiers began the work over the night of August 12-13, laying more than 100 miles of barbed wire slightly inside the East Berlin border - The wire was soon replaced by a six-foot-high, 96-mile-long wall of concrete blocks, complete with guard towers, machine gun posts and searchlights - East German officers patrolled the Berlin Wall day and night - November 9, 1989, masses of East & West Germans alike gathered at the Berlin Wall & began to climb over/dismantle it. - this symbol of Cold War repression = destroyed, East and West Germany became one nation again, signing a formal treaty of unification on October 3, 1990. *Where*: Berlin, Germany *When*: August 13, 1961 *Why*: Berlin Wall was one of the most powerful and iconic symbols of the Cold War

New Left

*Who*: Educators, agitators & others *What*: broad political movement that sought to implement a broad range of reforms on issues such as civil rights, gay rights, abortion, gender roles, and drugs, in contrast to earlier leftist or Marxist movements that had taken a more vanguardist approach to social justice and focused mostly on labor unionization and questions of social class - Sections of the New Left rejected involvement w/ the labor movement & Marxism's historical theory of class struggle - In US, the movement = *associated w/ the hippie movement & anti-war college-campus protest movements including the Free Speech Movement* *Where*: US *When*: 1960s and 1970s *Why*: focused on civ. rights, peace & econ. equality

Pendleton Civil Service Act

*Who*: Enacted under Pres. Chester A. Arthur *What*: established that gov't positions should be based on merit (the quality of being particularly good or worthy, esp. so as to deserve praise or reward) rather than polit. attachment *Where*: US *When*: 1883 *Why*: ended the corrupt system

Neutrality Acts

*Who*: FDR *What*: "expression of the desire...to avoid any action which might involve [the U.S.] in war." - signing came at a time when newly installed fascist govs in Europe were beginning to pose threats of war - legislation stated that the U.S. intended to stay out of foreign wars, but Roosevelt insisted that the country could not foresee future situations in which the U.S. might have to amend its neutral stance - he left plenty of room for America to change its mind regarding the sale of arms to friendly countries and gave it the right to exercise options to protect her own safety - new law would require American vessels to obtain a license to carry arms - restrict Amer.s from sailing on ships from hostile nations - impose an embargo on the sale of arms to "belligerent" nations (*esp. Germany under its new leader, Adolf Hitler, and Italy under Benito Mussolini*) - Also warned other countries that the U.S. would increase its patrol of foreign submarines lurking in American waters (a response to Hitler's March 1935 announcement that Germany would no longer honor the terms of the Treaty of Versailles) *Where*: US *When*: 1935 *Why*: laws designed to keep US out of international incidents/WWII

Roosevelt's Court-packing plan

*Who*: FDR *What*: FDR announces a controversial plan to expand the Supreme Court to as many as 15 judges (allegedly to make it more efficient) & provide retirement at full pay for all members of the court over 70 - If a justice refused to retire, an "assistant" with full voting rights was to be appointed (thus ensuring Roosevelt a liberal majority) - Most Republicans and many Democrats in Congress opposed the so-called "court-packing" plan - Critics immediately charged that *Roosevelt was trying to "pack" the court* and thus neutralize Supreme Court justices hostile to his New Deal - Congress rejected this "court-packing" scheme + handed FDR the biggest setback of his career - only the the National Labor Relations Act and the Social Security Act were upheld/supported *Where*: DC *When*: February 5, 1937 *Why*: FDR wanted more judges in the SC to make it more efficient + ensure him a liberal majority

Fireside chats

*Who*: FDR *What*: Roosevelt addressed the American people in some 30 speeches broadcasted via radio - spoke on a variety of topics: econ. policies of the New Deal, drought and unemployment, Europe's battle w/ fascism and American military progress in Europe + the Pacific during WWII - Millions of people found comfort & renewed confidence in these speeches - called "fireside chats" b/c: perfectly evoked the comforting intent behind Roosevelt's words, as well as their informal, conversational tone - In many of the speeches, Roosevelt invoked memories of the Founding Fathers, Abraham Lincoln or other inspirational figures from America's past - "The Star Spangled Banner" was played after each chat ended, underlining that patriotic message - FDR appealed to God or Providence at the end of almost every speech, urging the American people to face the difficult tasks ahead w/ patience, understanding &faith *Where*: US *When*: 1933 - 1944 *Why*: To restore the confidence of the Amer. people during the depression

Executive Order No. 8802

*Who*: FDR *What*: forbid discrimination by any defense contractors - established the Fair Employment Practices Committee (FEPC) to investigate charges of racial discrimination - The March on Washington was then canceled - Nearly 2 mil A.A.'s = employed in defense work by the end of 1944 - represented a limited victory, b/c FEPC went out of existence in 1946 *Where*: Wash DC *When*: June 1941 *Why*: Created in response to A.A.'s anger to having benefited less than other groups from New Deal programs during the Great Depression - continuing racial discrimination excluded them from defense jobs in the early 1940s

Executive Order No. 9066

*Who*: FDR *What*: granted the U.S. military the power to ban tens of thousands of American citizens of Japanese ancestry from areas deemed critical to domestic security - order authorized the Secretary of War to prescribe certain areas as military zones, clearing the way for the internment of Japanese Americans, German Americans, and Italian-Americans to concentration camps in the US - w/in a week U.S.-born sons & daughters of Japanese immigrants of southern California's Terminal Island had been ordered to vacate their homes, leaving behind all but what they could carry - approx. 120,000 men, women, & children of Japanese ancestry = evicted from the West Coast of US & held in internment camps across the country *Where*: US *When*: Feb. 19, 1942 *Why*: Bc many of the largest pops. of Japanese Amers. were in close proximity to vital war assets along the Pacific coast, U.S. military commanders petitioned Secretary of War, Henry Stimson to intervene - The result = Roosevelt's Executive Order 9066

Second New Deal

*Who*: FDR *What*: new wave of reforms: 1. *Social Security Act*: which provided Americans with unemployment, disability, and pensions for old age 2. *Works Progress Administration*: employing millions of unemployed people (mostly unskilled men) to carry out public works projects, including the construction of public buildings and roads - The Democratic-led Congress also raised taxes on large corps & wealthy individuals ("soak-the-rich" tax) *Where*: DC *When*: 1935 *Why*: Launched a 2nd wave of reform when the economy had begun to show signs of recovery

New Deal

*Who*: FDR *What*: programs to end the Depression & redefine the role of fed. gov. in the lives of Americans - Main Goals (3 R's): 1. *Relief*: direct aid to the people 2. *Recovery*: fixing the economy 3. *Reform*: financial/gov. reform - Programs aimed at providing econ. relief for workers & farmers and creating jobs for the unemployed: 1. Agricultural Adjustment Administration (*AAA*) 2. Public Works Administration (*PWA*) 3. Civilian Conservations Corps (*CCC*) 4. Tennessee Valley Authority (*TVA*) - Also initiated a slate of reforms of the financial system: 1. Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (*FDIC*) -- to protect depositors' accounts 2. Securities and Exchange Commission (*SEC*) -- to regulate the stock market & prevent abuses of the kind that led to the 1929 crash *Where*: US *When*: 1933 *Why*: To end the Great Depression & expand the role of the federal government

Good Neighbor policy

*Who*: FDR's administration *What*: FDR's foreign policy towards Latin America - policy's main principle = non-intervention & non-interference in the domestic affairs of Latin America - reinforced the idea that the US would be a "good neighbor" & engage in reciprocal exchanges w/ Latin American countries - Roosevelt administration expected that this new policy would create new econ. opportunities in the form of reciprocal trade agreements & reassert the influence of the US in Latin America - however, many Latin American governments were not convinced - In order to create a friendly relationship btw the US & Central + South American countries, Roosevelt sought to stray from asserting military force in the region *Where*: US *When*: March 4, 1933 (during 1st inaugural address) *Why*: effort to denounce past U.S. interventionism and subdue any subsequent fears of Latin Americans

Earth Day

*Who*: Holiday *What*: The brainchild of Senator Gaylord Nelson and inspired by the antiwar protests of the late 1960s, Earth Day was originally aimed at creating a mass environmental movement - By the early 1960s Amers. were becoming aware of the effects of pollution on the environment. - Rachel Carson's 1962 bestseller "Silent Spring" raised the specter of the dangerous effects of pesticides on America's countrysides - Later in the decade, a 1969 fire on Cleveland's Cuyahoga River shed light on the problem of chemical waste disposal - Elected to the U.S. Senate in 1962, Senator Gaylord Nelson (Demo. from Wisconsin) = determined to convince the fed. gov. that the planet was at risk. - 1969, Nelson, considered one of the leaders of the modern environmental movement, developed the idea for Earth Day after being inspired by the anti-Vietnam War "teach-ins" that were taking place on college campuses around the US - Nelson announced the Earth Day concept at a conference in Seattle in the fall of 1969 and invited the entire nation to get involved. *Where*: US *When*: Founded in 1970 & occurs on April 22nd *Why*: To help protect the earth and raise awareness to growing pollution

Eli Whitney

*Who*: Inventor + created interchangeable parts (muskets) *What*: Interchangeable parts called muskets = standardized parts that can be used in place of one another to faster assemble + repair of various devices - Learned about cotton production in Mulberry Grove, near Savannah, Georgia *Where*: Mass + Georgia *When*: 1793-98 *Why*: created cotton gins for plantations, but had problems selling b/c of patent issues. Farmer built the machines themselves

Iranian hostage crisis

*Who*: Iranian students *What*: group of Iranian students stormed the U.S. Embassy in Tehran, taking more than 60 American hostages - immediate cause of this action was President Jimmy Carter's decision to allow Iran's deposed Shah, a pro-Western autocrat who had been expelled from his country some months before, to come to the US for cancer treatment - also a way to raise the intra- and international profile of the revolution's leader, the anti-American cleric Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini - The students set their hostages free on January 21, 1981 (444 days after the crisis began & just hours after President Ronald Reagan delivered his inaugural address) - Many historians believe that hostage crisis cost Jimmy Carter a second term as president *Where*: US *When*: November 4, 1979 *Why*: the hostage-taking was about more than the Shah's medical care: it was a dramatic way for the student revolutionaries to declare a break with Iran's past and an end to American interference in its affairs

Persian Gulf War

*Who*: Iraqi forces vs. UN (during Pres. of George H.W. Bush) *What*: Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein ordered the invasion and occupation of neighboring Kuwait (accused Kuwait of conspiring to keep oil prices low in an effort to gratify Western oil-buying nations) in early August 1990 - Alarmed by these actions, fellow Arab powers such as Saudi Arabia & Egypt called on the US + other Western nations to intervene - Hussein defied United Nations Security Council demands to withdraw from Kuwait by mid-January 1991, & the Persian Gulf War began w/ a massive U.S.-led air offensive known as *Operation Desert Storm* - After 42 days of relentless attacks by the allied coalition in the air & on the ground, U.S. President George H.W. Bush declared a cease-fire on February 28 - by that time, most Iraqi forces in Kuwait had either surrendered or fled *Where*: Persian Gulf *When*: 1990-1991 *Why*: Though the Persian Gulf War was initially considered an unqualified success for the international coalition conflict in the troubled region led to a second Gulf War-known as the Iraq War-that began in 2003

Fort Sumter

*Who*: Island fortification *What*: the site of the first shots of the Civil War (1861-65) - Named for Revolutionary War general and South Carolina native Thomas Sumter - U.S. Major Robert Anderson occupied fort in 1860 following SC's secession from Union, initiating a standoff w/ the state's militia forces - When Pres. Lincoln announced plans to resupply the fort, Confederate General P.G.T. Beauregard bombarded Fort Sumter on April 12, 1861 - After a 34-hour exchange of artillery fire, Anderson and 86 soldiers surrendered the fort on April 13 *When*: 1829 *Where*: Charleston Harbor, South Carolina *Why*: used for naval defense, but was taken over by SC after succession

Sacco and Vanzetti

*Who*: Italian Immigr. *What*: accused & arrested for robbery + murder in Mass - admitted they were anarchists (believing that social justice would come only through the destruction of governments), but denied committing the crimes - case = weak, but were convicted anyway (people protested + believed conviction = based off fear of foreigners) - Sacco + Vanzetti = executed in 1927 *Where*: Mass *When*: 1920 *Why*: America developed a fear of communism and radical politics that resulted in a anti-communist, anti-immigrant hysteria

"new" immigration

*Who*: Italian, Russian, Polish (Eastern Europeans) & Asiatic, Latin American *What*: Immigrants that are not accepted/seen as inferior - not protestant - illiterate, unskilled - reluctant to assimilate - arrived impoverished *Where*: US *When*: 1870-1910 *Why*: "New" immigr. were not accepted because they did not seem to have the same qualifications as the "Old" immigr. (protestant, literate + skilled, experienced in democracy, etc.)

Peace Corps

*Who*: JFK *What*: issues Executive Order #10924, establishing the Peace Corps as a new agency within the Department of State - The same day, he sent a message to Congress asking for permanent funding for the agency, which would send trained American men & women to foreign nations to assist in development efforts - The Peace Corps captured the imagination of the U.S. public, and during the week after its creation thousands of letters poured into Washington from young Americans hoping to volunteer. - Kennedy signed congressional legislation creating a permanent Peace Corps that would "promote world peace and friendship" through three goals: (1) to help the peoples of interested countries in meeting their need for trained men and women; (2) to help promote a better understanding of Americans on the part of the peoples served; and (3) to help promote a better understanding of other peoples on the part of Americans. - By the end of 1963, 7,000 volunteers were in the field, serving in 44 Third World countries. In 1966, Peace Corps enrollment peaked, with more than 15,000 volunteers in 52 countries *Where*: US *When*: 1961 *Why*: "promote world peace and friendship"

Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine

*Who*: Pres. Roosevelt *What*: extension of the Monroe Doctrine - stating that the United States has the right to protect its economic interests in South & Central America by using military force - US could intervene militarily to prevent interference from European powers in the western hemisphere - United States was justified in exercising "international police power" to put an end to chronic unrest or wrongdoing in the Western Hemisphere *Where*: US *When*: 1904 *Why*: set US "role" as a police power in Central & South America

Jefferson Davis

*Who*: Mexican war hero, U.S. senator from Mississippi, U.S. secretary of war and president of the Confederate States of America for the duration of the Civil War *What*: became a staunch states' rights Democrat and motivator of unrestricted expansion of slavery into the territories - elected to U.S. Congress in 1845 (his only successful electoral campaign) - elected to the Senate + opposed the Compromise of 1850, (esp. the admission of California as a free state) - 1853, Pres. Franklin Pierce appointed Davis secretary of war - Davis served ably in this office and in 1857 reentered the Senate, where he continued to advocate the spread of slavery into the territories - During the secession crisis, he resigned from the Senate - 1861 was chosen by acclamation to be the Confederate president - after the war = charged w/ treason + went to prison in Fort Monroe, Virginia for two years. - released in May 1867, but was never the same *Where*: DC (leader of the Confederacy - South Carolina, Mississippi, Alabama, etc.) *When*: 1861 chosen to be Pres. of Confed. *Why*: Wanted the expansion of slavery and could only do this through the Confederacy

perestroika and glasnost

*Who*: Mikhail Gorbachev *What*: in 1987-88 Gorbachev proceeded to initiate deeper reforms of the Soviet economic & political system - Under his new policy of *glasnost* ("openness"): - a major cultural change took place: freedoms of expression and of information were significantly expanded - the press & broadcasting = allowed unprecedented candour in their reportage and criticism - and the country's legacy of Stalinist totalitarian rule was eventually completely unacceptable by the gov. - Under the policy of *perestroika* ("restructuring"): - first modest attempts to democratize the Soviet political system = undertaken; - multicandidate contests & the secret ballot = introduced in some elections to party & government posts *Where*: Soviet Union *When*: 1987-88 *Why*: Wanted to lift up Russian econ. & to this end, he called for rapid technological modernization & increased worker productivity - he tried to make the difficult Soviet bureaucracy more efficient & responsive

Ulysses S. Grant

*Who*: Military general and later 18th Pres. *What*: 1868 Grant accepted the Republican presidential nomination - During two terms in office, Grant stressed unity btw North & South - two terms as president are best remembered for financial scandals among members of his party and his administration - first term, a group of speculators led by James Fisk (1835-1872) and Jay Gould (1836-1892) attempted to influence the government and manipulate the gold market - *Whiskey Ring*, which was exposed in 1875 (involved network of distillers, distributors & public officials who conspired to defraud the fed. gov. of millions in liquor tax revenue) - During Recon. Grant pursued the KKK in South Caro & effectively disabled the organization until the 1920s, (but racism = still prevalent in South) - Conviction = that business supported the national interest, he signed legislation that protected entrenched business interests. This set the stage for more monopoly, public unrest over the accumulation of wealth, and increased corruption - Grant = unanimously renominated in 1872 + won reelection, but more scandal plagued his close associates *Where*: DC *When*: 1868 *Why*: Wanted to protect rights of A.A., but scandals diminished his success

the Articles of Confederation

*Who*: New type of govn't proposed by Congress *What*: First written constitution of the US ("league of Friendship") - gave new national gov. power to declare war + peace + sign treaties - went into effect when states gave up western claims + w/ Maryland's approval -*Failures*: - created no separate executive department to carry out + enforce acts of congress - no national court system to interpret laws (no executive + judicial branch) - failed to provide congress w/ authority + resources needed to carry out duties + pursue national interests - didn't bind states together (states saw themselves as sovereign nations - debt (couldn't protect citizens + ports) - states printed their own paper $ (confederation currency = worthless) - didnt't have the power to tax *Where*: British settlements *When*: approved -> 1781 *Why*: After a bad anarch took over the newly established republic, the Continental Congress proposed a new type of gov.

Watergate cover-up and investigation

*Who*: Nixon Administration *What*: Early in the morning several burglars = arrested inside the office of the Democratic National Committee (DNC), located in the Watergate building in Washington, D.C. - This = no ordinary robbery: The prowlers were connected to Pres. Richard Nixon's reelection campaign, and they had been caught while attempting to wiretap phones & steal secret documents. - While historians are not sure whether Nixon knew about the Watergate espionage operation before it happened, he took steps to cover it up afterwards, raising "hush money" for the burglars, trying to stop the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) from investigating the crime, destroying evidence and firing uncooperative staff members. - In August 1974, after his role in the Watergate conspiracy had finally come to light, the pres. NIxon resigned - His successor, Gerald Ford, immediately pardoned Nixon for all the crimes he "committed or may have committed" while in office *Where*: Watergate building in Washington, D.C *When*: 17, 1972 *Why*: Although Nixon was never prosecuted, the Watergate scandal changed Amer. politics forever, leading many Americans to question their leadership & think more critically about the presidency.

Tet offensive

*Who*: North Vietnam vs. South Vietnam & US *What*: 70,000 North Vietnamese and Viet Cong forces launched a coordinated series of fierce attacks on more than 100 cities & towns in South Vietnam - long-running conflict w/ North Vietnam and their Communist southern allies - General Vo Nguyen Giap, leader of the Communist People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN), planned the offensive in an attempt to instigate rebellion among the South Viet. pop. & encourage the US to scale back its support of the Saigon regime - Though U.S. and South Vietnamese forces managed to hold off the Communist attacks, news coverage of the offensive (including the lengthy Battle of Hue) shocked and dismayed the American public and further diminished support for the war effort *Where*: South Vietnam *When*: January 30, 1968 *Why*: Despite heavy casualties, North Vietnam achieved a strategic victory with the Tet Offensive - attacks marked a turning point in the Vietnam War & the beginning of the slow, painful American withdrawal from the region

the Panama Canal

*Who*: Pres. Roosevelt & chief engineer = George Washington Goethals *What*: Ship canal that connects Atlantic Ocean (via the Caribbean Sea) to Pacific Ocean - U.S. acquired the canal zone & built the canal after sponsoring a revolution against Colombia *Where*: Isthmus of Panama *When*: 1904, but opened in 1914 *Why*: vital component to expanding global trade routes in the 20th century (potential shortcut from Europe to eastern Asia)

the currency controversy

*Who*: Northeast (bankers, business owners, Repubs.) Vs. South + West (farmers, laborers, Demos.) *What*: nation went through a decades-long epic polit. battle over the relative value of gold and silver - battle that tested whether one of those precious metals (Gold/Silver) should be preferred over the other in the U.S. monetary system - *Intro of paper currency during the Civil War* had complicated this debate b/c it promised to redeem the $ in either gold/silver upon demand - one side = "silverites" who favored bimetallism (use of both gold + silver as basis for the monetary system) - other side = "gold bugs" who favored the gold standard - high point of movement = "Cross of Gold" speech by William Jennings Bryan at the 1896 Democratic National Convention *Where*: DC *When*: Following the panic of 1873 and in 1900 after the Gold Standard act *Why*: Controversy over val. of gold/silver & its role over paper $ in the US monetary system

Decoration Day

*Who*: Now known as Memorial day *What*: mourners honored the Civil War dead by decorating their graves with flowers at Arlington National Cemetery - 1st Decoration Day, General James Garfield made a speech at Arlington National Cemetery, after which 5,000 participants helped to decorate the graves of the more than 20,000 Union + Confed. soldiers buried in the cemetery *Where*: President Lyndon B. Johnson, declared Waterloo, NY = official birthplace of Memorial Day/Decoration Day *When*: official federal holiday in 1971 *Why*: holiday evolved to commemorate American military personnel who died in all wars

March on Washington Movement

*Who*: Organized by a number of civil rights and religious groups *What*: more than 200,000 Americans gathered in Washington, D.C., for a political rally known for Jobs & Freedom - event was designed to shed light on polit. & social challenges A.A's cont'd to face across the country - civil rights movement of the 1960s transformed the polit. climate - 1963, A.A. leaders began to plan a new March on Washington, designed specifically to advocate passage of the Civil Rights Act then stalled in Congress - March = an unprecedented success - More than 200,000 black and white Americans shared a joyous day of speeches, songs, and prayers led by a celebrated array of clergymen, civil rights leaders, politicians, and entertainers - The Reverend Dr. Martin Luther King's soaring address climaxed the day; through his eloquence, the phrase "I Have a Dream" became an expression of the highest aspirations of the civil rights movement. *Where*: Wash DC *When*: August 28, 1963 *Why*: The march = key moment in the growing struggle for civil rights in the US

Haymarket Riot

*Who*: Organized by anarchists (believe in the absence of gov.) *What*: radical labor protest meeting - protest against police brutality - erupted into violence when someone threw a dynamite bomb into the police line - police shot workers in response - 8 radicals = convicted + 4 = hung *Where*: Chicago, IL *When*: 1886 *Why*: Fight for liberal rights against regulations and the police

the Alien and Sedition Acts

*Who*: Passed by Congress *What*: 4 security laws - *three alien laws*: -were aimed at French + Irish immigrants, who were mostly pro-French - laws raised the waiting period for naturalization (to become a citizen of a country) from 5 to 14 years - permitted the detention of subjects of an enemy nation & authorized the chief executive to expel any alien he considered dangerous - made it hard for immigrants to vote -*The Sedition Act* (July 14): - banned the publishing of false or malicious writings against the gov. + the inciting of opposition to any act of Congress or the pres. - 25 prosecutions, resulting in 10 convictions *Where*: Amer. States *When*: 1798 *Why*: passed after the XZY affair w/ France b'c of French raiding merchant ships

Tariff of Abominations

*Who*: Passed by Congress named by Calhoun *What*: tariff (tax) passed to protect infant Amer. Industries b/c Brit. manufacturers wanted to destroy Amer. competitors by flooding US market w/ inexpensive goods - *tariff increased in 1824 + 1828* - *John C. Calhoun (Jackson's VP) named the tariff* b/c south thought the tariff = enriching the north - south had to buy manu. good from north b/c Brit. exports = limiting south supply - north = more industrialized *Where*: South Carolina *When*: 1828 *Why*: SC angry at tariff b/c benefitted industrialized north

Stamp Act

*Who*: Passed by English Parliament *What*: Made colonists/civilians pay taxes for every printed document (legal docs, newspapers, etc.) *When*: 1765 *Where*: British Colonies *Why*: imposed unfair taxation because Britain = in debt

Coercive Acts

*Who*: Passed by English Parliament *What*: closed Boston to merchant shipping + established formal British military rule in Mass + made British officials immune to criminal prosecution in America + and required colonists to quarter British troops *When*: 1774 (after boston tea party) *Where*: Boston, Mass *Why*: Passed b/c british furious w/ Boston Tea Party

Indian Removal Act of 1830

*Who*: Passed by Jackson *What*: gave fed. gov. the power to exchange Native-held land in the cotton kingdom (east of Miss) for land (west) - forced Natives to vacate lands they had lived on for generations - winter of 1831, under threat of invasion by the U.S. Army, Choctaw tribe = first nation to be expelled from its land altogether then Cherokee - made journey to Indian territory on foot + without any food, supplies or other help from the gov. -Thousands of people died along the way *Where*: Georgia, Tennessee, Alabama, North Carolina and Florida-land (mostly Georgia) *When*: 1830 *Why*: to remove Indians of their lands to use for cotton

the Grange movement

*Who*: Patrons of Husbandry (founded by Oliver Hudson Kelley) *What*: brought farmers together for educational discussions and social purposes - organization = divided into local units called "Granges" - By mid-1870s nearly every state had at least one Grange - farmers drawn to Granger movement b/c need for unified action against monopolistic railroads & grain elevators (often owned by the railroads) that charged overly priced rates for handling + transporting farmers' crops & other agricultural products *Where*: Middle west *When*: 1867 *Why*: Wanted to improve prices charged by railroads for transportation of goods

Free-Soil Party

*Who*: Political party *What*: opposed the extension of slavery into the western territories - slogan = "free soil, free speech, free labor, and free men" attracted small farmers, debtors, village merchants, and household and mill workers, who resented the prospect of black-labour competition—whether slave or free—in the territories - a dozen Free-Soil congressmen later held the balance of power in the House of Representativess - party = well represented in several state legislatures - 1854 disorganized remnants of the party were absorbed into the newly formed Republican Party - carried the Free-Soil idea of opposing the expansion of slavery one step further by condemning slavery as a moral evil as well. *Where*: DC *When*: 1848-54 (pre-Civil War period ) *Why*: opposed slavery

Henry Kissinger

*Who*: Powerful and controversial U.S. statesman *What*: As national security advisor (1969-75) & secretary of state (1973-77) to Nixon & Gerald Ford, he negotiated arms treaties w/ the Soviet Union 1. negotiated the Paris agreements of 1973 (ending direct U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War) 2. engineered a short-lived era of détente w/ the Soviet Union 3. opened frozen relations w/ the People's Republic of China - He received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1973 for his negotiations leading to the Paris peace accords that ended U.S. military action in Vietnam - Kissinger's reputation faded after 1973. - During the Watergate scandal, congressional investigators discovered that he had ordered the fbi to tap the telephones of subordinates on the staff of the National Security Council, a charge he had denied earlier. *Where*: US *When*: 1970s *Why*: Kissinger's flair for dramatic diplomatic gestures brought him fame, and it encouraged diplomats in the Carter, Reagan, and George Bush administrations to try to emulate his accomplishments

Spoils system

*Who*: Practiced by Jackson *What*: practice in which the political party winning an election rewards its campaign workers + other active supporters by appointing them to gov. posts - involves political activity by public employees in support of their party - employees' = removed from office if their party loses the election - change in party control of government brings new officials to high positions carrying polit. responsibility *Where*: Wash. DC *When*: 1820's - until after the civil war *Why*: to increase majority votes / followers

military-industrial complex

*Who*: Pres. Eisenhower *What*: Pres. Eisenhower ends his presidential term by warning the nation about the increasing power of the military-industrial complex - urged his successors to strike a balance btw a strong national defense & diplomacy in dealing w/ the Soviet Union - He did not suggest arms reduction and in fact acknowledged that the bomb was an effective deterrent to nuclear war - However, cognizant that America's peacetime defense policy had changed drastically since his military career, Eisenhower expressed concerns about the growing influence of what he termed the military-industrial complex - This conjunction of an immense military establishment and a large arms industry is new in the American experience Eisenhower warned, [while] we recognize the imperative need for this development *Where*: US *When*: Jan 17, 1961 *Why*: balance btw a strong national defense & diplomacy

Eisenhower Doctrine

*Who*: Pres. Eisenhower *What*: Pres. Eisenhower delivered a proposal to a joint session of the U.S. Congress calling for a new and more proactive American policy in the region - The Eisenhower Doctrine established the Middle East as a Cold War (1945-91) battlefield - he asked for authorization to begin new programs of economic & military cooperation w/ friendly nations in the region - He also requested authorization to use U.S. troops "to secure and protect the territorial integrity and political independence of such nations." (Middle East) - Eisenhower indicated that he would seek $200 million for econ. & milit. aid in each of the years 1958 & 1959 - Only such action, he warned, would dissuade "power-hungry Communists" from interfering in the Middle East *Where*: US *When*: January 5, 1957 *Why*: response to the increasingly tense situation in the Middle East

Eisenhower's termination policy

*Who*: Pres. Eisenhower & Native Americans *What*: policy = shaped by a series of laws and policies w/ the intent of assimilating Native Amers. into mainstream Amer. society - what was new = the sense of urgency, that w/ or w/out consent, tribes must be terminated and begin to live "as Americans" - Congress set about ending the special relationship btw tribes & fed. gov. - The intention = to grant Native Amers. all the rights & privileges of citizenship, reduce their dependence on a bureaucracy whose mismanagement had been documented, & eliminate the expense of providing services for native people *Where*: US *When*: mid-1940s to the mid-1960s *Why*: the policy ended the U.S. govs. recognition of sovereignty of tribes, trusteeship over Indian reservations, and exclusion of state law applicability to native persons

Roosevelt's first inaugural address

*Who*: Pres. FDR *What*: "The only thing we have to fear, is fear itself - Addressing the econ. crisis & its moral dimensions, Roosevelt placed blame squarely on the greed & shortsightedness of bankers + businessmen - focused on the issue of unemployment - turned to the econ. crisis + assured his countrymen that he would act swiftly & w/ determination - Roosevelt planned to expand the power of the fed. gov. to achieve his legislative objectives & thereby ease the effects of the Great Depression - Woven throughout his inaugural address = his "New Deal" plan - 1st action FDR takes = bank holiday *Where*: DC *When*: March 3, 1933 *Why*: Introduced his *New Deal* plan to create programs & increase fed. gov. to lift Amers. out of the depression

Fair Deal

*Who*: Pres. Harry S. Truman *What*: Truman announces (in his State of the Union address) that every American has a right to expect from our government a fair deal - Truman's plans for domestic policy reforms included: national health insurance, public housing, civil rights legislation and federal aid to education - He advocated an increase in the min wage, federal assistance to farmers, an extension of Social Security, & urging the immediate implementation of anti-discrimination policies in employment - However, the nation's politics had shifted rightward in the years following WWII & inflation, econ. conversion from wartime to peacetime industs & growing anti-communist sentiment provided major obstacles to Truman's plan - To a growing contingency of conservatives and Southern Democrats in Congress, the Fair Deal smacked of socialism. *Where*: US *When*: Jan 5, 1949 *Why*: Truman argued for an ambitious liberal agenda based on policies first articulated by his predecessor, Franklin D. Roosevelt

affirmative action

*Who*: Pres. JFK & LBJ *What*: the policy of favoring members of a disadvantaged group who suffer or have suffered from discrimination within a culture - Often, these people are disadvantaged for historical reasons, such as oppression or slavery - Historically and internationally, support for affirmative action has sought to achieve goals such as bridging inequalities in employment and pay, increasing access to education, promoting diversity, and redressing apparent past wrongs, harms, or hindrances - term "affirmative action" was *first used in US in "Executive Order No. 10925", signed by Pres. JFK on 6 March 1961* ---"take affirmative action to ensure that applicants are employed, and employees are treated during employment, without regard to their race, creed, color, or national origin. - *1965, Pres. LBJ issued Executive Order 11246 which required government employers to take "affirmative action" to "hire without regard to race, religion and national origin".* *Where*: US *When*: 1961 & 1965 *Why*: It was used to promote actions that achieve non-discrimination

Carter Doctrine

*Who*: Pres. Jimmy Carter *What*: foreign policy initiative of the US - introduced by Pres. Carter in his 1980 State of the Union address, that returned the country to its traditional strategy of containment of the Soviet Union - In his speech, Carter declared that the United States would employ military force against any country that attempted to gain control of the Persian Gulf region - That announcement marked a dramatic shift in U.S. foreign policy, which had been focused on promoting international human rights & on pursuing détente w/ the Soviet Union - Carter's policy of détente had culminated in 1979 in the signing of the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) II nuclear arms treaty between the Soviet Union and US *Where*: US *When*: 1980 *Why*: After his State of the Union address, Carter outlined specific measures that he would take to implement his new doctrine: The withdrawal of the USfrom the 1980 Summer Olympic Games in Moscow, the suspension of grain sales to the Soviet Union, and the withdrawal of the SALT II treaty from Senate consideration

Operation Rolling Thunder

*Who*: Pres. LBJ *What*: *strategic bombing campaign* - U.S. military aircraft attacked targets throughout North Vietnam from March 1965 -Oct 1968 - *Operation Rolling Thunder marked the first sustained American assault on North Vietnamese territory & therefore represented a major expansion of U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War* - LBJ's administration officials believed that heavy & sustained bombing might encourage North Vietnamese leaders to accept the non-Communist gov. in South Vietnam - North Vietnam did not have much of an air force, its leaders managed to mount an effective defense against the bombing raids. - W/ assistance from China & the Soviet Union, the North Vietnamese constructed a sophisticated air-defense system - Using surface-to-air missiles and radar-controlled anti-aircraft artillery, the Communists shot down hundreds of American planes over the course of the bombing campaign *Where*: North Vietnam *When*: During the Vietnam War (1954-75) *Why*: massive bombardment = intended to put military pressure on North Vietnam's Communist leaders & reduce their capacity to wage war against the U.S.-supported gov. of South Vietnam

Voting Rights Act of 1965

*Who*: Pres. LBJ *What*: After wake of the brutal incident in Selma (peaceful protestors who were beaten on national TV) Johnson called for comprehensive voting rights legislation *1.* act banned the use of literacy tests *2.* provided for fed. oversight of voter registration in areas where less than 50% of the nonwhite population had not registered to vote *3.* authorized the U.S. attorney general to investigate the use of poll taxes in state + local elections *Where*: US *When*: August 6, 1965 *Why*: aimed to overcome legal barriers at the state & local levels that prevented A.A.'s from exercising their right to vote under the 15th Amend. (1870) to the Constitution of the US

Tonkin Gulf incident and Resolution

*Who*: Pres. LBJ *What*: On August 2, shortly after a clandestine raid on the North Vietnamese coast by South Vietnamese gunboats, the U.S. destroyer Maddox (conducting electronic espionage nearby) was fired on by North Vietnamese torpedo boats. - Two days later, in the same area, the Maddox & another destroyer reported that they were again under attack - Although these reports now appear to have been mistaken, Johnson proceeded quickly to authorize retaliatory air strikes against North Vietnam - The nxt day he gathered congressional leaders and, w/out divulging the circumstances that might have helped provoke the torpedo attack, accused the North Vietnamese of "open aggression on the high seas." - He then submitted to the Senate a resolution that authorized him to take "all necessary measures to repel any armed attack against the forces of the US & to prevent further aggression." - The resolution was quickly approved by Congress *Where*: Gulf of Tonkin *When*: August 7, 1964 *Why*: escalated the Vietnam War/drew the U.S. more directly into the Vietnam War

Great Society

*Who*: Pres. Lyndon B. Johnson *What*: a set of domestic programs in the US launched by Demo. Pres. LBJ - Pres. LBJ first used the term "Great Society" during a speech at Ohio University, then unveiled the program in greater detail at an appearance at University of Michigan - New major spending programs that addressed education, medical care, urban problems, rural poverty, and transportation were launched during this period - The Great Society in scope resembled the New Deal domestic agenda of FDR - Some Great Society proposals were stalled initiatives from JFK's New Frontier - While some of the programs have been eliminated or had their funding reduced, many of them, including Medicare, Medicaid, the Older Americans Act & federal education funding, continue to the present *Where*: US *When*: 1964-65 *Why*: main goal = the elimination of poverty & racial injustice

Reagan Doctrine

*Who*: Pres. Reagan *What*: In his State of the Union address, Pres. Reagan defines some of the key concepts of his foreign policy, establishing what comes to be known as the "Reagan Doctrine." - the doctrine served as the foundation for the Reagan administration's support of "freedom fighters" around the globe. - "We must stand by our democratic allies. And we must not break faith with those who are risking their lives—on every continent, from Afghanistan to Nicaragua—to defy Soviet-supported aggression and secure rights which have been ours from birth." He concluded, "Support for freedom fighters is self-defense." - In action, this policy translated into covertly supporting the Contras in their attacks on the leftist Sandinista government in Nicaragua - the Afghan rebels in their fight against the Soviet occupiers - & anticommunist Angolan forces embroiled in that nation's civil war. *Where*: US *When*: Feb 26, 1985 *Why*: the Reagan administration laid the foundation for its program of military assistance to "freedom fighters."

Reaganomics

*Who*: Pres. Reagan *What*: economic policies promoted by Pres. Reagan - The four pillars of Reagan's economic policy were to: 1. reduce the growth of gov. spending 2. reduce federal income tax & capital gains tax 3. reduce gov. regulation 4. tighten the money supply to reduce inflation - Reagan enacted lower marginal tax rates as well as simplified income tax codes & cont'd deregulation *Where*: US *When*: 1980s *Why*: In his 1980 campaign speeches, Reagan presented his econ. proposals as a return to the free enterprise principles, free market economy (had been in favor before the Great Depression & FDR's New Deal policies)

big stick diplomacy

*Who*: Pres. Roosevelt *What*: Diplomatic policy - Comes from the phrase, "speak softly and carry a big stick; you will go far." - *"big stick" symbolizes his (Pres. TR) power & readiness to use military force if necessary* - use military force to achieve foreign policy goals - used to police the small debtor nations that had unstable governments *Where*: US *When*: 1900 *Why*: way of intimidating countries w/out actually harming them & = basis of U.S. imperialistic foreign policy

Truman Doctrine

*Who*: President Harry S. Truman *What*: in a dramatic speech to a joint session of Congress, Pres. Truman asks for U.S. assistance for Greece & Turkey to forestall communist domination of the two nations - Historians have often cited Truman's address = the official declaration of the Cold War - Feb 1947, the British gov. informed the US that it could no longer furnish the econ & military assistance it had been providing to Greece and Turkey since the end of World War II - The Truman administration believed that both nations were threatened by communism & it jumped at the chance to take a tough stance against the Soviet Union - March 12, 1947, Truman appeared before a joint session of Congress to make his case - "The foreign policy and the national security of this country," he claimed, were involved in the situations confronting Greece & Turkey - Greece, he argued, was "threatened by the terrorist activities of several thousand armed men, led by communists." - was incumbent upon the US to support Greece so that it could "become a self-supporting and self-respecting democracy." - The "freedom-loving" people of Turkey also needed U.S. aid, which was "necessary for the maintenance of its national integrity." - *Truman requested $400 million in assistance for the two nations* - *Congress approved his request two months later* *Where*: US *When*: March 12, 1947 *Why*: The Pres. declared that "it must be the policy of the US to support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures." - Truman Doctrine successfully convinced many that the US = locked in a life-or-death struggle with the Soviet Union

Panama Canal Treaties of 1977

*Who*: President Jimmy Carter *What*: signs a treaty that will give Panama control over the Panama Canal beginning in the year 2000 - The treaty ended an agreement signed in 1904 between then-President Theodore Roosevelt and Panama, which gave the U.S. the right to build the canal and a renewable lease to control five miles of land along either side of it - The canal facilitated increased passenger travel and cargo shipments between nations around the world and U.S. control over the canal helped guarantee America's status as an international power. - Transfer of ownership of the Panama Canal occurred peacefully as planned on December 31, 1999 - The Panama canal was to remain *Nuetral* for all countries to use *Where*: Panama *When*: sep. 7, 1977 *Why*: Wanted to return the land back to its people and give the country the right to own the canal

Kent State and Jackson State

*Who*: President Richard M. Nixon *What*: Pres. Nixon appeared on national TV to announce the invasion of Cambodia by the US & the need to draft 150,000 more soldiers for an expansion of the Vietnam War effort - This provoked massive protests on campuses throughout the country - At *Kent State University* in Ohio, protesters launched a demonstration that included setting fire to the ROTC building, prompting the governor of Ohio to dispatch 900 National Guardsmen to the campus - During an altercation on May 4, 28 guardsmen opened fire on a crowd, killing 4 students and wounding 9 - Another, similar incident took place ten days later, on May 14, at *Jackson State University*, an all-A.A. school in Mississippi - During a student protest, police and state highway patrolmen fired automatic weapons into a dormitory, killing 2 students & wounding 9 others. - No warning had been given and no evidence was ever found of student sniping that might have justified the shootings - Nevertheless, unlike the Kent State episode, the Jackson State incident evoked little national attention, embittering many A.A.'s who felt that the killing of A.A. students = not taken as seriously as that of whites. *Where*: Ohio = Kent State; Mississippi = Jackson state *When*: 1970 *Why*: Protesting drafts for the fight against Cambodia in the Vietnam war

Title IX of the Higher Ed. Act

*Who*: President Richard Nixon *What*: Pres. Nixon signs into law the Higher Education Act, which includes the groundbreaking Title IX legislation - Title IX barred discrimination in higher education programs, including funding for sports and other extracurricular activities. *Where*: US *When*: 1972 *Why*: As a result, women's participation in team sports, particularly in collegiate athletics, surged with the passage of this act

Nixon Doctrine

*Who*: President Richard Nixon *What*: announces that US will expect its Asian allies to tend to their own military defense. - The Nixon Doctrine, as the president's statement came to be known, clearly indicated his determination to "Vietnamize" the Vietnam War. - Nixon campaigned in 1968 with the promise of "peace with honor" in Vietnam. In July 1969, an important part of his plan for Vietnam became evident - Nixon Doctrine marked the formal announcement of the president's "Vietnamization" plan, whereby American troops would be slowly withdrawn from the conflict in Southeast Asia and be replaced by South Vietnamese troops *Where*: US *When*: july 25, 1969 *Why*: Over the course of his first term in office, Nixon held true to this doctrine by withdrawing a substantial portion of America's fighting forces from Vietnam. - 1973, the US & North Vietnam signed a peace treaty formally bringing the Vietnam War to a conclusion. Two years later, North Vietnamese forces crushed the South Vietnamese army and succeeded in reuniting the divided country under a communist regime.

Vietnamization

*Who*: President Richard Nixon *What*: new strategy called Vietnamization = aimed at ending American involvement in the Vietnam War (1954-75) by transferring all military responsibilities to South Vietnam - The increasingly unpopular war had created deep divisions in American society. - Nixon believed his Vietnamization strategy, which involved building up South Vietnam's military strength in order to facilitate a gradual withdrawal of U.S. troops, would prepare the South Vietnamese to take responsibility for their own defense against a Communist takeover and allow the U.S. to leave the conflict with its honor intact - 1973, U.S. negotiated a treaty w/ the North Vietnamese, withdrew American combat troops and declared the Vietnamization process complete. - However, in 1975, South Vietnam fell to Communist forces *Where*: South Vietnam *When*: 1969 *Why*: Nixon sought a way to disengage American combat forces w/out appearing to abandon South Vietnam to the Communists. - He rejected calls from the anti-war movement to order an immediate withdrawal of U.S. troops and publicly expressed a desire to achieve "peace with honor" in Vietnam

"Hoovervilles"

*Who*: Shantytowns names after Pres. Hoover *What*: As Depression worsened in 1930s, causing severe hardships for millions of Amers., many looked to fed. gov. for assistance - When gov. failed to provide relief, President Herbert Hoover (1874-1964) = blamed for the intolerable economic and social conditions, and the shantytowns that cropped up across the nation (primarily on the outskirts of major cities) became known as Hoovervilles *Where*: US *When*: During the Great Depression, 1929 *Why*: Depression worsened & millions of urban & rural families lost their jobs + depleted their savings, they also lost their homes - Desperate for shelter, homeless citizens built shantytowns in and around cities across the nation. These camps came to be called Hoovervilles

Nixon's China trip

*Who*: President Richard Nixon *What*: takes a dramatic first step toward normalizing relations w/ the communist People's Republic of China (PRC) by traveling to Beijing for a week of talks - Nixon's historic visit began the slow process of the re-establishing diplomatic relations btw the US & communist China - Nixon's trip to China = a move calculated to drive an even deeper wedge between the two most significant communist powers - The US could use closer diplomatic relations w/ China as leverage in dealing w/ the Soviets, particularly on the issue of Vietnam. - In addition, the US might be able to make use of the Chinese as a counterweight to North Vietnam - Despite their claims of socialist solidarity, the PRC & North Vietnam were, at best, strongly suspicious allies - As historian Walter LaFeber said, "Instead of using Vietnam to contain China, Nixon concluded that he had better use China to contain Vietnam." - For its part, the PRC was desirous of another ally in its increasingly tense relationship w/ the Soviet Union & certainly welcomed the possibility of increased U.S.-China trade. *Where*: China *When*: Feb 21, 1972 *Why*: The Amer. people were impatient for an end to the conflict, & it was becoming increasingly apparent that the US might not be able to save its ally, South Vietnam, from its communist aggressors

William Jennings Bryan

*Who*: Presidential Candidate *What*: Ran against Pres. McKinley in 1896 - He starred at the 1896 Demo. convention w/ his Cross of Gold speech that favored free silver, but was defeated in his bid to become U.S. pres. by William McKinley - *nominated by the Populists* & won the Demo nomination - Bryan agreed w/ their view that gov. should protect individuals and the demo. process against monopolistic corporations - carried the voters in the South + farm votes of the West - lost election to McKinley (6.5 mil to 7 mil votes) *Where*: DC *When*: election of 1896 *Why*: his free-silver stand had led gold bug Demos. nominate their own candidate + weakened his support in cities

the Progressive Party

*Who*: Progressives (sought change) & formed by Pres. Theodore Roosevelt *What*: group of Republicans dissatisfied with the renomination of President William Howard Taft - Also called Bull Moose Party - called for direct election of senators + the adoption in all states of: initiative, referendum & recall - advocated for women's suffrage, reduction of tariffs, workers compensation, 8 hr workday, min wage for women, fed. law against child labor, + fed. trade commission to reg. business - party's presidential candidate = Theodore R. *Where*: US *When*: 1912 *Why*: Sought change

Kansas-Nebraska bill

*Who*: Proposed by Douglas *What*: Introduced a bill in congress to divide western area into 2 territories (Nebraska in North) (Kansas in South) - This act would repeal the Missouri Compromise + establish pop. sovereignty *When*: Jan 23, 1854 *Where*: intro in congress for lands in the west *Why*: to establish pop. sovereignty

Lincoln's "10 percent" plan

*Who*: Proposed by Lincoln *What*: believes secession = constitutionally impossible & Confeds. never left the union - *Plan* = 1. gov. would pardon all Confeds. who would swear allegiance to the Union - 2. After 10% of those on 1860 voting lists took this oath of allegiance, a Confed. state could form a new state gov. + gain representation in congress - 3. Southern states admitted were encouraged to enact plans to deal w/ freed slaves so long as their freedom was not compromised. - this plan excluded (higher ranking confed. officials + those accused of crimes against Union prisoners) *Where*: DC/South *When*: 1863 *Why*: To readmit confederate states into the Union as quickly as possible

John Brown

*Who*: Radical Abolitionist *What*: led the Pottawatomie Massacre when he mistakenly thought the lawrence posse killed 5 men, he killed 5 proslavery men - believed God called upon him to fight slavery -participated in the Harper Ferry incident - was hung for treason *When*: 1850's *Where*: Illinois + Kansas *Why*: part of the antislavery force

Writ of habeas corpus

*Who*: Refused by Lincoln *What*: law in order to give war prisoners and enemies a right to a trial (Lincoln withdrew this right) - Could not present themselves in front of a court to let the judge decide where yes/no to jail time *Where*: Wash. DC *When*: Sep. 25, 1862 (during the Antietam battle) *Why*: Military strategy to prevent the growing number of troops in Wash. DC + suppress rebellions (believed it was necessary for the greater good - to keep the peace/prevent disloyalty)

the Wilmot Proviso

*Who*: Rejected by the Senate *What*: designed to eliminate slavery within the land acquired as a result of the Mexican War (1846-48) - Proposal saying no to slavery in the new land - Fearing the addition of a pro-slave territory, Pennsylvania Congressman David Wilmot proposed an amendment forbidding slavery to the bill - More interested in northern free labor than in the plight of southern slaves, Wilmot had been an administration loyalist until he presented his proviso. - Proviso doesn't work b/c not passed by both houses *Where*: DC *When*: 1840's *Why*: to forbid slavery in new land

William McKinley

*Who*: Repub. & Pres. in 1896 *What*: After Panic of 1893 led to econ depression, McKinley & fellow Republicans regained polit. advantage over Demos. - won Repub. presidential nomination in 1896 - McKinley (pro gold standard) ran against William Jennings Bryan, who attacked the gold standard (pro coinage of silver as well as gold/ bimetallism) - McKinley won the pop. vote by a margin of some 600,000, & won more than 1/3 more electoral votes than Bryan - McKinley's election led to the collapse of Populism *Where*: DC *When*: 1896 - 1901 *Why*: Voters of industrial places (middle west) who supported the gold standard brought McKinley into office

Senator Joseph McCarthy

*Who*: Republican Senator of Wisconsin *What*: Senator McCarthy spent almost five years trying to expose communists & other left-wing "loyalty risks" in the U.S. government - McCarthy's accusations = so intimidating that few people dared to speak out against him - *Not until he attacked the Army in 1954 that his actions earned him the disapproval of the U.S. Senate* - 1953 launched even more expansive investigations of the alleged communist infiltration of the federal government - hearing after hearing, he aggressively interrogated witnesses in what many came to perceive as a blatant violation of their civil rights *Where*: US *When*: late 1940s & early 1950s *Why*: For many Americans, the most enduring symbol of the 2nd "Red Scare" = Joseph P. McCarthy - atmosphere of fear and dread, proved a ripe environment for the rise of a staunch anticommunist like Joseph McCarthy

New York draft riots

*Who*: Rioters of NY *What*: Congress passed conscription law making all men between 20 - 45 yrs old = liable for military service - July 13, gov't's attempt to enforce the draft in New York City ignited the most destructive civil disturbance in the city's history - Rioters torched gov. buildings - July 15, fought pitched battles with troops - 300 (over 1/2 of them policemen & soldiers) = injured + no more than 119 fatalities (most of them rioters) - A majority of the rioters = Irish - spark that ignited their grievances = the provision in law that drafting could be avoided by payment of three hundred dollars (enormous sum only the rich could afford) - New York's A.A.'s = chosen as scapegoats for long-accumulated grievances - Many innocent A.A.'s = slain & their homes sacked *Where*: NY city *When*: 1863 *Why*: To increase military force to fight Union/Confed. + not have as many casualties (more people, the easier the wounded can get "replaced")

popular sovereignty

*Who*: Rule by the People *What*: people of federal territories should decide for themselves whether their territories would enter the Union as free or slave states - first applied in organizing the Utah and New Mexico territories in 1850 *Where*: US *When*: 1850's *Why*: people's decision to let in a free/slave state

Worcester v. Georgia

*Who*: Samuel Austin Worcester = missionary who had served in jail for teaching Natives w/out license vs. state of Georgia *What*: Cherokee tribe decides to fight back when Jackson passes the Indian removal act - tribe teams up w/ Worcester - Cherokee finally won recognition as a district political community in 1832 when court ruled that Georgia was no longer entitled to regulate/ invade Chero lands - Worcester's conviction = overturned *Where*: Georgia *When*: 1832 *Why*: Court ruled -> Cherokee Nation = separate political entity that could not be regulated by the state, Georgia's license law = unconstitutional

American Federation of Labor

*Who*: Samuel Gompers = President *What*: alliance of trade + organization of labor unions (skilled workers from 1 or many trades) - used strikes & other forms of protest to demand reform in the workplace - membership passed 2.5 mil by 1917 *Where*: Throughout US *When*: 1886 *Why*: collective bargaining + negotiation to reach agreements on wages/hours/working conditions

Marshall Plan

*Who*: Secretary of State George C. Marshall *What*: (also known as the European Recovery Program) channeled over $13 billion to finance the economic recovery of Europe between 1948 and 1951 (food, clothing, other supplies) - Marshall Plan successfully sparked econ recovery, meeting its objective of 'restoring the confidence of the European people in the economic future of their own countries and of Europe as a whole.' - The Soviet Union viewed the Marshall Plan as an attempt to interfere in the internal affairs of other states and refused to participate - Soviets prevented Poland & Czechoslovakia from taking part, despite their eagerness to do so - reorganization of the European economy provided a more congenial environment for American investment *Where*: Harvard University (Massachusetts) *When*: June 5, 1947 *Why*: plan promoted Euro. econ. integration & federalism,& created a mixture of public organization of the private economy similar to that in the domestic economy of the US

the Open Door policy

*Who*: Secretary of State John Hay *What*: Policy regarding trade w/ China - all nations = equal opportunities to trade w/ China *1.* each great power should maintain free access to a treaty port or to any other vested interest within its sphere *2.* only the Chinese government should collect taxes on trade *3.* no great power having a sphere should be granted exemptions from paying harbor dues or railroad charges *Where*: China + other foreign nations *When*: 1899 & 1900 *Why*: goal = to protect US trade w/ China

John Foster Dulles

*Who*: Secretary of state under Pres. Eisenhower *What*: Most famously known for creating the *domino theory* (advocated an *aggressive stance against communism*, & encouraged financial assistance as the solution to fear and unrest) - Named secretary of state in 1953 - Dulles = regarded as the architect of Amer. foreign policy - He initiated the Manila conference in 1954, which resulted in the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) pact that united 8 nations either located in Southeast Asia (or w/ interests there) in a neutral defense pact *Where*: US *When*: served Pres. Eisenhower from Jan 1953 - 1959 *Why*: believed in containment, strong stance against communism, and the Eisenhower doctrine

Stephen A. Douglas

*Who*: Senator *What*: 2 term senator w/outstanding record + large campaign chest - helped steer compromise of 1850 - person most responsible for the intensification of abolitionists - Belied heavily in *popular sovereignty* (the ability for the people to choose whether a state was to be a free or slave state) as a democratic way to organize new state governments - 1854 he developed a proposal to divide the area west of Iowa + Missouri into 2 separate territories: Kansas + Nebraska - Proposed the Kansas-Nebraska Act - wanted to have a railroad from Chicago to SF b/c wanted western land to be incorporated in the union *When*: 1840's-50's *Where*: Western lands *Why*: to incorporate the west into the union

Sherman Antitrust Act

*Who*: Senator John Sherman *What*: prevents businesses from creating monopolies - made it illegal to establish trusts that interfered w/ free trade *Where*: U.S. *When*: 1890 *Why*: Placed restrictions on controlling businesses who wanted to control a market

Hawley-Smoot Tariff

*Who*: Senator Reed Smoot and Representative Willis C. Hawley *What*: act raised U.S. tariffs on over 20,000 imported goods - designed to protect Amer. Farmers + manufacturers from foreign companies - has opposite effect: made unemployment worse + indust. couldn't export goods to Europe b/c had no currency to buy it - Unemployment was at 8% in 1930 when the Smoot-Hawley tariff was passed, but the new law failed to lower it. The rate jumped to 16% in 1931, and 25% in 1932-33 *Where*: US *When*: 1930 *Why*: tried to help increase Factory payrolls, construction contracts, and industrial production

Webster-Hayne debate

*Who*: Senator Robert Hayne (SC) vs. Senator Daniel Webster (Mass) *What*: protectionist tariffs - debate over a resolution by Connecticut Senator Samuel A. Foot - planned to reduce western land sales - West Senators viewed this proposal as a scheme to benefit northeastern manufacturing interests (cheap labor supply that might be lured away by plenty of western lands) - Sen. Robert Hayne (SC) saw in developing Northeast-West dispute an opportunity to build a political alliance btw South + West - Hayne believed agricultural system (built on slavery) could only survive with an unlimited supply of cheap western lands - Webster challenged South's willingness to damage the Union for regional economic gain - Webster broadened the debate beyond land, tariffs, and slavery to the very nature of the federal republic (state vs. national power) *When*: Jan, 1830 *Why*: national vs. state power

sharecropping system

*Who*: Southern Landowners *What*: Landowners give farm workers land, seed, and tools in return for a part of the crops they raise - W/ S. econ. in disarray after abolition of slavery + devastation of the Civil War, conflict arose btw many white landowners attempting to reestablish a labor force & freed blacks seeking econ. independence/ autonomy - system locked South into a reliance on cotton, just at the time when the price for cotton was falling - often resulted in sharecroppers owing more to the landowner (for the use of tools and other supplies, for ex.) than they were able to repay - many more A.A.'s went into debt or forced by poverty /threat of violence to sign unfair & exploitative sharecropping or labor contracts that left them little hope of improving their situation. *Where*: South *When*: early 1870's *Why*: white s. wanted to reestablish a labor force

Sputnik and the missile race

*Who*: Soviet Union v. US *What*: On October 4, 1957, a Soviet R-7 intercontinental ballistic missile launched Sputnik (Russian for "traveler"), the world's first artificial satellite & first man-made object to be placed into the Earth's orbit - Sputnik's launch came as a surprise, and not a pleasant one, to most Americans - In US, space was seen as the next frontier, a logical extension of the grand American tradition of exploration, and it was crucial not to lose too much ground to the Soviets - In addition, this demonstration of the overwhelming power of the R-7 missile-seemingly capable of delivering a nuclear warhead into U.S. air space-made gathering intelligence about Soviet military activities particularly urgent - Eisenhower responded by creating two national security-oriented space programs that would operate simultaneously w/ NASA's program: 1. spearheaded by the U.S. Air Force, dedicated itself to exploiting the military potential of space 2. led by the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), the Air Force and a new organization called the National Reconnaissance Office would use orbiting satellites to gather intelligence on the Soviet Union & its allies *Where*: US & Soviet Union *When*: October 4, 1957 *Why*: each side sought to prove the superiority of its technology, its military firepower and-by extension-its political-economic system.

U-2 incident

*Who*: Soviet Union v. US *What*: the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) shot down an Amer. U-2 spy plane in Soviet air space & captured its pilot, Francis Gary Powers - American U-2 spy plane making made a high-altitude pass over Cuba on October 14, 1962, & photographed a Soviet SS-4 medium-range ballistic missile being assembled for installation. - Confronted w/ the evidence of his nation's espionage, Pres. Eisenhower = forced to admit to Soviets that the U.S. CIA had been flying spy missions over the USSR for several yrs. - Soviets convicted Powers on espionage charges & sentenced him to 10 yrs in prison - However, after serving less than two years, he was released in exchange for a captured Soviet agent in the first-ever U.S.-USSR "spy swap." *Where*: USSR *When*: May 1960 *Why*: U-2 spy plane incident raised tensions btw the U.S. & the Soviets during the Cold War

Gettysburg Address

*Who*: Speech by Lincoln *What*: 273-word address to the dead b/c of Battle @ Gettys - he invoked the principles of human equality contained in the Declaration of Independence + connected the sacrifices of the Civil War w/ the desire for "a new birth of freedom" - talked about the all-important preservation of the Union created in 1776 and its ideal of self-gov - expressed his conviction that the Civil War = ultimate test of whether the Union created in 1776 would survive, or whether it would "perish from the earth." - The dead @ Gettysburg had laid down their lives for this noble cause, he said, and it was up to the living to confront the "great task" before them: ensuring that "government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth. *Where*: Ceremony @ a cemetery in Gettysburg, Penn *When*: Nov. 1863 *Why*: To make known the importance of human equality

Ghost Dance movement

*Who*: Started by Miniconjou Lakota named Kicking Bear *What*: A response to the Dawes Act and assimilation - a way to bring back Native culture - believed that if ritual was performed, Native lands and way of life would be restored - spread rapidly to 25,000 Sioux on the Dakota reservation - Lakota had already adopted the ceremony at the Pine Ridge and Rosebud Reservations - 1890, reservation police tried to arrest Sitting Bull, who they mistakenly believed was a Ghost Dancer (was then shot in the head in the process) *Where*: Northern plains - Dakota Reservation *When*: 1890 *Why*: to restore Native's way of life and beliefs

the Populist (People's) party

*Who*: Started by the leaders of the Farmer's Alliance (esp. William Jennings Bryan) *What*: "The movement of the people" - polit. movement demanding that the people have a greater voice in gov. - sought to advance the interest of farmers and laborers - Proposed *econ.* reforms: 1. increase in the $ supply ( to produce a rise in prices received for goods + services) 2. graduated income tax 3. federal loan program - Proposed *gov.* reforms: 1. election of US senators by pop vote 2. single terms for the Pres. + Vice Pres. 3. secret ballot to end vote fraud 4. eight-hour workday & restrictions on immigration - proposed changed = very attractive to struggling farmers (Populist candidate almost won 10% of the total vote) - Populists' programs eventually became platform of the Demo. party - Populist party wanted bimetallism (both gold + silver as currency) & free coinage of silver - Pres. McKinley's election lead to the end of Populism *Where*: West + South *When*:1891 *Why*: Wanted to create reforms that reflected the choices of the "people" and that attracted many farmers

American Temperance Society

*Who*: Started by women, supported by preachers (esp. John Bartholomew Gough) *What*: An effort to prohibit drinking of alcohol - alcohol associated w/ health issues, poverty, and crime - also a reform for promoting the abolition of slavery, expanding women's rights, *temperance* (absence of alcohol), and the improvement of society *Where*: in Boston, Mass *When*: February 13, 1826 *Why*: women had endured many effects of their husbands intoxication + alcohol abuse

Market Revolution

*Who*: Started when Eli Whitney invented the Cotton Gin *What*: Amer. inventors transformed U.S. econ w/ new innovations of their own - rapid development of manufacturing + improved farming = profound effect on Amer. society *Where*: Throughout U.S. *When*: 1793-1860 *Why*: innovations started to spur after creation of cottin gin

Homestead strike

*Who*: Steel workers/union vs. Andrew Carnegie *What*: 24,000 workers @ Homestead steel work went on strike to protest injustices in the workplace (Henry Clay Frick's plan to cut wages) *Where*: Penn *When*: 1892 *Why*: One of most serious labor disputes in US history (private security agents defeated the strikers)

Black Power

*Who*: Stokely Carmichael *What*: June 1966, James Meredith, a civil rights activist who had been the 1st A.A. student to attend the University of Mississippi, embarked on a solitary "Walk Against Fear" from Memphis, Tennessee to Jackson, Mississippi - About 20 miles into Mississippi, Meredith = shot & wounded too severely to continue - Carmichael decided that SNCC volunteers should carry on the march in his place, & upon reaching Greenwood, Mississippi, on June 16, an enraged Carmichael gave the address for which he would forever be best remembered. - *"We been saying 'freedom' for six years," he said. "What we are going to start saying now is "Black Power."* - phrase "Black Power" quickly caught on as the rallying cry of a younger, more radical generation of civil rights activists - Black Power also represented Carmichael's break w/ MLK's doctrine of nonviolence & its end goal of racial integration - Instead, he associated the term w/ the doctrine of black separatism, articulated most prominently by Malcolm X *Where*: Mississippi *When*: June 1966 *Why*: his 1968 book, Black Power: The Politics of Liberation, Carmichael explained the meaning of black power: - *''It is a call for black people in this country to unite, to recognize their heritage, to build a sense of community. It is a call for black people to define their own goals, to lead their own organizations.''*

Federalists

*Who*: Supporters of the Constitution: *John Jay, Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, Washington* *What*: wanted a strong national gov. instead of state gov. + loose interpretation of Constit. - laid the foundations of a national econ - created national judicial system + formulated principles of foreign policy - emphasized commercial + diplomatic harmony w/ Britain - domestic order + stability, and a strong national government under powerful executive and judicial branches - Supported Britain *Where*: Amer. States *When*: 1780's-1820's *Why*: Opposed the Demo Repub.s and wanted a national gov.

Clayton Antitrust Act

*Who*: Supreme Court *What*: made certain monopolistic business practices illegal (antitrust act) - protected rights of labor unions + farm organizations - sought to strengthen Sherman Antitrust Act (1890-prohibited corporations from acquiring stock of another business b/c would create a monopoly) - believed labor unions + farm organizations = right to exist + not subject to antitrust laws *Where*: US *When*: 1914 *Why*: sought to prevent anticompetitive practices in their initial stage

Wabash v. Illinois

*Who*: Supreme Court Case *What*: severely limited the rights of states to control interstate commerce, regulation had to come from the *fed. gov.* - result of the case was denial of state power to regulate interstate rates for railroads - led to the formation of the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) in 1887 (allowed Fed. regulation of interstate lines) - Purpose: to overturn a ruling by the Illinois Court *Where*: Supreme Court vs. State of Illinois *When*: 1886 *Why*: States no longer had the power to control railroad fees, the fed. gov. did + decreased the amount of corruption/discriminatory fees for the railroads (*did not benefit farmers*)

Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka

*Who*: Supreme Court Case (CJ = Earl Warren) *What*: *ended federal tolerance of racial segregation* - SC ruled that separate schools for whites & A.A.'s = unequal and unconstit. - Court's unanimous decision overturned provisions of the 1896 Plessy v. Ferguson decision (which had allowed for "separate but equal" public facilities, including public schools in US) *Where*: Kansas *When*: 1954 *Why*: helped break the back of state-sponsored segregation, & provided a spark to the Amer. civil rights movement

Bakke v. University of California

*Who*: Supreme Court case *What*: SC ruled that a university's use of racial "quotas" in its admissions process = unconstitutional, but a school's use of "affirmative action" to accept more minority applicants = constitutional in some circumstances - The case involved the admissions practices of the Medical School of the University of California at Davis - The medical school reserved 16 out of 100 seats in its entering class for minorities, including "Blacks," "Chicanos," "Asians," and "American Indians." - Allan Bakke, a white applicant, = twice denied admission to the medical school even though his MCAT scores, GPA, & benchmark scores were "significantly higher" than those of some minority applicants recently admitted - Bakke sued the University of CA in a state court, alleging that the medical school's admission policy violated Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Fourteenth Amendment's Equal Protection Clause - The CA SC agreed, finding that the quota system explicitly discriminated against racial groups *Where*: CA *When*: 1978 *Why*: SC agreed that: "no applicant may be rejected because of his race, in favor of another who is less qualified, as measured by standards applied without regard to race."

Schenck v. U.S.

*Who*: Supreme Court case *What*: concerning enforcement of the Espionage Act of 1917 during WWI - trying to define the modern understanding of the 1st Amendment -Charles Schenck = member of the Executive Committee of the Socialist Party in Philly - The executive committee oversaw, printing and mailing more than 15,000 fliers to men slated for conscription during World War I. - fliers urged men not to submit to the draft, saying "Do not submit to intimidation", "Assert your rights", & urged men not to comply w/ the draft on the grounds that military conscription constituted involuntary servitude, which is prohibited by the Thirteenth Amendment. - Schenck = convicted of violating Section 3 of the Espionage Act of 1917 (relied heavily on right to free speech in court) - Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr., held that Schenck's criminal conviction was constitutional *Where*: US *When*: 1919 *Why*: SC decision over whether or not a socialist (Schenck) possessed a First Amendment right to free speech against the draft during WWI

Prophet and Tecumseh

*Who*: Tecumseh = Shawnee Indian political leader and war chief, Prophet = younger brother *What*: - took part in series of raids of Kentucky + Tennessee frontier settlements + emerged as a prominent chief by 1800. - Tecumseh transformed his brother's religious following into a political movement, leading to the foundation of the *Prophetstown* settlement in 1808. - 1811, while Tecumseh was in the South attempting to recruit the Creeks into his confederacy, U.S. forces marched against Prophetstown - In the subsequent Battle of the Tippecanoe US defeated the Prophet, burned the settlement, and destroyed the Indians' food supplies. -defeat made him join alliance w/ Britain *Where*: East-central Indiana *When*: 1780's *Why*: fought to prevent further erosion to their land + expansion

stagflation

*Who*: The Economy *What*: a situation in which the inflation rate is high, the econ. growth rate slows, & unemployment remains steadily high - It raises a dilemma for economic policy, since actions designed to lower inflation may exacerbate unemployment, and vice versa -stagflation can result when the productive capacity of an economy is reduced by an unfavorable supply shock that causes an increase in the price of oil for an oil-importing country -central banks can cause inflation by allowing excessive growth of the money supply and the gov. can cause stagnation by excessive regulation of goods markets and labor markets - Excessive growth of the money supply, taken to such an extreme that it must be reversed abruptly, can be a cause *Where*: US *When*: 1970s *Why*: Such an unfavorable supply shock tends to raise prices at the same time that it slows the economy by making production more costly and less profitable - both stagnation a

mail order magazines and Rural Free Delivery

*Who*: Thomas E. Watson, (congressman from Georgia, pushed through legislation for an RFD system in 1893); Congress (Mail orders) *What*: *Rural Free Delivery*: begun U.S. in 1896 to deliver mail directly to farm families - Before RFD, rural inhabitants had to pick up mail themselves at sometimes distant post offices or pay private express companies for delivery - 1898 officials of the Post Office announced that any group of farmers could have free delivery merely by sending a petition - along w/ a description of their community & roads to their congressman - The flood of petitions = overwhelming - 1905 the Post Office was serving 32,000 RFD routes - *Mail order magazines*: publication containing a list of general merchandise from a company, then delivered to the customer - construction of railroads, new consumer goods, advances in printing technology all drew the industry to Chicago - soon became hub of mail-order commerce + headquarters for Montgomery Ward and Company, Sears, Roebuck & Co., and other smaller companies - 1893, Ward's = receiving 15,000 mail-orders a day *Where*: 1st deliveries = in rural West Virginia. (Rural Free Delivery), Chicago (Mail order magazines) *When*: 19th cent *Why*: Easier transportation of goods. People don't have to go out far distances to pick up goods.

Stokely Carmichael

*Who*: Trinidadian-Amer. polit. activist best known for leading the civil rights group SNCC *What*: rose to prominence as a member & later the chairman of SNCC, working w/ MLK & other Southern leaders to stage protests - Carmichael later lost faith in the tactic of non-violence, promoting "Black Power" & allying himself w/ the militant Black Panther Party - traveled to sit-ins in Virginia and South Carolina *Where*: Alabama *When*: 1960s *Why*: frustrated w/ the slow pace of progress of nonviolent resistance & with having to endure repeated acts of violence + humiliation at the hands of white police officers w/out recourse

Louis Armstrong

*Who*: Trumpeter, bandleader, singer, soloist, film star and comedian *What*: one of the most influential artists in jazz history - came to prominence in the 1920s w/ his daring trumpet style + unique vocals - charismatic stage presence impressed not only the jazz world but all of popular music - 1925 - 1928, Armstrong made more than 60 records w/ the Hot Five (later the Hot Seven) - Today, these are generally regarded as the most important and influential recordings in jazz history *Where*: New Orleans, Chicago, NY *When*: 1922 *Why*: Armstrong's virtuoso brilliance helped transform jazz from an ensemble music to a soloist's art

Munn v. Illinois

*Who*: U.S. Supreme Court case *What*: confirmed that a public industry (railroads + grain elevators) would be regulated by the *States* - case developed as a result of Illinois legislature's responding in 1871 to pressure from the National Grange by setting max rates that private companies could charge for storage & transport of agricultural products - Purpose: show that the court decision is constitutional (which passed in support of the farmers) *Where*: Supreme Court vs. state of Illinois *When*: 1877 *Why*: struggle for gov. regulation of public enterprise (*benefitted the farmers*)

North Atlantic Treaty Organization

*Who*: US & 11 other nations *What*: a mutual defense pact aimed at containing possible Soviet aggression against Western Europe - NATO stood as the main U.S.-led military alliance against the Soviet Union throughout the duration of the Cold War - April 1949, representatives from Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Great Britain, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, and Portugal joined the United States in signing the NATO agreement - Jan 1949, President Harry S. Truman warned in his State of the Union Address that the forces of democracy & communism were locked in a dangerous struggle, and he called for a defensive alliance of nations in the North Atlantic—U.S military in Korea. NATO was the result - NATO lasted throughout the course of the Cold War, and continues to play an important role in post-Cold War Europe *Where*: US *When*: April 4, 1949 *Why*: Most saw the organization as a necessary response to the communist threat

Convention of 1800

*Who*: US & France *What*: treaty to settle conflicts + hostilities during the Quasi-War - Amer. wanted to get out of the debt they owed french - French wanted to get their captured ships back *Where*: France + US *When*: 1798-1800 *Why*: Wanted to get out of the Franco-Amer. alliance + repair relationship for future negotiations

Atlantic Charter

*Who*: US & Great Britain *What*: US & Great Britain issued a joint declaration in August 1941 that set out a vision for the postwar world - FDR + Winston Churchill met to discuss issues of WWII -- The document that resulted from the Roosevelt-Churchill meetings was issued became known as the Atlantic Charter - Atlantic Charter included eight common principles: 1. US + Britain agreed not to seek territorial gains from the war, and they opposed any territorial changes made against the wishes of the people concerned 2. agreed to support the restoration of self-government to those nations who had lost it during the war 3. stated that people should have the right to choose their own form of government 4. access for all nations to raw materials needed for economic prosperity and an easing of trade restrictions 5. called for international cooperation to secure improved living and working conditions for all 6. freedom of the seas 7. called for all countries to abandon the use of force *Where*: Placentia Bay (off the southeast coast of Newfoundland) *When*: August 14, 1941 *Why*: The document is considered one of the first key steps toward the establishment of the United Nations in 1945 (1942, 26 govs pledged their support for the Atlantic Charter's principles)

Bay of Pigs invasion

*Who*: US v. Fidel Castro *What*: Cuban nationalist named Fidel Castro (1926-) drove his guerilla army into Havana and overthrew General Fulgencio Batista (1901-1973), (the nation's *American-backed president*) - For the nxt two years, officials at the U.S. State Department & the CIA attempted to push Castro from power - Finally, in April 1961, the CIA launched what its leaders believed would be the definitive strike: *a full-scale invasion of Cuba by 1,400 American-trained Cubans who had fled their homes when Castro took over* - the invasion did not go well: The invaders were badly outnumbered by Castro's troops, and they surrendered after less than 24 hours of fighting *Where*: Cuba *When*: January 1, 1959 *Why*: Batista had been a corrupt & repressive dictator, but he was considered to be pro-American & was an ally to U.S. companies. - At that time, Amer. corps. & wealthy individuals owned almost 1/2 of Cuba's sugar plantations & the majority of its cattle ranches, mines and utilities - *Batista* did little to restrict their operations. He was also *reliably anticommunist* - Castro, by contrast, disapproved of the approach that Americans took to their business and interests in Cuba. - It was time, he believed, for Cubans to assume more control of their nation

Cuban missile crisis

*Who*: US v. Soviets *What*: leaders of the U.S. & the Soviet Union engaged in a tense, 13-day political & military standoff over the installation of nuclear-armed Soviet missiles on Cuba, just 90 miles from U.S. shores. - October 22, 1962, Pres. JFK notified Amers. about the presence of the missiles, explained his decision to enact a naval blockade around Cuba and made it clear the U.S. was prepared to use military force if necessary to neutralize this perceived threat to national security - Following this news, many people feared the world was on the brink of nuclear war. - However, disaster = avoided when the U.S. agreed to Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev's (1894-1971) offer to remove the Cuban missiles in exchange for the U.S. promising not to invade Cuba - Kennedy also secretly agreed to remove U.S. missiles from Turkey *Where*: Cuba *When*: October, 1962 *Why*: threat to US national security -- nuclear-armed Cuban missiles were being installed so close to the U.S. mainland-just 90 miles south of Florida & From that launch point, they were capable of quickly reaching targets in the eastern U.S

United Nations

*Who*: US, Great Britain, France, the Soviet Union, and China *What*: growing 2nd World War became the real force for the US, Britain, & Soviet Union to begin formulating the original U.N. Declaration (signed by 26 nations in January 1942, as a formal act of opposition to Germany, Italy, and Japan, the Axis Powers in the Atlantic charter) - SF conference = presided over by Pres. FDR, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, and Soviet Premier Joseph Stalin - Conference (April- June, 1945) = attended by representatives of 50 nations to complete the Charter of the United Nations - *conference motives*: international organization that was to "save succeeding generations from the scourge of war - to reaffirm faith in fundamental human right - to establish conditions under which justice & respect for the obligations arising from treaties and other sources of international law can be maintained - & to promote social progress and better standards of life in larger freedom." *Where*: principles of U.N. Charter = formulated @ the SF Conference *When*: Oct 24, 1945 *Why*: negotiating and maintaining the peace = the practical responsibility of the new U.N. Security Council - in addition to maintaining peace & security, other important objectives include: - developing friendly relations among countries based on respect for the principles of equal rights and self-determination of peoples - achieving worldwide cooperation to solve international economic, social, cultural, and humanitarian problems - respecting and promoting human rights

Iraq War

*Who*: US, along w/ coalition forces primarily from the UK, initiates war on Iraq *What*: Pres. Bush & his advisors built much of their case for war on the idea that Iraq, under dictator Saddam Hussein, possessed or was in the process of building weapons of mass destruction - Coalition forces were able to topple Hussein's regime & capture Iraq's major cities in just 3 weeks, sustaining few casualties - Pres. Bush declared the end of major combat operations on May 1, 2003 - After an intense manhunt, U.S. soldiers found Saddam Hussein hiding in a six-to-eight-foot deep hole, nine miles outside his hometown of Tikrit *Where*: Iraq *When*: March 19 - May 1, 2003 *Why*: UN claimed Iraq had weapons of mass destruction & were connecting to terrorists of al Qaeda

The Jungle

*Who*: Upton Sinclair *What*: portrays the dangerous + unhealthy conditions prevalent in the meatpacking indust. - most readers were more concerned with his exposure of health violations and unsanitary practices in the American meatpacking industry - led to reforms including the Meat Inspection Act - book depicts working class poverty, the lack of social supports, harsh and unpleasant living and working conditions, and a hopelessness among many workers - Upton Sinclair = considered a muckraker *Where*: Chicago *When*: 1906 *Why*: wrote the novel to portray the harsh conditions and exploited lives of meat packing industries

Bonus Expeditionary Force

*Who*: WWI Veterans *What*: gathering of 12,000 - 15,000 WWI vets who, with their wives and children demanded immediate bonus payment for wartime services - moved into abandoned shacks below the Capitol and set up shanties and tents along the Anacostia River - bonus bill =defeated in Congress, however, and most of the veterans left for home discouraged - 1936, however, Congress finally passed, over a presidential veto, a bill to disburse about $2 billion in veterans' benefits *Where*: Washington, D.C. *When*: 1932 *Why*: to alleviate the economic hardship of the Great Depression

G.I. Bill of Rights

*Who*: WWII Vets *What*: created to help veterans of WWII - It established hospitals, made low-interest mortgages available & granted stipends covering tuition + expenses for veterans attending college/ trade schools - nearly 9 million vets received close to $4 bil from the bill's unemployment compensation program *Where*: US *When*: 1944 - 1949 *Why*: post WWII there no jobs to give WWII vets -- the G.I. Bill of Rights gave vets opportunities to maintain themselves financially and educationally

Brain Trust

*Who*: group of advisers to FDR *What*: 3 principle members (all professors at Columbia University): 1. Raymond Moley 2. Rexford G. Tugwell 3. Adolph A. Berle, Jr. - presented FDR w/ its thinking on econ. & social problems facing the nation - helped FDR weigh the alternatives of public policy that would be open to the new Pres. - contributed suggestions & drafts for campaign speeches (all of which underwent considerable revision by FDR) *Where*: US *When*: during FDR's first campaign for presidency (1932) *Why*: Advisers that FDR gathered to assist him during the 1932 presidential campaign - helped FDR make econ. plans

Republican presidents

*Who*: Warren G. Harding (1921-1923), Calvin Coolidge (1923-1929), Herbert Hoover (1929-1933) *What*: *Harding*: believed in limited gov. + conservation - decrease taxes + regulate trusts - "return to normality" - reduced taxes + gave businesses more money to grow and to put more money in the pockets of ordinary Americans *Coolidge*: Became Pres. after Harding died - believed in Laissez Faire ("hands-off" govn't) - vetoed more bills than he proposed - had strength of the economy - had huge respect for businessmen - He gave businessmen the freedom to make a profit and become rich *Hoover*: went to Standford - known as the "engineer" - secretary of Commerce under Harding & Coolidge - handling of the Gr8 depression doesn't go well - believed in laissez-faire, but also in rugged individualism - people should not depend on the government for help - they should solve their own problems by working harder *Where*: DC *When*: 1921 - 1933 *Why*: policy of these Republican Presidents = that gov. should leave the econ. alone - they adopted a laissez-faire (free market) policy. Big businesses were free to expand without being held back by the government.

Ku Klux Klan

*Who*: White male nativists *What*: 2nd generation of the Klan was not only anti-A.A. but also took a stand against Roman Catholics, Jews, foreigners and organized labor - White anglo saxon beliefs - very conservative - 1925 -- 5 million members - lynched 200 people - seized polit. control in 7 states used violence to keep groups, "in their place" - result of nativism + anti-immigr. = *Emergency Quota Act of 1921* -- established a limit on how many immigr. from each country could enter the US every yr.) - organization took as its symbol a burning cross and held rallies, parades and marches around the country *Where*: Georgia (south) *When*: 1915, white Protestant nativists organized a revival of kkk *Why*: fueled by growing hostility to the surge in immigr. that America experienced in the early 20th century along w/ fears of communist revolution akin to the Bolshevik triumph in Russia in 1917

Buffalo Bill Cody

*Who*: William F. Cody *What*: took up the trade (that gave him his nickname) hunting buffalo to feed the construction crews of the Kansas Pacific Railroad - By his own count, killed 4,280 head of buffalo in 17 months - won the name "Buffalo Bill" in an eight-hour shooting match against hunter William Comstock (to determine which of the two Buffalo Bill's deserved the title) *Where*: Kansas *When*: 1867 *Why*: Hunting of buffalo for sport deeply impacted the Sioux tribe b/c the buffalo = essential to their lifestyle (use every part of the bull/don't waste it) - Killing Buffalo for sport led to near extinction

National Labor Union

*Who*: William H. Sylvis (ironworker) *What*: 1st national labor federation in US - advocated the rights of factory workers - wanted to legalize an 8 hr wrk day for gov. workers *Where*: throughout US *When*: 1866 *Why*: paved the way for other labor unions (ex. the knights of labor)

Industrial Workers of the World

*Who*: William Haywood = leader + members known as "Wobblies" *What*: included many socialists, anarchists, miners, lumberers & cannery/dock workers - opposed the Amer. Federation of Labor's acceptance of capitalism & its refusal to include unskilled workers in craft unions - gained prominence as revolutionary organization dedicated to controlling the means of production by the workers - only labor organization to oppose U.S. participation in WWI *Where*: Chicago *When*: 1905 *Why*: practiced extremely radical & progressive ideas

New Jersey Plan

*Who*: William Patterson *What*: - each state would have a single vote in Congress (as it had been under the Articles of Confederation) to even out power btw large + small states - plan also gave Congress new powers: the collection of import duties + a stamp tax, the regulation of trade + enforcement of requisitions upon the states w/ military force. *Where*: Continental Convention (Philly) *When*: 1787 *Why*: proposed so that bigger states wouldn't get more voting power over smaller states

Common Sense

*Who*: Written by Thomas Paine *What*: challenged authority of Brit. gov + monarchy *When*: 1775-76 *Where*: Amer. Colonies *Why*: advocated for independence + united citizens + polit. leaders under idea of indepen.

Bleeding Kansas

*Who*: a "war" btw proslavery & antislavery forces *What*: violence surfaced in the struggle for Kansas - the Lawrence posse of 800 armed proslavery men burned down antislavery headquarters + destroyed 2 newspaper printing presses + looted many houses/stores *When*: pre civil war *Where*: Kansas *Why*: different views led to violence

54th Regiment of Massachusetts

*Who*: abolitionists (esp. Governor John A. Andrew of Mass issued the Civil War's first call for A.A. soldiers) *What*: one of the first official A.A. units in the U.S. armed forces - Their courageous assault on Fort Wagner = key role in bringing about an end to slavery - abolitionists argued that A.A.'s should be able to join the fight for their freedom - A.A's were not allowed to serve as soldiers in the Union Army until January 1, 1863 - Emancipation Proclamation decreed that "such persons [that is, African-American men] of suitable condition, will be received into the armed services of the United States." = 1,007 A.A. soldiers enlisted in the 54th regiment *Where*: Mass *When*: 1863 *Why*: To let A.A.'s be able to fight for their own freedom

Social Darwinism

*Who*: advocated by Herbert Spencer; based on the ideas of Darwin *What*: an economic & social philosophy - a system of unrestrained competition will ensure the "survival of the fittest" (goes along w/ Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection) - supported the notion of individual responsibility + blame - riches = sign of God's favor - poor = lazy + inferior people who deserve to be where they are *Where*: US *When*: late 1800's - early 1900's *Why*: Only those who are able to survive in society by fending for themselves will be successful

Bank of the United States

*Who*: granted 20 yr charter by US Congress (Proposed by Alexander Hamilton, Thomas Jefferson disagreed w/ this inauguration) *What*: serve as storage for fed. funds & as gov.'s finical agent Pro's: - helped fund the public debt left from the American Revolution - facilitated the problem of a stable national currency + provided a convenient means of exchange for all the people of the US Con's - seen as Fed. Control - controversy = based on the restraints the bank imposed on private, state-chartered banks - also seen as an offense to states' rights & bank's federal charter was called unconstitutional - seen as constraining econ. development + its charter was not renewed in 1811 - The Second Bank was formed five years later, bringing renewed controversy despite the U.S. Supreme Court's support of its power. (expired in 1836) *Where*: based in Philadelphia with branches in eight cities *When*: February 25, 1791 *Why*: wanted to create a storage space for federal funds and decrease Revol. debt

Korematsu v. U.S.

*Who*: an American-born citizen of Japanese descent *What*: was a landmark US Supreme Court case concerning the constitutionality of Executive Order 9066 (which ordered Japanese Americans into internment camps during World War II regardless of citizenship) - Fred Korematsu refused to leave his home in San Leandro, CA - Duly convicted, he appealed, and in 1944 his case reached the Supreme Court - Court accepted the U.S. military's argument that the loyalties of some Japanese Amers. resided not w/ the US but w/ their ancestral country - separating "the disloyal from the loyal" = a logistical impossibility, & the internment order had to apply to all Japanese Americans within the restricted area - Balancing the country's stake in the war and national security against the "suspect" curtailment of the rights of a particular racial group, the Court decided that the nation's security concerns outweighed the Constitution's promise of equal rights - in a 6-3 decision, the Court sided with the government, ruling that the exclusion order = constitutional *Where*: US *When*: 1944 *Why*: Sued gov. for restricting humanitarian rights

Dorothea Dix

*Who*: author, teacher + reformer *What*: created social reforms on behalf of the mentally ill + prisoners (helped create dozens of new institutions across U.S. & Europe) - administrated military hospitals + an advocate for the work of female nurses (worked during the civil war) - 1843 sent report to Mass legislature who passed law on making conditions of jails + mentally ill hospitals better - 1843 & 1852 convinced 9 south. states to set up public hospitals for mentally ill *Where*: Rhode Island, Ny, Europe, Mass *When*: 1840's - 50's *Why*: emphasized the idea of rehabilitation, treatment that might revitalize the sick or imprisoned and ensure a useful position in society

cult of domesticity

*Who*: belief held throughout U.S. + G. Brit. *What*: ideology that women should stay home - What women are expected to do: 1. More religious than men 2. Pure in heart, mind, and body, purity 3. Submit to their husbands 4. Stay at home - Women & men who most actively promoted these standards = generally white, Protestant, + lived in New Eng. & Northeastern U.S. - women = center of family - black, working class, and immigrant women were often excluded from the definition of "true women" because of social prejudice *Where*: U.S. + G. Brit *When*: 1800's *Why*: men didn't want women to get educated either

bracero program

*Who*: btw US & Mexico *What*: series of laws and diplomatic agreements - Agreement guaranteed basic human rights (sanitation, adequate shelter & food) & a min. wage of 30 cents an hour - enabled the importation of temporary contract laborers from Guam to US as a momentary war-related clause to supply workers during the early phases of WWII - *bracero* = "manual laborer" or "one who works using his arms" - braceros would not be subject to discrimination such as exclusion from "white" areas *Where*: US *When*: August 4, 1942 *Why*: American growers longed for a system that would admit Mex. workers & guarantee them an opportunity to grow and harvest their crops, + place them on the American market. Thus, during negotiations in 1951 over a new bracero program, Mexico sought to have the United States impose sanctions on American employers of undocumented workers

Freedom Summer of 1964

*Who*: civil rights organizations (Ex./ Congress on Racial Equality (CORE) & Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)) organized a voter registration drive, known as Freedom Summer *What*: Freedom Summer (comprised of A.A. Mississippians & more than 1,000 out-of-state, predominately white volunteers) faced constant abuse & harassment from Mississippi's white population - The KKK, police & even state + local authorities carried out a systematic series of violent attacks: - including arson, beatings, false arrest & the murder of at least three civil rights activists *When*: 1964 *Why*: *aimed at dramatically increasing voter registration in Mississippi* -- showed that de jure segregation (legal) ended, but not de facto segregation (social)

Missouri Compromise

*Who*: conflicts btw pro-slavery + anti-slavery factions within the U.S. Congress *What*: Conflicts began when Missouri's request for admission to the Union as a slave state in 1819 (threatened to upset the delicate balance between slave states + free states) - Congress agreed to a two-part compromise: granted Missouri's request but also admitted Maine as a free state - It also passed an amendment that drew an imaginary line across the former Louisiana Territory, establishing a boundary between free and slave regions *Where*: Missouri + throughout U.S. *When*: 1820 *Why*: Missouri wanted to stay a slave state

Kitchen Cabinet

*Who*: consisted of Jackson's friends/loyalists who he made advisors *What*: collection of unofficial advisers he consulted in parallel to US Cabinet - consisted of his loyal friends, journalists and newspaper editors - EX./ Martin Van Buren = Secretary of State, Later VP - reversed the political fortunes of several leading politicians - events surrounding the formation of the Kitchen Cabinet led Jackson to advocate the wide use of the "Spoils System" which would later lead to corruption in the government *Where*: *When*: 1820's - 1830's *Why*: Jackson only trusted his friends as advisors, his friends = extremely powerful and clever men

Strategic Defense Initiative

*Who*: first proposed by Pres. Reagan *What*: proposed U.S. strategic defensive system against potential nuclear attacks—as originally conceived, from the Soviet Union - The SDI = first proposed by Pres. Reagan b/c parts of the defensive system that Reagan advocated would be based in space, the proposed system was dubbed "Star Wars," after the space weaponry of a popular motion picture of the same name. *Where*: US *When*: 1983 *Why*: *SDI =intended to defend the US from attack from Soviet intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) by intercepting the missiles at various phases of their flight*

Declaration of Independence

*Who*: five-man committee including Thomas Jefferson (wrote most of it), John Adams and Benjamin Franklin *What*: tasked w/ drafting a formal statement of the colonies' intentions *When*: July 4, 1776 granted independence *Where*: Philadelphia *Why*: seeking independence from Britain had become "necessary" for the colonies

NAACP

*Who*: formed by Moorfield Storey, Mary White Ovington and W. E. B. Du Bois *What*: A.A. civil rights organization - formed partly in response to the continuing horrific practice of lynching - initiatives: political lobbying, publicity efforts, and court strategies developed by their legal team - eliminate race prejudice - seeks to remove all barriers of racial discrimination through the democratic processes *Where*: Baltimore, Maryland (w/ regional offices across US) *When*: 1909 *Why*: mission = "to ensure the political, educational, social, and economic equality of rights of all persons and to eliminate racial hatred and racial discrimination."

Sitting Bull

*Who*: head chief of Lakota Sioux nation in 1868, given the name Tatanka-Iyotanka (describes a buffalo *bull sitting* uncontrollable on its haunches) *What*: defiant toward American military pow & scornful of American promises for treaties - war btw Sitting Bull & U.S. Army in 1874, when an expedition led by General Custer confirmed that gold had been discovered in the Black Hills of Dakota Territory - Dakota terr = sacred area to many tribes & placed off-limits to white settlement by the Fort Laramie Treaty of 1868 - Despite ban, prospectors began a rush to the Black Hills, provoking the Lakota to defend their land - gov. efforts to purchase Black Hills failed - Fort Laramie Treaty = set aside & commissioner of Indian Affairs decreed all Lakota not settled on reservations by January 31, 1876, would be considered hostile/unfriendly - Sitting Bull & his people held their ground + never signed the treaty - b/c of Sitting Bull's vision of soldiers falling into the Lakota camp - started the Battle of Little Big Horn - 4 yrs later forced to surrender in south b/c no longer could fed his people w/ buffalo extinction *Where*: Great plains (esp. South Dakota b/c gold) *When*: 1870's *Why*: Fought to protect sacred land from white invasion

Booker T. Washington

*Who*: influential African-American intellectual *What*: Born a slave, then rose to become one of the most respected A.A. men in US - founded the Tuskegee Institute (an A.A. school in Alabama devoted to training teachers) - behind the formation of the National Negro Business League - served as an adviser to Presidents Theodore Roosevelt & William Howard Taft - clashed with other black leader W. E. B. Du Bois ("industrial" vs. "classical" education among blacks) - his philosophy = that postwar social uplift had begun at the wrong end: the acquisition of political & civil rights rather than economic self-determination *Where*: Washington DC *When*: late 19th Century *Why*: recognized for his educational advancements + attempts to promote econ. self-reliance among A.A.'s

Compromise of 1850

*Who*: last major involvement in national affairs of Senators Henry Clay (Kentucky), Daniel Webster (Mass), + John C. Calhoun (SC), all of whom had had exceptional careers in the Senate *What*: 1. CA = free state (no slavery) 2. New Mex. + Utah -> w/ pop. sovereign to decide whether slave/free 3. Fix Tex. border (pay Tex. $10 mil for loss of border) 4. Ban slave trade in DC (internally) -> can no longer buy/sell slaves 5. Fugitive slave act -> power goes to slave owners to claim slaves + bring back to south in 1850 (capturing free Afri. Amer.'s) *Where*: Btw states *When*: 1850 *Why*: to resolve issues regarding slavery and to resolve the effects of the Mex. - Amer. war

Shays' Rebellion

*Who*: lead by Daniel Shays of Massachusetts (former captain in Continental army) *What*: series of protests by farmers against state + local enforcement (tax collections + judgments for debt) *Where*: Mass (mainly) but also from NH-SC *When*: 1786 - 1787 *Why*: greatly alarmed politicians throughout the nation wanted to revise or replace Articles of Confederation

Marcus Garvey

*Who*: leader in the A.A. nationalist movement *What*: applied the econ. ideas of Pan-Africanists to the immense resources available in urban centers - founded the A.A. World newspaper - an international shipping company called Black Star Line (1919) provided transportation and encouraged trade among the A.A. businesses of Africa and the Americas - & the A.A. Factories Corporation - his Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) was the largest secular organization in African-American hist. *Where*: NY *When*: 1916 *Why*: aimed to organize A.A.'s everywhere & enhanced the growing A.A. aspirations for justice, wealth, and a sense of community - sought to end imperialist rule and create modern societies in Africa

Horace Mann

*Who*: leader in the public school reform *What*: 1st secretary of Mass board of Edu. (established teacher trainings + reforms) - spearheaded the Common School Movement, ensuring that every child could receive a basic education funded by local taxes - believed that political stability + social harmony depended on education - the quality of rural schools had to be raised, and that teaching was the key to that improvement - wanted recruitment of women into the ranks of teachers -believed that public schooling = central to good citizenship, democratic participation + societal well-being *Where*: Mass *When*: 1837 *Why*: wanted to create a system of effective, secular, universal education in the United States

John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry

*Who*: led by John Brown *What*: obtained financial backing from several prominent Northern abolitionists + led 21 men (black + white) into Harper's Ferry, Virginia - motive = seize fed. arsenal + distribute the stolen arms to the slaves in the area + start a general slave uprising - held 60 men hostage, but no slaves came forward b/c didn't know to - local troops killed 10 of Brown's men and Brown = arrested - Brown = tried for treason - Dec 2, 1859 Brown = hanged (North thought of him as a martyr) *When*: Oct 15, 1859 *Where*: Harper's Ferry, Virginia *Why*: to help start a slave revolt

Manhattan Project

*Who*: led by the US gov. w/ support of the UK & Canada (under the direction of Major General Leslie Groves of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers) *What*: U.S. government research project that produced the 1st atomic bombs - atomic bombs produced by the project: 1st using uranium-235 and 2nd using plutonium, were dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan - grew to employ more than 130,000 people & cost nearly US $2 billion *Where*: main assembly plant = built at Los Alamos, New Mexico *When*: 1942-45 (WWII) *Why*: Created atomic bombs to raid the Japanese and "end" the war & for fear that the Germans would start a bomb project before them

Radical Republicans

*Who*: member of Repub. Party *What*: committed to emancipation of the slaves & later to equal treatment + enfranchisement of freed A.A.'s - agitated 4 dismissal of Gen. George B. McClellan - favored enlistment of black troops - Angry at Lincoln for reluctance to move toward speedy abolition, they broke with him completely over Reconstruction policy - countered Lincoln's "Ten Percent Plan" in 1864 w/ the Wade-Davis Bill (required a maj. of the electorate to take the loyalty oath + excluded far more former Confeds. from participation in the restored govs.) - most important measures = Reconstruction Acts of 1867 & 1868 (placed Southern states under military gov. & required universal manhood suffrage) - united only by their common commitment to emancipation and racial justice - Radical leaders = Henry Winter Davis, Thaddeus Stevens, & Charles Sumner in the Senate. *Where*: DC *When*: 1865-77 *Why*: Believed deeply in A.A. emancipation & took to sometimes drastic measures to achieve equality

Pentagon Papers

*Who*: name given to secret Department of Defense study of U.S. polit. & milit. involvement in Vietnam *What*: 1967, at the request of U.S. Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara, a team of analysts working for the Department of Defense prepared a classified study of US polit. & milit. involvement in Vietnam from the end of WW II until the present day - "study" would later become famous as the Pentagon Papers - milit. analyst Daniel Ellsberg (who had worked on the study) came to oppose the war, and decided that the information contained in the Pentagon Papers about *U.S. decision-making regarding Vietnam* should be more widely available to the American public - He secretly photocopied the report & in March 1971 gave the copy to The New York Times, which subsequently published a series of articles based on the report's findings - Amid the national and international uproar that followed, the fed. gov. tried unsuccessfully to block publication of the Pentagon Papers on grounds of national security *Where*: US *When*: 1945 to 1967 *Why*: Vietnam War dragged on & U.S. military presence in South Vietnam increased to more than 500,000 troops by 1968 -- Amer. public = growing frustrated w/ the war - Pentagon Papers confirmed many people's suspicions about the active role the U.S. gov. had taken in building up the conflict

political machines

*Who*: party organization (lead by a single boss or small autocratic group) *What*: controls a polit. party in a city + offers services to voters & businesses in exchange for polit./financial support (Ex./ Boss William Tweed built Tammany Hall--NY) - machines respond to problems of individual neighborhoods/families, in exchange for loyalty at the poll - loyalty of voters = not enough - polit. machines turned to... 1. *Graft*: illegal use of polit. influence for personal gain 2. *Kickbacks*: illegal payments 3. *Bribery*: granted favors to businesses for cash + allowed illegal activities to occur if payed 4. *Patronage*: gave jobs to people who helped get the candidate elected (spoils system) *Where*: U.S. cities (Ex./ Boston, Philadelphia, New York, Pittsburgh, Chicago, & Kansas City) *When*: 1820's - 1870's *Why*: primary goal of political machine = keeping itself in power (through voting) rather than providing good government

Thirteenth Amendment

*Who*: passed by U.S. Senate *What*: officially abolished slavery in America - "Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction." *Where*: DC *When*: ratified on December 6, 1865 after war *Why*: Lincoln + fellow Republicans knew that the Emancip. Proclam. might be viewed as a *temporary* war measure and not outlaw slavery once the Civil War ended, focused on passing a constitutional amendment that would do so *permanently*

War Powers Act of 1973

*Who*: passed by the U.S. Congress *What*: law passed over the veto of Pres. Richard Nixon - act sought to restrain the Pres. ability to commit U.S. forces overseas by requiring the executive branch to consult w/ & report to Congress before involving U.S. forces in foreign hostilities - it = nonetheless generally resisted / ignored by subsequent Pres., many of whom regarded it as an unconstitutional usurpation of their executive authority - Members of Congress have complained that they have not been given timely notification of or sufficient details regarding some military engagements - Some legislators have gone to court (unsuccessfully) to seek adjudication of what they believe to have been violations of the act Increasingly, presidents have identified resolutions taken by the United Nations or the North Atlantic Treaty Organization as justification for military intervention. *Where*: US *When*: November 7, 1973 *Why*: Gave congress power to decide military actions instead of decisions being solely based off of the Pres.

Equal Rights Amendment

*Who*: passed by the U.S. Senate *What*: First proposed by the National Woman's political party in 1923, the Equal Rights Amendment was to *provide for the legal equality of the sexes and prohibit discrimination on the basis of sex* - More than 4 decades later, the revival of feminism in the late 1960s spurred its introduction into Congress - Under the leadership of U.S. Representative Bella Abzug of NY & feminists Betty Friedan + Gloria Steinem, it won the requisite two-thirds vote from the U.S. House of Representatives in Oct. 1971 - during the mid-1970s, a conservative backlash against feminism eroded support for the Equal Rights Amendment, which ultimately failed to achieve ratification by the a requisite 38, or three-fourths, of the states *Where*: US *When*: March 22, 1972 *Why*: B/c of the rejection of the Equal Rights Amendment, sexual equality (w/ the notable exception of when it pertains to the right to vote) is not protected by the U.S. Constitution

Anti-federalists

*Who*: people against Constitution (George Mason) *What*: - don't trust big federal gov. (feared constit. would threaten democrat achievements of Amer. Revol.) - not looking out for interest of smaller states (rural states - farmers) - did not want to ratify (make official) the constitution. - constitution lacked bill of rights + create a class issue *Where*: Philly *When*: 1787 *Why*: feared their liberties would be take away and the gov. Would become corrupt

the Lost Generation

*Who*: post-WWI generation *What*: group of U.S. writers who came of age during the war and established their literary reputations in the 1920s - Hemingway used it as an epigraph to The Sun Also Rises (1926), a novel that captures the attitudes of a hard-drinking, fast-living set of disillusioned young expatriates in postwar Paris - includes Hemingway, F. Scott Fitzgerald, John Dos Passos, E.E. Cummings, Archibald MacLeish, Hart Crane *Where*: US *When*: 1920s *Why*: generation was "lost" in the sense that its inherited values were no longer relevant in the postwar world

Huey Long

*Who*: powerful Louisiana governor and U.S. senator *What*: dominated virtually every governing institution w/in Louisiana - used that power to expand programs for underdeveloped infrastructure & social services (building bridges, roads, hospitals, and schools) - revised the tax codes to place a larger burden on corporations - entered the U.S. Senate in 1935, where he developed a fervent following for his promises of a radical redistribution of wealth (Share-Our-Wealth Plan) - launched his own national polit. organization & was prepared to run for Pres. when he was killed by the son-in-law of a political opponent *Where*: US *When*: 1935 *Why*: Had his own plan to "fix" the depression through his own radical plan of wealth distribution -- broke from Pres. FDR and went out on his own wanting to run for Pres.

The Federalist

*Who*: pro constit. + strong federal gov. (ex. John Adams, Madison, John Jay) *What*: Large repub. w/ strong central gov. (wrote Constit.), believe in federal (states unified but independent) gov. (mostly artisans + land owners) - wanted to ratify the constitution *Where*: Philly *When*: 1787 *Why*: believed system of checks and balances would give equal power to all branches / no corruption of power

Judiciary Act of 1789

*Who*: signed into law by Pres. George Washington *What*: - establishing the organization of the U.S. federal court system - three-part judiciary—made up of district courts, circuit courts (created to serve as principal trial courts, local district judge + 2 Supreme Court justices = in charge of circuit courts), and the Supreme Court— + outlined the structure and jurisdiction of each branch - divided the country into districts w/ one court + one judge in each - created the office of attorney general of the United States; (attorney general = a member of the cabinet + appointed by the Pres. + is head of the Department of Justice) - established that the Supreme Court would be composed of 1 chief justice + 5 associate justices & all decisions of the Supreme Court = final - also vested in the Supreme Court the power to settle disputes between states *Where*: throughout states *When*: Sep. 24, 1789 *Why*: US wanted to create a judicial court system

North American Free Trade Agreement

*Who*: signed into law under Pres. Bill Clinton *What*: A trade agreement btw Canada, Mexico & the US - framework of the deal was first drafted under Pres. Reagan in 1987 - NAFTA eliminated almost all tariffs among the three nations, allowing for the seamless flow of goods and supplies across borders - Today, approx. $1.4 billion in goods cross the U.S.-Mexico border every day - NAFTA also makes it easy for companies to move operations from the U.S. to Mexico *Where*: Canada, Mex., US *When*: signed into law in 1994 *Why*: goal of NAFTA = to eliminate barriers to trade & investment btw U.S., Canada & Mex.

Rosie the Riveter

*Who*: star of a gov. campaign aimed at recruiting female workers for the munitions industry *What*: American women entered the workforce in unprecedented numbers during WWII - widespread male enlistment left gaping holes in the industrial labor force - Btw 1940 & 1945, the female % of the U.S. workforce increased from 27 % to nearly 37 %, and by 1945 nearly one out of every four married women worked outside the home - "Rosie the Riveter," became perhaps the most iconic image of working women during the war - Based in small part on a real-life munitions worker, but primarily a fictitious character, the strong, bandanna-clad Rosie became one of the most successful recruitment tools in American history, and the most iconic image of working women in the World War II era - Rosie the Riveter campaign stressed the patriotic need for women to enter the work force *Where*: US *When*: 1940-1945 (during WWII) *Why*: Munitions industry heavily recruited women workers, as illustrated by the U.S. government's "Rosie the Riveter" propaganda campaign

supply-side economics

*Who*: started by economist Robert Mundell (during the Reagan's administration) *What*: argues econ. growth can be most effectively created by investing in capital and by lowering barriers on the production of goods & services - According to supply-side economics, consumers will then benefit from a greater supply of goods & services at lower prices - the investment & expansion of businesses will increase the demand for employees and therefore create jobs *Where*: US *When*: 1970s *Why*: Supply-side economics developed in response to Keynesian econ. policy (esp. the failure of demand management to stabilize Western econs. during the stagflation of the 1970s)

Strict constructionist vs. broad constructionist

*Who*: strict lead by Thomas Jefferson & broad lead by Alexander Hamilton *What*: - strict = small federal government (most power in hands of state + people), congress only allowed to exercise powers specific to constitution - Broad = more powerful federal government. + wanted to use strong gov for industrialization + Econ development & congress should be allowed to exercise many implied powers *When*: early 1790's *Why*: debate over a more "hands on" gov. Or a more "hands off" gov

brinkmanship

*Who*: term created by John Foster Dulles *What*: foreign policy practice in which one or both parties force the interaction btw them to the threshold of confrontation in order to gain an advantageous negotiation position over the other - The technique is characterized by aggressive risk-taking policy choices that court potential disaster - "The ability to get to the verge without getting into the war is the necessary art." *Where*: US *When*: During the Cold War *Why*: concept of brinkmanship involved the West & Soviet Union using fear tactics + intimidation as strategies to make the opposing faction back down - Each party pushed dangerous situations to the brink, w/ the intention of making the other back down in matters of international politics and foreign policy, to obtain concessions

Pinckney's Treaty

*Who*: treaty = negotiated by Thomas Pinckney for US & Manuel de Godoy for Spain. *What*: established intentions of friendship btw US + Spain - fixing the southern boundary of US + establishing commercial arrangements favorable US. - U.S. citizens = accorded free navigation of the Mississippi River through Spanish territory. - treaty granted Amer's the privilege of tax-free deposit (temporary storage of goods) at New Orleans - Each side agreed to restrain Indians within its borders from attacks on the other, and there were provisions respecting freedom of the seas *Where*: signed in San Lorenzo de El Escorial (Spain) *When*: October 27, 1795 *Why*: wanted more commercial arrangements

trust

*Who*: used by businesses *What*: firms of corporations that combine for the purpose of reducing competition & establishing a monopoly - "Property that is held by one party, the trustee, for the benefit of another, the beneficiary" *Where*: US *When*: late 1800's - early 1900's *Why*: To create monopolies & control the market (there are anti-trust laws in place to stop these)

Bill of Rights

*Who*: written by James Madison *What*: - first 10 amendments of the constitution - a list of limits on gov. Power - protect basic rights of US citizens *Where*: drafted in NY *When*: 10 amendments ratified-> 1791 *Why*: to protect rights of US citizens + limit gov power

Declaration of Sentiments

*Who*: written primarily by Elizabeth Cady Stanton *What*: modeled after the dec. of indepen. - doc. outlining the rights that American women should be entitled to as citizens, that emerged from the Seneca Falls Convention in New York July 1848 - marked the start of the women's rights movement in the United States - begins by stating the equality of all men and women + reiterates that both genders have right to unalienable rights to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness - argues that women are oppressed by the gov. & patriarchal society of which they are a part - 16 facts illustrating the extent of oppression, including the lack of women's suffrage, participation, and representation in the gov.t; women's lack of property rights in marriage; inequality in divorce law; and inequality in education and employment opportunities - doc. insists that women be viewed as full citizens of the United States and be granted all the same rights and privileges that were granted to men *Where*: NY *When*: July 1848 *Why*: women are just as equal as men

House of Burgesses

Who: 1st representative assembly in N. Amer. (Virginia Company) What: the general assembly, passed legislation for entire Virginia colony Where: Virginia When: 1620's- 1640's Why: So Virginia (colony) could have a govn't instead of one ruler (before Bacon's rebellion -> 1675)

Anne Hutchinson

Who: A puritan dissenter (against/diff opinion) What: hosted bible readings @ her home, stated worshippers didn't need anyone to interpret the bible for them Where: Banished from New England, moved w/ Fam to Rhode Island, then went to New Netherland (NY) When: 1638-1642 Why: didn't agree with puritan standards

Pueblo revolt of 1680

Who: Aka Popé Rebellion, pueblo people vs. Spanish What: a rebellion led by the Pueblo people that was so successful that it drove the Spanish out & Spain couldn't come back for 50 years Where: New Mexico When: 1680 Why: to drive Spanish out...destroyed Catholic Churches, killed priests, killed Spanish settlers, built their own churches

George Whitefield

Who: British minister What: major force behind Great Awakening; preaches open-air sermons, wanted to revive religion, open-air, left his huge audiences spellbound, penitent, and with souls "awakened" (thus the term "Great Awakening") Where: 13 colonies When: 7 journey's (1738-1770) Why: revive religion & gain followers -> he succeeded in gaining followers b/c famous for his sermons

Virginia Company

Who: English colony that hoped to found a colon in Eastern Shores of N. America , King James 1 of England approved it, eventually John Smith joined who took over the settlement in 1607 What: Joint- Stock company that founded Jamestown, had 3 ships full of settlers When: April 1606-1607 Where: Grown in England, carried out in Virginia shores/ Jamestown N. America Why: to create an English colony

Joint-stock companies

Who: English companies What: businesses in which investors pool their wealth for a common purpose (they funded & maintained English colonies in N. America) Where: based in England, carried out in America When: Age of exploration, ex. Jamestown (1607) Why: to distribute power array from monarch & helped create an economy in England

Royal colonies

Who: English monarch, English governors What: a colony under the direct control of the English monarch Where: 13 colonies, controlled by England When: 1600's-1700's Why: so England could have control over the colony's resources & goods

Jamestown

Who: Established by the Virginia company What: 1st permanent English colony in N. america, many problems(hunger, disease, few resources, no labor, population of settlers declining Where: Virginia peninsula When: 1606- 1607 (April) Why: English wanted land + to escape poverty in England/population growth

Roger Williams

Who: Extreme separatist (against puritans) (pilgrims who wanted to seperation from church and state fled England b/c of persecution to Americans), Separatist group started the Plymouth colony What: Spoke against Puritans + English settlers (1. English had to buy land from N. Americans; 2. wanted royal charter (formal document issued by a monarch as letters of Gov. authority, granting a right or power to an individual or a body corporate) revised + reflect Natives claims; 3. Gov't officials couldn't punish people for their religious beliefs Where: Started in New England, then established colony in Providence Rhode Island When: Jan, 1636 Why: granted separation of church + state & religious freedom in his new colony, Providence (R.I.)

John Winthrop

Who: First Governor of puritan colony (Massachusetts Bay), said "City upon a Hill" What: obtained a charter (a written grant by a country's legislative or sovereign power) from Mass Bay Company on the Arbella (ship) & came to N. Amer. to create a Puritan colony Where: New England, Mass Bay When: Sept. 1630 Why: Wanted to lead/create a model society -> "City upon a hill"

John Peter Zenger

Who: German American printer & immigrant (from Germany) who created the New York Weekly Journal What: wrote about the corrupt royal governor, William S. Cosby, It accused the government of rigging elections + allowing the French enemy to explore New York harbor. It accused the governor of an assortment of crimes, 1733 was accused of Libel (publishing info that is opposed to the gov.) + sent to jail. Found not guilty by jury and awarded the job of a public printer Where: NY When: 1730's = trial + release Why: arrested b/c wanted to make gov. corruptions public

British Colonies

Who: Great Britain What: made its first efforts to establish overseas settlements in the 16th century (Maritime expansion), 13 colonies (New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina and Georgia) Where: *New Eng.* = (Mass, RI, CT, NH), *Middle Colonies* = (NY + Penn, Delaware, New Jersey), *Chesapeake* = (Virginia + Maryland), *Southern Colonies* = (Carolinas + Georgia) When: 1607 - 1776 Why: British wanted to escape England's persecution + create economically successful colonies)