All Psych Sets

ventral stream

"what" pathway damage to this would interfere with ability to describe the shape or size of an object object and facial recognition occipital to temporal lobe

dorsal stream

"where" pathway damage to this would interfere with ability to reach out and grasp an object spatial awareness goes to parietal lobe

pitch

# of action potentials

temporal lobe

-2; sides (above ears) -memory, auditory cortex, language (wernicke's area) -auditory processing (auditory input from ears lands in front part of temporal) -middle part: hippocampus: memory formation -> lets you acquire new memories and stores newly formed information/memories -damage to hippocampus: lose recent factual info. -wernicke's area (speech comprehension); left hem like broca's area -damage to wernicke's area: unable to understand others speech, therefore cannot meaningfully speal/read/write -bottom part: object and face recognition

electrical charge inside a neuron

-70 millivolts

PET scan: stands for what? measures what, into groups of what? much more simplistic version of what?

-stands for position emission tomography -asses metabolic activity by using a radioactive substance injected into the blood stream -much more simplistic version of fMRI

percentage of people that know why they have a phobia

25%

_x stronger dopamine bursts from drugs

5x

hardiness

the ability to endure difficult conditions; stress resistant

what is introspection?

a method of self-observation in which participants report their thoughts and feelings; developed by Wundt, used by Wundt and Titchener; "identify the elements of consciousness"

situational attribution

the behavior was caused primarily by the situation

"what s beautiful is good" stereotype

the belief that attractive people are superior in most ways

what generates AP in ear

the bending of hair cells in basilar membrane (bottom-> contains hair cells that detects hearing) are bent, thus generating AP

fovea

the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster

memory bias

the changing of memories over time so that they become consistent with current beliefs or attitudes

(Gestalt principle of) proximity

the closer two figures are to each other, the more likely we are to group them and see them as part of the same object (pic in textbook on page 189: these 16 dots are not necessarily part of any group. because of the gestalt principle of proximity, they appear to be grouped as three objects)

id

the component of personality that is completely submerged in the unconscious and operates according to the pleasure principle

ego

the component of personality that tries to satisfy the wishes of the id while being responsive to the dictates of the superego

All humans exhibit patterns of attraction and mate selection that favor _

the conception, birth, and survival of their offspring.

what is used to define addiction

the diagnostic and statistical manual (DSM-V)

Manifest content of dreams

the dream the way the dreamer remembers it (the literal content of a dream)

attitude accessibility

the ease or difficulty that a person has in retrieving an attitude from memory

reciprocity

the obligation to return in kind what another has done for us; "if you scratch my back i'll scratch yours"

illusory correlations

the perception of a relationship where none exists due to the fact that one only notices information that confirms their stereotypes

external locus of control

the perception that chance or outside forces beyond one's personal control determine one's fate

internal locus of control

the perception that you control your own fate

julian rotter introduced the idea that behavior is a function of what two things

the person's expectancies for reinforcement and the values the person ascribes to particular reinforcers

group polarization

the process by which initial attitude of groups become more extreme over time

group polarization

the process by which initial attitudes of groups become more extreme over time

Closure

we tend to complete figures that have gaps (pic on page 190 in textbook: we find it difficult to see these forms as separate, not parts of a triangle)

participant reactivity:

a phenomenon that occurs when individuals alter their performance or behavior due to the awareness that they are being observed.

Spontaneous recovery

a process in which a previously extinguished CR reemerges after the presentation of the CS

Acquisition

a process in which an association between the CS and the US is gradually formed

Extinction

a process in which the CR is weakened when the CS is repeated without being followed by the US

Convergence

a related binocular depth due; refers to the way that the eye mucked turn the eyes inward when we view nearby objects

Narcolepsy

a sleep disorder in which people experience excessive sleepiness during normal waking hours, sometimes going limp and collapsing

Hypnosis

a social interaction during which a person, responding to suggestions, experiences changes in memory, perception, and/or voluntary action

Hypnosis

a social interaction during which a person, responding to suggestions, experiences changes in memory, perceptions and/or voluntary action

Insight learning

a solution suddenly emerges after either a period of inaction or contemplation of the problem

Deindividuation

a state of reduced individuality self awareness and attention to personal standards; this phenomenon may occur when people are part of a group ex: fans doing the 'wave' during a u of o game against umiami ex: rioting by fans looting following disasters, and other mob behaviors are the products of deindividuation

Conditioned stimulus

a stimulus that elicits a response after learning has taken place

Neutral stimulus

a stimulus that produces no response when presented

creation of possible events

a strategy of giving positive meaning to ordinary events

companionate love

a strong commitment based on friendship, trust, respect, and intimacy; commitment to care for and support a partner

mindfulness meditation

a technique in which practitioners focus awareness on present experience with acceptance; a state of free flowing thoughts

Shape constancy

a tendency to see an object as the same shape no matter what angle it is viewed from; "Though she is looking at the open cupboard door at an angle, Angela recognizes the cupboard"

Similarity

we tend to group figures according to how closely they resemble each other, whether in shape, comir, or orientation (pic in textbook on page 189: because of similarity, this rectangle appears to consist of two locked pieces)

similarity

we tend to group figures according to how closely they resemble each other; shape/color/orientation

Continuity

we tend to group together edges or contours that have the same orientation, known as "good continuation" to gestalt psychologists. good contour (boundary line) continuation appears to play a role in completing an object behind an occluder (an object that impedes the view of another) which can be anything that hides a portion of an object or an entire object from view. good continuation may operate over features that are more complex than contours, however. (pic on page 189 in textbook: a) we tend to interpret intersecting lines as continuous. b) two cats appear to be one extremely long cat wrapped around the pole, yet no continuous contours permit this completion, and we know it's unlikely for the cat to be so long.

continuity

we tend to group together edges/contours that have the same orientation, known as "good orientation" (hidden behind other object: still makes it whole)

chronic stress

weaken immune system

Latent content of dreams

what the dream symbolizes

independent variable?

what you manipulate

dependent variable?

what you measure

serial position effect

what you remember depends on its serial position; primacy effect and recency effect

Observational learning

when an individual acquires or changes a behavior after being exposed to another person performing that behavior; ex: a girl learning to make bird houses by watching her grandfather do it

insufficient justification

when an individual utilizes internal motivation to justify a behavior: those paid $1 had insufficient monetary justification for lying and therefore to justify why they went along with the lie they changed their attitudes about performing the dull experimental task; occurs when we can't come up with good justification for our behavior; do something we don't find enjoyable and don't receive a reward: since we cannot change our behavior we adjust our attitude

Example of circadian rhythm theory:

when it gets dark outside, the rabbits go to sleep in their burrow

what makes something a substance abuse disorder? includes 2 things:

when it gets in the way of your life/causes constant stress; a maladaptive pattern of substance use leading to clinically significant impairment/distress -includes: ~continued use in spite of regular consequences ~experiencing drug tolerance & withdrawal symptoms

convergence

when our eyes view a nearby object, the eye muscles move the eyes towards each other (painful; straining of the eye(s))

justification of effort

when people put themselves through pain, embarrassment, or discomfort to join a group, they experience a great deal of dissonance; this justification of effort helps explain why people are willing to subject themselves to humiliating experiences such as hazing or join cults and abandon friends/families; happens when we do something difficult painful or embarrassing in order to achieve a goal and once that goal is met we find it even more valuable than before

stimulus discrimination

able to draw line of distinction

how are resilient people different in their response to stress from people low in resilience

able to use their emotional resources flexibly to meet the demands of stressful situations, experience positive emotions even when under stress, and anxiety-related brain regions are not easily activated

escapist activity

absorbing activity that provides distraction from personal troubles

fully functioning person

according to rogers, a child raised with unconditional positive regard would develop a healthy sense of self esteem and would become this

Premack principle

according to this principle, a more-valued activity can be used to reinforce the performance of a less-valued activity. ex: eat your spinach, then you'll get dessert ex: finish your homework and then you can go out

terror management theory

according to this self esteem gives meaning to people's lives; protects people from the horror associated with knowing they will eventually die

Dissociation theory of hypnosis

according to this theory, hypnosis is a trancelike state in which conscious awareness is separated, or dissociated, from other aspects of consciousness

The process in which an association between the CS and US is gradually formed is called _

acquisition

strength of classically conditioned responses overtime

acquisition (NS + US) extinction (CS alone) rest period spontaneous recovery followed by extinction (CS alone) *not unlearning of CS* frontal lobe = actively inhibiting response

stages of classical conditioning

acquisition extinction 24 hour rest period spontaneous recovery

prosocial behaviors

actions that tend to benefit others, such as doing favors or helping

short-term stress

activates immune system

hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis response to stress

activation of pituitary gland, release of cortisol, increase of glucose in bloodstream

memories stored

active during perception of pictures: occipital to temporal (ventura stream) same place when looking back

frontal lobe activity

active when people made trait judgments about themselves

3 basic characteristics of temperaments by buss and plomin 1984

activity level: overall amount of energy and of behavior a person exhibits emotionality: intensity of emotional reactions sociability: general tendency to affiliate with others

what are the basic temperamental styles identified by buss and plomin

activity, emotionality, sociability

characteristic adaptations

adjustments to situational demands; somewhat consistent because they are based on skills habits and roles

initial attitude of group members do what

determine if the group becomes riskier or more cautious

Amplitude

determined a sound wave's loudness: we hear a higher amplitude as a louder sound ex: Marcia speaks loudly

Frequency

determined pitch: we head a higher frequency as a sound that is higher in pitch; measured in vibrations per second, called hertz (Hz) ex: Brian sings off-key

steps in designing and executing an experiment

develop a hypothesis identify population of interest randomly select a sample randomly assign participants to levels of the independent variable expose participants to the independent variable levels measure the dependent variables analyze and report the results

applied behavioral analysis to treat children with autism

developed by Ivar Lovaas based on principles of operant conditioning: behaviors that are reinforced should increase in frequency. behaviors that are not reinforced should diminish requires a minimum of 40 hours of treatment per week after two years of ABA treatment, the children in Lovaas' study had gained about 20 IQ points and most were able to enter a normal kindergarten program initiating treatment at a younger age also yielded better results, as did involving the parents and having at least a portion of the therapy take place in the home children with better language skills before entering treatment had better outcomes than those who were mute or echolalic teaching kids to engage in joint attention during treatment, such as by having the parent or teacher imitate the child's actions and work to maintain eye contact, improved language skills significantly over ABA treatment alone instruction in symbolic play also led to increased language use, greater parent/child play, and greater creativity in play drawbacks: time commitment because it is intensive and lasts for years; financial and emotional drains on the family can be substantial; other children in family may feel neglected

psychosexual stages

developmental stages that correspond to distinct libidinal urges; progression through these stages profoundly affects personality

electronically activated record

device that tracks a person's real world moment to moment interactions

psychologists study behavior at different levels of _; what are they? (4)

different levels of analysis; biological, individual, social, cultural

insecure attachment

difficult to trust and depend on others: people who had cold and distant parents develop insecure attachments in adult relationships

reasons for bystander apathy

diffusion of responsibility, fear of social blunders, anonymous,

extraversion

dimension of personality referring to one's need to be with other people; social fun loving affectionate v retiring sober reserved

religious ecstasy

directs attention away from the self and toward spiritual awareness

pleasure principle

directs the person to seek pleasure and to avoid pain

critical thinking involves what?

discerning strong from weak evidence.

punishment

discourages future behavior

projection

disguising one's own threatening impulses by attributing them to others

basic tendencies

dispositional traits determined largely by biological processes; stable

Bias

distorted memory of past events based on current info

Misattribution

distortion; assigning a memory to the wrong source; ex: the student thought the psychology professor had assigned a ten page paper, but her history professor had given that assignment

Ecoding Specificity principle

explains how stimuli associated with an experience can trigger the retrieval of that experience

situational attribution

explanation of behavior due to environment/situation

personal attribution

explanations of people's behavior that refer to their internal characteristics; abilities traits moods or efforts

types of LTM

explicit (declaratory): semantic and episodic implicit: procedural and classical conditioning

Two parts of long-term storage

explicit memory (declarative) and implicit memory (non-declarative)

subliminal perception

exposed to something below threshold awareness; can influence: states, cravings, memory, retrieval/triggering no evidence for: instilling/charging thoughts and behaviors

treatment of phobias

exposure therapy: exposed to whatever you're afraid of; trying to CS through extinction systematic desensitization: very gradual, person in control of each step; three steps = 1) relaxation training 2) anxiety hierarchy (all about phobia) 3) counterconditioning

phototherapy

exposure to a high-intensity light source for part of each day (to help SAD)

brain stem

extension of spinal cord; houses structures that control functions associated with survival such as heart rate, breathing, swallowing, vomiting, urination, and orgasm

The process in which the CR is weakened when the CS is repeated without being followed by the US is called _

extinction

california q sort

extremely descriptive v not at all descriptive built in prosecute for identifying those traits that people view as most central

Semantic memory

facts and knowledge

less disparage (diff) images

farther from you

Amygdala

fear learning

neophobia

fear of new things

Religious ecstasy

feelings of euphoria often created from religious ceremonies, which decrease awareness of the external world; often involves changing, dancing, or other behaviors ad a way for people to lose themselves. directs attention away from the self, allows a person to focus on his or her spiritual awareness

women and ingroup biases

female friends tend to be comfortable expressing affection for each other

tend and befriend response

females tendency to protect and care for their offspring and form social alliances rather than fight or flee in response to threat

men's typical response to stress

fight or flight, oxytocin levels do not rise social stress

institutional review board: application process ~ name the shit

figure out the shit

Parental investment hypothesis

find answer in book!!

oral personalities

fixated in oral stage, continue to seek pleasure through the mouth such as by smoking excessively needy

selective (or focused) attention

focus on one thing; ignoring distractions -acts like a filter -only some sensory input reaches awareness/executive functioning

flow activity

focused active engagement of the consciousness in an enjoyable activity

correspondence bias/attributional bias

fundamental attribution error

Name of the brain region that specializes in identifying faces

fusiform gyrus (in right hemisphere); responds most strongly to upright faces, as we would perceive them in the normal environment

depressants/sedatives

gaba

outgroup

generally, any group that one does not belong to "them"

Ganglion cells

generate neural impulses their axons make up the optic nerve which carries neural impulses to the brain

contemporary nature v nurture debate:

genes AND the environment/interactions impact our behavior

how do our genetics have an effect on our personalities

genes predispose he yo have certain personality traits our environments determine which genes are expressed through epigenetic changes multiple genes interact w our environment to produce our dispositions; disposition involves ones behavioral, cognitive, and emotional tendencies ones tendency to watch a lot of tv or like jazz has a genetic basis: there is a genetic component to specific behaviors and attitudes

major life stressors

getting married, being named in a lawsuit

positive

givenn

bas: behavioral approach system

go system; sensitivity to rewards pleasure seeking positive affect linked to extraversion; more influenced by rewards than by punishments and tend to act impulsively in the face of strong rewards even following punishment; brain system involved in pursuit of incentives or rewards

superordinate goals

goals that require people to cooperate

informational influence

going along with the crowd due to the belief that others have a good reason for their behavior: example is following a crowd of people who appear to be running away from something

normative influence

going along with the crowd to avoid looking foolish: ex is facing he doors while standing in an elevator

seligman's later description of well-being

good social relationships and history of accomplishment

factor analysis

grouping items according to their similarities

risky shift effect

groups often make riskier decisions than individuals do

when insulted southerner men:

had increased cortisol response and shook hands more vigorously than northern men

classes of drugs and their effects on the brain and body

hallucinogens: alter perceptions and thoughts (LSD psilocybin mushrooms and peyote) opiates: lessen the experience of pain (heroin morphine and codeine) stimulants: increase physical activity and mental processes (meth cocaine nicotine and caffeine) depressants: decrease physical activity and mental processes (alc and anti anxiety drugs)

GO system

help us respond to natural reward; hypothalamus/basal ganglia

Short term coma (week or less)

high chance that they will regain consciousness

HMM

high media multitaskers have poorer attention and memory skills

changes in hearing over lifespan

high pitch is first go be developed (3rd trimester) and first to be lost; loud, high pitch sound is most damaging ~decibel exposure~

testosterone levels and faces

higher levels of testosterone lead to wider faces

success rates for first marriages in diff races

highest in asian then hispanic then white then black

behavioral theories

history of reinforcement; emphasizes the roles of learning and reinforcement

what type of people are at greater risk for serious diseases and earlier death

hostile angrier people

*be able to think about 2 different variables and identify a +/- correlation*

hours of studying and final exam score: positive correlation amount of tests in a week and amount of time able to relax: negative correlation

Conscientiousness

how dependable, responsible, achievement-oriented, and persistent one is

openness to experience

how intellectual, imaginative, curious, and broad-minded one is; imaginative likes variety independent v down to earth likes routine conforming

trait theories

how people differ in disposition; most contemporary psychologists are concerned with trait approaches

agreeableness

how trusting, good-natured, cooperative, and soft-hearted one is; softhearted trusting helpful c ruthless suspicious uncooperative

theoretical orientations + the way they explain personality

humanistic: personal growth and self-understanding psychodynamic: unconscious forces trait: how people differ in disposition cognitive: thought processes behavioral: history of reinforcement

true statements about the evolutionary development of group membership

humans have the largest group size and also large prefrontal cortexes we are motivated to form groups because living in social groups helped our ancestors survive humans developed more cognitive resources to deal with the many challenges that come from living in large groups (social brain hypo)

Sociocognitive theory of hypnosis

hypnotized people behave as they expect hypnotized people to behave, even if those expectations are faulty

on hot summer days, one relies on what brain structure to monitor his thirst and the need to drink more water?

hypothalamus (one of its functions is to regulate thirst and the need to replenish fluids)

hypothesis v theory?

hypothesis: specific assumption that can be tested for accuracy hypothesis example: 28% of freshman who attend parties will end up experiencing at least one one night stand their first semester theory: Interrelated set of ideas that help predict and explain behavior ex of theory: out of sight out of mind

likely to have very similar personalities:

identical twins

meditation (including what)

including mindfulness; seems to train shifting back to the attentional network, after slipping into default mode network

what is true of cognitive-behavioral therapy

incorporates techniques from cognitive therapy and behavior therapy tries to correct the client's faulty cognitions and to train the client to engage in new behaviors ex: if a client has social anxiety (fear of being negatively viewed by others) the therapist will encourage the client to examine other people's reactions to the client. the aim is to help the client understand how his or her appraisals of other people's reactions might be inaccurate, and at the same time the therapist will teach the client social skills perhaps the most widely used version of psychotherapy one of the most effective for many types of psychological disorders, especially anxiety disorders and mood disorders

aging related change to personality

increased self control and emotional stability less neurotic less extroverted and less open to new experiences more agreeable and conscientious

conscientiousness across 5 cultures

increases as people age

Positive reinforcement _ the likelihood of behavior through _; ex:

increases likelihood through adding a stimulus ex: when the lever is pressed, food is given

Negative reinforcement _ the likelihood of behavior through _; ex:

increases likelihood through removing a stimulus ex: when the lever is pressed, a shock is removed

LTP (long-term potentiation)

increasing likelihood of AP; occurs in hippocampus and cortex where memories are stored; pathways involved in memories; releases glutamate

difference between person and situation related confounds?

independent variable **figure this out better**

Obstructive sleep apnea

while asleep, a person stops breathing for short periods because their throats closes; the condition results in frequent awakenings during the night

two factors that polarize the neuron

A) sodium potassium pump: 3 Na+ ions out for every 2 K+ ions in; thus increasing amt of (+) out rather than inside neuron B) potassium channels are often open (keep leaving) thus more (+) outside; a neuron can control how much K+ stays/goes

bending hair cells does what

AP generated

Hyperpolarization

An increase in the membrane potential that decreases the possibility of generating a nerve impulse.

Symmetry is what attractiveness is about! Why?

Good genes=good offspring! Genetic advantage

The benefits of beauty

Good-looking people do have more friends, better social skills, and a more active sex life.

independent self-construal

individualist cultures encouraged to be self reliant and to pursue personal success even at the expense of interpersonal relationships northern and western europe australia canada new zealand usa individualist society

prejudice

involves negative feelings, opinions, and beliefs associated with a stereotype

perspective taking

involves people actively contemplating the psychological experiences of other people can reduce racial bias and help to smooth potentially awkward interracial interactions perspective taking by the mexican group to white americans worsened their attitudes about white americans disempowered groups may resent having to consider the perspectives of empowered groups

historical nature v nurture debate:

is our behavior due to our genes OR our upbringing?

historical mind v body debate:

is the mind separate from the body? if so, how? where?

benefits and cons of using electroconvulsive therapy to treat depression

it works quickly, whereas antidepressants take weeks to kick in no evidence the seizures harm the developing fetus in pregnant women, while many psychotropic medications can cause birth defects proved effective in people for whom other treatments have failed high relapse rate and usually need multiple treatments memory impairments

testosterone and aggression

its true that high levels of testosterone is correlated with high levels of aggression, however testosterone changes may be the result rather than the cause of aggressive behavior

rationalization

jill explained that she broke her dormitory's "no pets" rule because it was too cold for the cat to stay outside

Visual memory ex

joseph looks up a word in a dictionary to learn how to spell the word

repression

keeping distressing thoughts and feelings buried in the unconscious

killer cells

kill viruses and help attack tumors

REM behave or disorder

lack of sleep paralysis during dreaming; opposite of narcolepsy; normal paralysis that accompanies REM is disabled; sufferers act out their dreams while sleeping; caused by a neurological deficit and is most often seen in elderly males

passionate love

love marked by powerful, even overwhelming, longing for one's partner; a state of intense longing and sexual desire

consistency is lowest and highest when

lowest in childhood and highest after age 50

what is the collective name for b t and killer cells

lymphocytes

Acoustic memory ex

machala makes up a rhyming song to learn her chemistry formulas

Optic nerve

made up from ganglion cells axons carry neural impulses to the brain

two types of rehearsal

maintenance (phonological loop; saying it over and over; temp doesn't work well) elaborative; use mnemonic devices; deeply stored, ROY G BIV: memorization not deep connections

freud 2 levels of dream content

manifest content: literal content of dream latent content: what the dream symbolizes; material disguised to protect the dreamer from confronting a conflict directly

Maintenance rehearsal ex

maria repeatedly uses flash cards to learn vocabulary definitions

vegetative state

marked by limited responsiveness, such as increased heart rate in response to pain; totally non-responsive, barely functioning, but brain stem and heart are okay

GO and STOP systems

may be disconnected, esp in drug addicts minds, Baclofen can help

Minimally conscious state:

may follow objects with his or her eyes or try to communicate

components of authentic happiness

meaning in life, engagement in life, positive emotions

seligman's original definition of hapiness

meaning, engagement, pleasure

what part of brain is important for thinking about other people--generally or specifically, whether they are in in groups or out groups

medial prefrontal cortex

mnemonics

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

misattribution

memory error in which you confuse the source of your information

procedural memory

memory for how to do things, including motor skills and habits

semantic memory

memory for knowledge about the world

episodic memory

memory for one's personal past experiences

culture of honor

men are primed to protect their reputations through physical aggression; cultures may be violent as a result of this

self rating and friends rating for different trajts

people have blind spots about aspects of their personalities because they want to feel good about themselves; particularly true for highly evaluative traits like creativity people more accurate in rating themselves for traits that are hard to observe and less prone to bias bc they are neutral

perspective giving

people share their experiences of being targets of discrimination

pain regions

more active when people see an ingroup member being harmed than when they see the same harm inflicted on an outgroup member (mirror neurons)

personality changes the most when

more in young childhood than in any other part of life including childhood

focusing light

more light is focused at the cornea than the lens; muscles flatten shape of lens in process called accommodation; lens and cornea work together to collect and focus light rays reflected from an object

social brain hypothesis

most of the cerebral cortex consists of its outer layer known as the neocortex. according to this hypothesis, the size of a primate species standard social group is related to the volume of that species neocortex. humans are at the pinnacle of the great apes in terms of neocortex and average group size; primates have large brains (prefrontal cortexes) because they live in dynamic and complex social groups that change over time

matching principle

most successful romantic couples tend to be the most physically similar

Cerebellum

motor action learning and memory

Procedural memory

motor skills and habits

accomodation

muscles flatten the shape of lens

prejudice

negative beliefs about people based on a stereotype

prejudice

negative feelings opinions and beliefs associated with a stereotype

two processes that produce prejudice and discrimination

people tend to favor their own groups over other groups, and people tend to stigmatize those who pose threats to their groups

better than average effect

people tend to rate themselves and their immediate family as better than average in every way

Social Media Networks: How Many Friends Do You Have?

Since 2006 college students have a sharp increase in number of network friends (2006-2009) Most of growth comes from more distant/superficial friendships

Concept of romantic love to be with someone is new or old?

Relatively new (marriage) before 19th or 18th century, most marriages were arranged like business relationships; beginnings started with Roman Era when women were given a little more equality and people started to realize love was important in a relationship Queen Victoria started to formalize marriage with someone who you love rather than arranged marriage; before, love was something seen as frivolous, something that doesn't last

Virtual Familiarity Breeds Liking

Same sex pairs of college students assigned to chat by email, the higher the number of chats a week the more they liked each other The desire to stay in contact increased as the number of chats increased

distress

negative stress

another name for action potential

neural firing

postsynaptic neuron

neuron that receives the signal

presynaptic neuron

neuron that sends the signal

big 5 traits

neuroticism: high = worried insecure and self-pitying extraversion: high = social fun-loving and affectionate conscientiousness: high = organized disciplined and careful openness to experience: high = independent imaginative and likes variety agreeableness: high = softhearted trusting helpful kind

parts of us with low well being

nevada south (ok ar la me al fl sc tn ky) northeast like michigan ohio west virginia indiana

parts of us with higher wellbeing

new england, virginia, hawaii, northern states (west and central) and midwest

inhibited children

newborns who react to new situations or strange objects by becoming startled and distressed crying or vigorously moving their arms and legs biologically determined predicts they're likely to be shy well into their teenage years biological evidence suggests that the amygdala is involved in shyness

Romantic love:

newer, western phenomena

Elaborative rehearsal ex

nina relates the new knitting pattern to something she had learned previously

type b behavior pattern

noncompetitive, relaxed, easygoing, accommodating

CR is normally what

normally defensive reaction to US; can be the same or different from HR; ex taste aversion (CR is nausea not throwing up, typically)

fixed ratio

number of responses required for reinforcement is always the same; commission based, motivating because you know when it's coming; can be very challenging

optimal arousal influences personality

people who are extroverted have lower levels of arousal: to function optimally they seek out exciting activities people who are introverted have higher levels of arousal: to function optimally they seek out calming activities

who are more prone/susceptible to addiction

people who are impulsive-> initial experimenting compulsivity and sensitive to reward-> maintain + relapse

attributions

people's explanations for why events or actions occur

reason for decrease in activity in medial prefrontal cortex when dealing w outgroup members such as homeless people or drug addicts

people dehumanize outgroups

rotter also proposed what

people differ in how much they believe their efforts will bring positive outcomes (locus' of control)

narcolepsy

people experience excessive sleepiness during normal waking hours; sometimes going limp and collapsing; *linked to low hypocretin (excitatory NT)* ;can be treated w meds or SSRIs

transivity

people generally share their friends' opinions of other people

Circadian rhythm theory

sleep has evolved to keep animals quiet and inactive during times of the day when there is greatest danger, normally when it is dark. according to this theory, animals need only a limited amount of time each day to accomplish the necessities of survival, and it is adaptive for them to spend the remainder of the time inactive, preferably hidden

Stage 2

sleep spindles (kind of resemble stage 1), k complexes (big dips/increases)

Somnambulism

sleepwalking; occurs during slow-wave sleep, the person is glassy-eyed and seems disconnected from other people and/or surroundings; often done by children; walking/moving during deep sleep

stage 3/4

slow wave sleep; delta waves

sws

slow wave sleep; slow rain waves; reduced neural activity; normal muscle tone/capable of talking and moving around; low prefrontal cortex, sensory/association areas, and amygdala activity; not common to dream; difficult to wake up/respond to external stimuli; more disconnected/weave external stimuli into dreams

Controlled processing

slower than automatic processing, but helps people perform in complex or novel situations; slow, deliberate, intentional tasks ex: if a rainstorm starts while you are driving, you will need to pay more attention to your driving and be very conscious of he road conditions

nodes of ranvier

small gaps of exposed axon between myelin sheath; location where axons recharge *where action potential takes place*

examples associated with an active spiritual life

social and physical support provided by faith communities, avoiding alcohol and tobacco, deriving meaning and purpose in their lives, facilitates coping with stress

Cacioppo studies on loneliness

started research on loneliness and how it is an epidemic: it spreads; you find clusters of people who are lonely

operant conditioning

starts with behavior, not stimulus; response manages behavior; 4 types: positive pun/rein & negative pun/rein

reaction formation

switching unacceptable impulses into their opposites; janet picked fights with tom and told others he was a terrible person but in reality she was attracted to him

when you sleep walk you're in what stage of sleep

sws

what types of faces might we perceive as attractive

symmetric faces; more disease resistant; biracial have more symmetrical faces a composite image of many normal faces averaged together; more familiar averaged attractive faces are rated more favorably than averaged unattractive faces

negative

taken away

problem focused coping

taking direct steps to solve the problem

two different waves pitch is coded

temporal coding (time): # of vibrations per second = # of AP per second; low frequency sound waves = low pitched sound place coding (where APs vibrate most rapidly): which part of basilar membrane is vibrating rapidly (outer part vibrating more rapidly= higher pitch, inner part vibrating more rapidly=lower pitch)

women's typical response to stress

tend and befriend, higher levels of oxytocin during social stress (triggering tend and befriend response)

strong situations

tend to mask differences in personality because of the power of the social environment (elevators religious services job interviews)

weak situations

tend to reveal differences in personality (parks bars ones house)

self serving bias

tendency for people to take personal credit for success but blame failure on external factors

compliance

tendency to agree to do things requested by others

fundamental attribution error

tendency to attribute others' behavior to their dispositions and our own behaviors to our situations

Amplitude = (one word)

loudness

amplitude

loudness dB

long term

associate details you already know if you want to know in every day life

Classical conditioning

associating two stimuli elicits a response

classical conditioning

associations between stimuli; something triggering response/flood of memories

genital stage (adolescence into adulthood)

attain mature attitudes about sexuality and adulthood; center their libidinal urges on the capacities to reproduce and to contribute to society

social psychology consists of what? examples of social research? _ body language v _

attitudes, relationships, influences; ex: conformity; "expansive" body language v contractive

what form the auditory nerve in the temporal lobe

auditory neurons

Hair cells =

auditory receptor cells (transducer pressure waves into nerve signals)

Vestibular sense = (one word)

balance

cerebellum

balance and coordination

Thorndikes Law of Effect

before skinner; behavior that produces a satisfying effect will tend to be repeated and that produces a discomforting effect is less likely to be repeated ~ cats, puzzle box, timed ho long it took cat to get out of box, faster over time ~ behavior changes by response we get

coping response

behavior aimed at minimizing the effect of a stressor

extinction

behavior conditioned stops happening because reinforcer goes away; previously rewarded behavior will decrease; more resistant to extinction if you have VARIABLE schedule raising hand and speeding example

continuous reinforcement

behavior reinforced every time it occurs

being heard and listening

being heard important for minority group members listening important for majority group members

four interpersonal styles that typically lead couples to discord and dissolution

being overly critical holding the partner in contempt (having disdain, lacking respect) being defensive mentally withdrawing from the relationship

brain waves in order from fastest to slowest

beta (awake or rem) alpha (gradually slower waves indicating a relaxed state and occur when falling asleep) theta (occur during stage 1 sleep) delta (occur during stages 3 and 4 of sleep)

alert wakefulness

beta waves

rem

beta waves

Brain waves in order from fastest to slowest

beta, alpha, theta, delta

left hem:

better with language

right hem:

better with spatial relationships

divided attention

concentrating on more than one activity at the same time -we can only actually focus one on thing at once; multitasking is a myth -real thing: task-switching

CERs

conditioned emotional responses, John B Watson; era of eugenics (selective breeding)

control possible _ variables

confounding/extraneous

Elaborative rehearsal

connecting new information to long-term memory (elaborate in basic information by linking it to knowledge from LTM) encodes info in more meaningful ways, such as thinking about the item conceptually, or deciding whether it refers to oneself

the central nervous system consists of the _ and the _:

consists of the brain and the spinal cord

conscious level of awareness

consists of whatever one is aware of at a particular point in time

unconscious level

contains material that the mind cannot easily retrieve, including hidden memories wishes desires and motives

preconscious level

content that is not currently in awareness but that could be brought to awareness; roughly analogous to long term memory

prognosis in children with autism

continuation of ritualistic self-stimulating behavior 75% continued to have severe social difficulties and were unable to live and work independently early language ability is associated with better outcome, as is higher IQ restrictions on social functioning due to the fact that children with ASD have difficulty generalizing from the therapeutic setting to the real world

hearing is mostly processed in the _ hemisphere

contralateral hemisphere

MAOA gene

controls the amount of monoamine oxidase released (enzyme that regulars activity of a number of neurotransmitters including serotonin and norepinephrine) involved in aggressive violence "warrior gene" regulates serotonin which is important in the control of aggressive behavior particular form of the gene appears to make individuals susceptible to environmental risk factors associated with antisocial behavior

perceptual constancies

corrections you make on a cognitive level to see things the right shape/size/color

Object constancy

correctly perceiving objects as constant in their shape, size, color, and lightness, despite raw sensory data that could mislead perception; we see snow at night and a tire in bright light as different colors, though they may both appear the same shade of gray; the brain perceives objects to be constant when they are moving

closest processes to divided attention

covert attention: paying attention without moving the eye automatic processing: space- where you saw something; time- sequence of events; -frequency- how many times you saw it

cones

6million; at fovea (near center of retina); requires lots of light; detects color and detail

Temporal lobe

"I hear things"

Occipital lobe

"I see things"

Prefrontal cortex

"I understand plans"

Frontal motor cortex

"I'm all about movement"

Parietal lobe

"I'm aware of space"

global workspace model

"what you are conscious of depends on your pattern of brain activity default mode network attention network

STOP system

(frontal lobes ability to tell you) when it's important not to act in that pool of reward

What-is-beautiful-is-good stereotype:

(hypothesis) if something is beautiful it has to be enjoying life, healthy, wonderful, good. Accurate to a certain degree: beautiful people have better social skills, have more friends, more sexually active; not related to intelligence, personality, self-esteem, adjustment

Baclofen

(inhibitory) GABA agonist, lowers intensify of GO system; helps addicts; gives frontal lobe a change to put into play good decision making

neurogenesis

(re)growth of neurons where they were previously lost

operational definition?

*find out*

prediction error (+) and (-)

+ = after a stimulus appears, something better than expected happens. strengthens the association between the CS and the US - = an expected even does not happen. the absence of the event leads to a negative prediction error; weakens the CS-US relationship

what are the cognitive areas?

- memory, language, reasoning, decision making - basic processing - applications: cognitive decline through aging, cognition and disorders - cognitive neuroscience

name the 2 structural brain imaging methods:

-CT scan -MRI

name the 4 functional brain imaging methods:

-EEG -PET scan -fMRI -TMS

naturalistic observation: eliminates _: common data collection approaches:

-UNobtrusive observations -eliminates participant reactivity -common data collection approaches: -tally frequencies using a behavior checklist, record time or measure distances, take descriptive notes

descriptive statistics?

-a value that represents the group of scores (the branch of statistics that provides a mean of summarizing data) -mean, median, mode (most frequent), standard deviation (avg diff of the scores to the mean)

What might interfere with ability to sleep the next night?

-exercising regularly before bed (creates arousal and makes it hard to fall asleep) -having alcohol before bed (alcohol might help you get to sleep, but it can interfere with your sleep cycle) -watching tv before bed (to help your mind associate your bed with sleeping, it is best not to do any daytime activities in bed) -napping during the daytime to catch up on lost sleep (this can interfere with the next night's sleep) -concentration on trying to fall asleep (forcing sleep doesn't work)

Lends support to restorative theory of why sleep is adaptive

-after people engage in vigorous physical activity, such as running a marathon, they generally sleep longer than usual -growth hormone, released primarily during deep sleep, facilitates the repair of damaged tissue -sleep apparently enables the brain to replenish energy stores and also strengthens the immune system -sleep may help the brain clear out metabolic by-products of neural activity; these by-products are created by neural activity and can be toxic if built up; removed in the interstitial space: a small fluid-filled space between the cells of the brain; during sleep, a 60% increase in this space permits efficient removal of the debris that has accumulated while the person is awake -more sleep: more growth -"when phyllis fractured her ankle, she took extra naps during the day and slept through the night"

Examples of opponent-process theory

-after staring at a yellow spot, a person sees a blue afterimage -people with red-green color blindness can still see blue and yellow

agonistic mechanisms of drug action what do agonistic drugs do to neuron 1) some _ production of _ 2) some _ _ of _ which leaves more available in the synapse -> greater likelihood of _ 3) _ _ that _ neurotransmitters thus _ amt of neurotransmitters 4) _ to _'s _ (_ in _)

-agonistic drugs basically duplicate what a neurotransmitter does; increases activity 1) some increase production of neurotransmitters 2) some block reuptake of neurotransmitters which leaves more available in the synapse leading to greater likelihood of binding to receptors 3) decreases enzymes that breakdown neurotransmitters thus increasing amt of neurotransmitters 4) bind to neurotransmitter's receptor (key in lock)

cell body

-also called the soma -the spherical part of the neuron that contains the nucleus -connects to the dendrites, which bring information to the neuron, and the axon, which sends information to other neurons

What aspects of classical conditioning are specifically predicted by the rescorla-wagner cognitive model of classical learning

-an animal will more easily associate an unconditioned stimulus with a novel stimulus than with a familiar stimulus -when a second neutral stimulus is added to a conditioning trial with a previously learned CS, the new stimulus well not become conditioned (blocking effect)

How might false memories be constructed?

-an imagined event will form a mental image that may be later recalled as a real event -a person may falsely remember that a word was part of a list, if it was related to words that were in the list -a person may encode as true a story someone else tells about him

marijuana _ acts at _ receptors THC _ these receptors impairs: decreases _ and _

-anandamide acts at "cannabinoid" receptors -THC disrupts these receptors -impairs memory, reaction time -decreases pain signals in brain (like opiates) and satiety (which causes 'munchies')

antagonistic mechanisms of drug action what do antagonistic drugs do to neuron 1) _ production/release of _ 2) _ enzymes 3) _ receptor (_ in _) so drug _ _

-antagonistic drugs hinder/decrease/disrupt/block neurotransmitter activity (alter neurotransmission) by interacting with molecular components of the sending and receiving process other than receptors 1) decrease production/release of neurotransmitter 2) increase enzymes that breakdown neurotransmitters thus decreasing amt of neurotransmitters 3) block recepter (key in lock)

What indicates memory problems as a result of forgetting?

-bill cannot answer a question on an exam after studying for it -annabel could not remember the ending to a movie she had seen three years ago (transient memory) -jane cannot find her keys (absentmindedness)

Which areas of the brain are activated during REM sleep? Which aren't?

-brain stem -occipital cortex (visual association areas) -motor cortex -amygdala ------- -rational thought area -prefrontal cortex

drugs altering other neurochemicals:

-caffeine -marijuana

benefits of correlational research: -can study variables that can't be _ -can be used to _ behavior

-can study variables that can't be practically or ethically manipulated (physical characteristics/demographic variables, health/disease status, risky behaviors) -can be used to predict behavior

what is withdrawal

-cells dependent on drug, opposite of drugs effect

two parts of the nervous system

-central nervous system (brain, spinal cord) -peripheral nervous system (somatic, autonomic)

axon

-conducts electrical impulses away from the neuron's cell body -axons are also known as nerve fibers -the function of the axon is to transmit information to different neurons, muscles and glands

Supports the theory that sleeping is adaptive because it facilitates learning

-david takes a nap after studying and gets a higher grade on his exam than his roommate who stayed up all night studying (when a person sleeps, neural connections are strengthened, increasing memory performance) -sleep deprivation can increase the neurotransmitter serotonin, which helps alleviate depression for some people -two or three days of sleep deprivation may not affect physical strength -people who dream about a task may outperform those who do not dream about the task -when we learn a lot of new information, we spend more of our sleep cycle in REM sleep. REM is important for the consolidation of memories

What happens during states 3 and 4 of sleep?

-delta waves -slow-wave sleep -deep sleep -very hard to wake and are often disoriented when they do wake up -still process some information in this stage, because the mind continues to evaluate the environment for potential danger (can be around by their children's cries, yet can blissfully ignore sounds, such as sirens or traffic noise, that are louder than the crying children but are not necessary relevant)

frontal lobotomies?

-dr. freeman -> effects varied: flattened emotions, lack interest/initiative, feeling numb or "dead inside" -50k performed between 30s & 60s

glutamate excitatory or inhibitory? how what type of effects? how

-enhances learning and memory -primary excitatory transmitter in n.s.~ depolarizes neuron (letting Na+ in) -fatal effects, could kill glutamate cells that you're trying to excite

What follows acquisition? then what? then what?

-extinction *24 hr rest* then -first spontaneous recovery *24 hr rest* then -second spontaneous recovery

Adaptive functions of sleep

-facilitating learning (neural connections made during the day are strengthened during REM sleep and deep sleep) -repairing damage (restorative theory proposes that the brain and body rest and repair damage during sleep) -hiding during times of danger (circadian rhythm theory proposes that it is adaptive for animals to be quiet and still during the night, when it is dark and predators might be around)

two types of confounding variables:

-factors relating to the person (something about participant) -factors relating to the situation (something you control)

sympathetic n.s.

-fight or flight response: ~accelerated/strengthened heart rate ~inhibited stomach/intestinal activity ~dilated pupils ~contracted blood vessels ~widened (relaxed/dilated) bronchial passages

Examples of positive reinforcement

-gavin is a waiter who is friendly with customers, so he gets a lot of money in tips, which makes him act even friendlier

cerebellum: has to do with: _ system accounts for _: _ input goes to cerebellum; involved with _ and _

-has to do with posture, balance, visual tracking -vestibular system accounts for movement -vestibular input goes to cerebellum; involved with highly practiced body movements and highly practiced body movements and highly practiced verbalizations (rhymes/songs) -muscle memory (riding bike/driving)

why do we need color

-helps identify objects -enhances depth

endorphins helps _ and _ _; how? _ to "_" receptors _ drugs mimic endorphins agonist or antagonist? what else do these drugs effect (which neurotransmitter) ex of drugs effects of these drugs

-helps physical and emotional pain through inhibiting pain signals in brain and decreasing inflammation -binds to "opioid" receptors -opiate (painkiller) drugs mimic endorphins -agonists; these drugs also boost dopamine -codeine, morphine, Vicodin, oxycontin, heroin -> high doses=reward feeling (dopamine) - ~ reduced subjective experience of pain ~ euphoria ~ "the best high" ~ during withdrawal, suppress cough and gut motility (slow down movement in stomach/intestines and throw up) ~reduced body temp, respiration, and heart beat (depressant effect)

terminal button

-helps speed up neural impulses -the branches at the end of the axon that contain neurotransmitters and send them shooting across the synapse -they also suck up excess neurotransmitter in a process called reuptake -chemicals contained in the terminal buttons that enable neurons to communicate.

amygdala: highly active when people are _ has to do with _ overactive amygdala leads to: reacts more strongly to _ emotions

-highly active when people are afraid -has to do with emotions -overactive amygdala leads to chronic anxiety -reacts more strongly to negative emotions

John Watson, the founder of behaviorism, had a strong influence on the study of psychology, including thinking about learning. what are behaviorist beliefs Watson held?

-humans are born knowing nothing and have the potential to learn anything -the environment is the sole determinant of learning and behavior -observable behavior is the only valid indicator of psychological activity

dichotic listening task

-ignored inputs -attended inputs -speech outputs

adenosine excitatory or inhibitory effects drug that blocks this

-inhibitory -causes you to be tired if you've used a lot of energy -caffeine blocks adenosine

norepinephrine involved in _, _, and _ part of what nervous system increased by what

-involved in arousal, attention, vigilance -part of sympathetic nervous system -increased by stimulant drugs (agonists that block reuptake or bind receptors -ex: cocaine, ephedrine, some antidepressants (tricyclic), monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MOA-I)-> block/break down enzyme therefore leaving more epinephrine

hippocampus: involved in what? damage to this causes what?

-involved in forming memories -damage to this causes amnesia

serotonin involved in: need low serotonin when _ but adequate amount when _ drugs affecting serotonin are known as _ ex of these drugs: these drugs are _ that _

-involved in mood/impulse control, satiety, sleep -need low serotonin when already in REM sleep but adequate amount before you fall asleep -drugs affecting serotonin are known as SSRIs (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors) -ex of these drugs: antidepressants/anti-anxiety meds; lexapro, paxil, zoloft, prozac -these drugs are agonists that block reuptake

Possible effects of two to three days of sleep deprivation

-irritability and moodiness -microsleep (falling asleep for a couple seconds at a time throughout the day) -not being able to answer easy questions even with studying -deficiency in immune system; susceptibility to illness -longer recovery from illnesses/injuries due to lack of growth hormone secreted during sleep that facilitates repair in the body

Why did pavlov initially present the metronome alone, before pairing it with food

-it was necessary to first demonstrate that the dog didn't already salivate to the metronome -any response to the metronome after pairing with food could then be shown to have been caused by the pairing

Supports sociocognitive theory of hypnosis

-john acted like a chicken as suggested by the hypnotist

action potential (to moved charged ions)

-key to triggering this: turn (-) inside to (+) inside

Example of negative punishment

-laurence did not return a book to the library on time and was fined $1, so now he will not be late in the future -terri stayed out past her curfew and was grounded, which makes her avoid coming home late again

Statements that accurately describe widely held beliefs by modern psychologists about learning

-learning is a change in behavuor that comes about through an individual's experience -there are 3 different types of learning: nonassociative, associative, and observational -learning is cruical for all animals

inhibitory drugs

-lets in Cl- -repolarizes neuron -generates resting potential

excitatory drugs

-lets in Na+ -depolarizes neuron -generates action potential

Which steps are involved in bringing an image from the external world to the retina?

-light waves pass through the cornea -the cornea sends the light waves through the lens -the lens accommodates or changes light waves to bring the image into focus -the image arrives upside down in the retina

medulla and pons: located where? what does it control/do? involved in what? effected by what type of drugs?

-located in brainstem, on top of spinal cord -regulates heart rate, blood pressure, breathing -contain reticular formation -involved in wake/sleep cycle -effected by stimulant drugs

interneurons

-located in spinal cord -triggers movement/activity via neuropathway after sensation

Memory problems as a result of amnesia

-loss of memory for events just prior to a brain trauma is a memory deficit caused by retrograde amnesia ("sean drank so much alcohol that he passed out, and the next day he couldn't remember what had happened before he passed out") -inability to form new memories for events that follow a brain trauma is a memory deficit caused by anterograde amnesia ("after sara slipped on ice and hit her head, she didn't remember what she did for the rest of the day")

Which auditory characteristics are associated with sound waves for low, quiet voices?

-low amplitude -low frequency

Kendrick is in a persistent vegetative state. what can the doctors tell his family?

-low chance that he will regain consciousness -coma lasting longer than a month -he opens his eyes, appearing to be awake, and closes his eyes, appearing to be asleep (people in persistent vegetative stages have sleep/wake cycles)

CT scan: what type of images? shows what? (function)?

-low resolution images -shows diagnosis of vascular accidents (hematoma, aneurysm, stroke) or tumors

functions of rehearsal

-maintains info in STM -transfers to LTM

Strategies (from worst to best) that will help on a final exam

-maria retreads the chapter several times -nitish created concept maps of the information -jose reads the chapter, closes the book, and tries to recall all of the concepts described *retrieval is the best*

resting membrane potential (to move charged ions)

-more (-) inside than outside -neuron is polarized -doesn't mean neurons are inactive; never that

dopamine involved in _ through _ _ center involved with _ (like which neurotransmitter) drugs affecting dopamine levels: agonist or antagonist?

-motor control over voluntary movement, reward, motivation -involved in voluntary movement through basal ganglia -reward center -involved with attention (like norepinephrine) -drugs affecting dopamine levels: ~amphetamine (speed) ~agonist (increases amount of dopamine released)

what is tolerance effects/consequences of tolerance

-needing more of the drug to get the same (initial) effect -at the physiological level, the drug is substituting for the neurotransmitter -neurons may respond to ^ by: ~having fewer receptors for the neurotransmitter ~producing less of the neurotransmitter *cells decrease overall activity because dependent on drugs presence*

acetylcholine (ACh) stimulates what? in this disease, these neurons are affected earliest/die off earliest involved in _ (like a _) (used in _) agonist or antagonist? examples

-neurotransmitter responsible for motor control at the junction between nerves and muscles; also involved in mental processes such as learning, memory, sleeping, and dreaming -stimulates cortex, hippocampus -in alzheimers, these neurons are affected earliest/die off earliest -involved in muscle contraction (like a tranquilizer/paralyzer) (used in hunting) -both! agonists: nicotine (binds receptor) (learn/remember things more easily) antagonists: botox (decreases release) -> paralyzes muscles; blocks release

participant observation:

-not unobtrusive, but still covert -ex: going undercover, altering participants' environment (have to get permission!)

neutral stimuli vary in potential as conditioned stimuli based on

-novelty of NS (past experience makes it harder to condition) -biological preparedness (stimuli that affect our health or safety are asked to condition into CSs) ex: plans crash, alc poisoning, snake bite; any near-death experience

Characteristics of sensory memory

-only lasts a fraction of a second (~1/3 of a second) -each sense contributes to sensory memory -visual sensory memory: iconic memory -auditory sensory memory: echoic memory -senses are available as a brief memory trace -enable us to experience the world as a continuous stream rather than in discrete sensations

What statements support BF Skinner's conclusion that reinforcement is more effective than punishment (with particular regard to the physical punishment of children)

-physical punishment teaches a child that violence is an appropriate behavior for adults -punishment often fails to offset the reinforcing aspects of the undesired behavior

True statements regarding hypnosis:

-posthypnotic suggestion -if someone is afraid of being hypnotized, the hypnosis will not work -people will rationalize their reactions to posthypnotic suggestions -people will not do anything in a hypnotized state that they find immoral, disgusting, or against their own volition -someone who can be hypnotized may be highly suggestible

GABA excitatory or inhibitory? how drugs acting as GABA as _ (_ to _) ex of GABA _: can be used to treat:

-primary inhibitory transmitter in nervous system ~ hyperpolarizes neuron (letting Cl- in) -drugs acting as GABA *agonists* (bind to receptors) -ex: benzodiazepines (xanax, ambien) ~^used to treat anxiety ~barbiturates (phenobarbital) used in hospital/vet settings as a sedative ~alcohol ~anticonvulsants (designed to help people with seizures/bipolar disorder)

self-report/interview methods: psychology favors _ measurement: formats of self-report measurements: ex:

-psychology favors quantitative measurement (how much) because most behaviors are on a continuum -formats of self-report measurements: ~surveys/interviews, ~standardized questionnaires -ex: the rosenberg self esteem scale

Which memory tasks would HM and others with his type of memory deficit have trouble completing

-recalling someone he had met recently -remembering a new bus route -repeating a conversation he'd had after his surgery

reflex arc

-receptor - sense organ in skin, muscle, or other -organ. -sensory neuron - carries impulse towards CNS. -interneuron - carries impulse within CNS. -motor neuron - carries impulse away from CNS. -effector - structure by which animal responds (muscle, gland, etc). -action w/o involvement of brain -muscles are triggered before cortex knows what happened

Which benefits have been found to be associated with practicing meditation

-reduced BP -significant improvement in attention -greater stress reduction (reduced stress hormones) -faster recovery from being sad -might help preserve cognitive functioning (gray matter) as people age -increased emotional stability -reduction of cholesterol

when we are instructed to divide attention during a lab task, brain imaging studies have shown:

-reduced left frontal lobe activity -reduced left hippocampus activity

basal ganglia: what does it control/do? what center? what neurotransmitter is associated w it? effected in what disease?

-refines movement; helps make corrections in velocity of movements -reward center "feel good feeling; i'll do it again" -dopamine -parkinsons disease

hypothalamus: does what? how does it do this? what hormones?

-regulates body function through controlling and releasing hormones -hunger, thirst, reproductive hormones, stress

Examples of nondeclarative memory (implicit memory)

-remembering how to tie a square knot -remembering how to paint a ceiling -forgetting you saw a movie trailer but wanting to go see the movie

what is observer bias? how do we prevent it?

-researcher's expectation influences the data -how to prevent: keep researchers "blind" to study design and hypothesis (double-blind study)

what is experimenter expectancy effect bias? how do we prevent it?

-researcher's expectations actually change the measured behavior -how to prevent: same as observer; (blind/double-blind study)

two states of the neuron

-resting membrane potential -action potential

Mark is listening to a song through one earbud. he repeats the lyrics to himself as he tries to learn the song. he doesn't hear the conversation going on right next to him until his name is mentioned. what concepts explain what mark does and doesn't hear?

-selective listening (focusing on listening to the music until he hears his name and his attention is now diverted and he starts listening to the conversation) -shadowing (repeating the lyrics to himself) -selective attention (mark can only attend to certain stimuli at one time, and he is focused on his music)

thalamus: _ gateway all of your _ make a pitstop here on the way to _ (besides _)

-sensory gateway -all of your senses make a pitstop here on the way to cortex (besides smell)

two parts of somatic nervous system

-sensory system: Afferent pathway (body 2 brain) -motor system: Efferent pathway (brain 2 body) -

synapse

-site where chemical communication occurs between neurons -neurons communicate by sending chemicals into the synapse, a tiny gap between the axon of the 'sending' neuron and the dendrites of the 'receiving' neurons. chemicals leave one neuron, cross the synapse, and pass signals along to other neurons' dendrites

parasynthetic n.s.

-sleeping/chilling; most of day ~contracted pupils ~constricts bronchi ~slows heartbeat ~stimulates stomach/intestinal activity ~dilated blood vessels

ions involved in action potential

-sodium: depolarizes neuron by entering (more +) -potassium: repolarizes neuron by leaving (less +) -calcium: facilitates release of neurotransmitters in axon terminal -chloride: negatively charged; hyperpolarizes neuron by entering

parietal lobe

-somasensory cortex: skin sensation; receives touch input from the skin; v fine sensation on face/in mouth/thumb (hand) -parietal association: senses coverage, allowing: ~spatial awareness ~distance, movement, body awareness, reading, calculations (mental math)

What is happening during REM sleep

-some neurons in the brain, especially in the occipital cortex and brain stem regions, are more active during REM sleep than during waking hours -eyes dart back and forth rapidly beneath closed eyelids (rapid eye movements) -most of the body's muscles are paralyzed -body shows signs of general arousal (erections, clitoral engorgement) -80% people report dreaming when awakened in REM, compared with less than half in non-REM sleep -beta waves -brain waves are fast (the fastest)

broca's area

-speech production -damage causes broca's aphasia -the aphasias are language disorders -impaired speaking and often writing -can usually rad and understand ~simple~ sentences -receptive language is still there -thrown by complex sentences

EEG: stands for what? _ detects _ (_) shows what? commonly measures what?

-stands for electroencephalogram -electrodes detects and measures neural activity (charged ions) -shows "brain waves" -commonly measures psychological states (concentration, meditation), sleep cycles

fMRI: stands for what? measures what, into groups of what? much more intricate version of what?

-stands for functional magnetic resonance imaging -used to examine changes in the activity of the working human brain by measuring changes in the blood's oxygen levels -much more intricate version of PET scan

MRI: stands for what? what type of images? shows what? (function)? used in _, measure size of _:

-stands for magnetic resonance imaging -uses a powerful magnetic field to produce high-quality images of the brain -high resolution images -diagnostic like CT -in research, measure size of brain areas

TMS: stands for what? can _ or _ _ in _ regions relatively _, still _ some evidence of helping _ by _

-stands for transcranial magnetic stimulation can increase or decrease neural activity in small regions relatively new, still experimental some evidence of helping depression by increasing activity temporarily uses strong magnets to briefly interrupt normal brain activity as a way to study brain regions

rescorla-wagner cognitive model of classical learning

-states that an animal learns an expectation that some predictors (potential CSs) are better than others. -according to this middle the strength of the CS-US association is determined by the extent to which the US is unexpected or surprising. -learning theorists refer to the difference between the expected and actual outcomes as prediction error -once a conditioned stimulus is learned, it can prevent the acquisition of a new CS (blocking effect)

caffeine: what type of drug how does it do its effect excitatory or inhibitory?

-stimulant -blocks adensoine, which is inhibitory and thus stops inhibitory process, buying you time

evaluating descriptive research methods: strengths: limitations: types of bias: key diff between types of bias:

-strengths: wealth of info; situated in "real world"; access to thoughts, feelings, past recollections -limitations: no cause-effect conclusions can be drawn; tell what is happening, not why -types of bias: observer bias and experimenter expectancy effects key difference between types of biases: only one of these involves actually altering the behavior being studied (experimenter expectancy effects)

two parts of autonomic nervous system

-sympathetic n.s. -parasynthetic n.s.

inferential statistics?

-the branch of statistics that uses data from samples to make predictions about the larger population from which the sample is drawn -a calculation that tells whether study results are likely to have resulted from chance -inferring from sample—>population

What facts support the trichromatic theory of color vision

-the eye contains three types of cone cells, activated by short (blue to violet), medium (yellow to green), and long (red to orange) wavelengths -we can create yellow light by combining red might and green light because each type of light stimulates the corresponding cone population. as far as the brain can tell, there's no difference between yellow light and a combination of red light and green light) -there are two types of color blindness: people missing photopigment that is sensitive to either medium or long wavelengths (red-green color blindness) or missing short wavelength photopigment (blue-yellow color blindness) ***THIS DOESN'T MEAN THAT PEOPLE WITH RED GREEN COLOR BLINDNESS CAN STULL SEE BLUE AND YELLOW; THIS IS THE OPPONENT-PROCESS THEORY LOGIC***

dendrites

-the structures on the neuron that receive electrical messages -these messages come in two basic forms: excitatory and inhibitory.

When playing marco polo, what cues does the brain use to locate where the sounds of the other players are coming from?

-the time the sound arrived at each ear -the intensity of the sound in each ear NOT -place coding; place coding refers to the location of the vibration on the cochlea and how that location relates to pitch

what triggers an action potential?

-threshold is reached at axon hillock (where cell body turns into axon; beg of axon) -"voltage-gated" sodium channels open at axon *axon is like a long hallway full of closed doors, when enough Na+ comes behind you, it raises intracellular charge from -70 to say -55, triggers door to open, lets in more sodium, that opens the next door, etc* (called propagation down axon) -"all or none" either opens all of the doors or none

Examples of what you've learned about circadian rhythms of sleep/wake cycles to help you sleep well

-turn off the lights (darkness triggers the pineal gland to secrete melatonin, which facilitates sleep onset) -go to sleep at same time every night (even when removed from stimuli that trigger circadian rhythms, our bodies continue to follow a regular sleep cycle) -close or cover your eyes (the eyes send information about light to the brain, which triggers or suppresses hormones responsive for sleep) -take melatonin (a hormone that affects sleep, and taking melatonin as a dietary supplement helps people fall asleep) (melatonin is naturally secreted by the pineal gland)

In phase 2 (the conditioning phase), the student's reaction to being sprayed is the _ In phase 3, (the post-conditioning phase), the word can is the _

-unconditioned response -conditioned stimulus

What questions might a judge in a court of law ask if she thought the eyewitness testimony was distorted?

-was the event highly emotional to the witness? (flashbulb memories: can be vivid and detailed memories for emotional events, and they may or may not be accurate) -was the witness asked leading questions immediately following the event? (leading words in questions can then be encoded into the long-term memory and recalled through to process of reconsolidation) -has the witness experienced any changes in attitudes or beliefs about the crime witnessed? (reconsolidation)

Supports dissociation theory of hypnosis

-when asked to imagine a black and whig picture in color, parts of your visual cortex involved in color perception became active (hypnosis changed neural activity) -luke practiced self-hypnosis for four weeks. then he did not need any pain medication for his wisdom teeth extraction (hypnosis has been shown to decrease the emotional experience of pain) -following the hypnotist's suggestion, becky could walk slowly over hot coals without feeling any pain (hypnosis has been shown to help people detach from th experience of pain)

_ always comes after the _

1 CR 2 UR

Based on Craik and Lockhart's levels of processing memory model, place in order how deeply the info about dogs will be encoded, from shallowest to deepest

1 a person glances at a magazine and sees a picture of a dog 2 a person can remember all the breeds of dogs because she knows a song that lists (acoustic encoding occurs at a medium level of processing) 3 a person dog-sits and spends the weekend walking and playing with a dog (experienced directly linked to a person are encoded at a deeper level) 4 a person who grew up with a dog enjoyed walking in the woods with her pet (personal, meaningful, repeated experiences are encoded at the deepest level)

In contrast to behaviorism, recent learning theory has emphasized the role of 1: the conditioned stimulus helps an animal 2 the unconditioned one. this relationship exists when the unconditioned stimulus is surprising and the contained stimulus comes 3 it. in such cases, the animal makes the connection between the stimuli especially 4.

1 cognition 2 predict 3 before 4 easily

Name the 8 cognitive biases

1 confirmation bias 2 failing to accurately judge source credibility 3 taking mental shortcuts 4 failing to see our own inadequacies 5 misunderstanding/not using statistics 6 accepting after-the-fact explanations 7 using relative comparisons 8 seeing relationships that do not exist

Sequence of structures that are *activated*, not appearing, by light waves entering the eye and sending information to the brain

1 cornea 2 retina 3 rods and cones 4 ganglion cells 5 optic nerve 6 thalamus 7 primary visual cortex

name the two observational methods

1 naturalistic observation 2 participant observation

Wade Boggs, then a baseball player for the Boston Red Sox, was in the middle of a terrible batting slump when the public address announcer at Fenway park forgot to announce Bogg's number every time he came up to bat. Boggs broke out of the slump that day, and then forever after demanded that the announcer never announce his number. This superstitious behavior by Boggs is explained by principles of 1 conditioning: A chance event (the failure to announce his number) occurred 2 a second event (successful hitting), so Boggs believed there was an association between the two events.

1 operant (since the announcer controlled the initial reaction, this was operant conditioning, or at least Boggs believed this to be so) 2 soon before

3 ways stress and negative emotions can cause heart problems

1 people often cope w these states through behaviors that are bad for health 2 some personality traits such as hostility and depression have negative effects on people's social networks and any support they may provide against stress 3 negative personality traits and stress can produce direct physiological effects on the heart

3 movement related disorders during sleep

1 sleep walking/talking 2 rem behavior disorder: freak out while asleep 3 sleep paralysis: r.e.m. muscle paralysis persists; often a feeling of presence/being watched

Order of steps involved for sound waves to create a perception of the sound in the brain

1 sound waves arrive at the ear 2 sound waves enter the auditory canal 3 eardrum vibrates 4 ossicles (hammer, anvil, and stirrup) transfer the eardrum's vibrations to the oval window 5 pressure waves of the cochlea nice the basilar membrane 6 stimulated hair cells send information to the auditory nerve 7 information is carried by the auditory nerve to the thalamus 8 information is carried by the auditory nerve to the thalamus

levels of processing theory; craik and tulving

1) shallow processing ; is bike in all caps 2) moderate 3) deep

systematic desensitization used to treat specific phobias

1. client makes a fear hierarchy: a list of situations in which fear is aroused, in ascending order 2. exposure, client is asked to imagine or enact scenarios that become progressively more upsetting; exposure to threatening stimuli will extinguish as the client learns new, nonthreatening associations (uses virtual environments/virtual reality)

order of the treatment choices for obsessive-compulsive disorders (most to least effective)

1. exposure and response prevention coupled with clomipramine 2. exposure and response prevention 3. clomipramine 4. placebo *exposure and response prevention therapy used along with clomipramine has demonstrated slightly better results than exposure and response prevention therapy alone. Clomipramine alone is better than a placebo, but it is not as effective as exposure and response prevention

positive illusions in 3 domains

1. most people continually experience the better than average effect 2. they unrealistically perceive their personal control over events 3. most people are unrealistically optimistic about their personal futures

julian rotter believed behavior is a function of what two things

1. the person's expectancies for reinforcement 2. the values the person ascribes to particular reinforcers

Maslow' Heirarchy of Needs

1.) Physical 2.) Safety 3.) Love & Belonging 4.) Esteem 5.) Self-actualization

rods

120 million, edge of retina; peripheral vision, sensitive to los light, good for movement detection; help see in dim lighting conditions

When is loneliness most likely to occur

18-30 as well as with the elderly

cerebral cortex has how many lobes? name them

4 lobes; frontal, temporal, occipital, parietal

Around _ of Americans is shy; average is higher in _ cultures where belonging is more important

40-50%; collectivist (China and stuff)

causes of addiction on average, _% heritability

50%

cycle of a neurotransmitter:

???

Fixed interval schedule

A schedule in which the reinforcement is presented after a specific period of time. ex: same person can only win a prize once a month

Unconditioned stimulus

A stimulus that evokes an unconditioned response without previous conditioning

Neo Freudians in regards to phallic stage

Adler: inferiority complex, Horney: fear of abandonment aka basic insecurity; fear resulted from the child's relationship w the mother Jung; rejecting aspects of freudian thinking while embracing the notion of unconscious conflict

Just before sleep

Alpha waves

The costs of beauty

Beauty is not related to objective measures (unlike intelligence, personality, adjustment) Stereotype No guarantees (to good health and such) Attributional problems (in study they had participants submit essays and participants divided into attractive or plain people, told participants they were being judged by opp. Sex people and could either see them or not see them; people who didn't see themselves as attractive and were told they were seen felt better about a good review; people who weren't seen and thought of themselves as attractive felt better about a good review Pressure to maintain one's appearance: steroids, anorexia, etc.

Beauty pays off more for which gender; give an example

Beauty pays off more for men; more attractive male succeeds in regards to business and politics

Alert wakefulness

Beta waves

REM

Beta waves

Reticular Activating System (RAS)

Brain area that plays a key role in arousal; arousal/alertness is regulated by this and ras is also involved in inducing and terminating the different stages of sleep

Is Beauty a Subjective Quality?

Culture Ideal body shapes Standards of beauty Situational factors: people we know get more attractive, who you look at first might in fact make the person following less attractive (study with men looking at playboy centerfolds then men looking at normal women; ratings of attraction dropped significantly if they saw airbrushed women first!)

Shyness as a self-fulfilling prophecy

Cycle of fear of rejection and real rejection (interact in a more impoverished way so people do tend to be off-put) → self fulfilling prophecy!

Stage 3/4; slow-wave sleep

Delta waves

Four types of similarity are most relevant

Demographic: anything the person values: age, education, race and religion, correlation not causation Personality and mood: happy people tend to be attracted to happy people; weaker than demographics but still there; miserable/negative/depressed people love miserable people (doesn't last very long because even they get tired of each other) Attitude: sharing similar opinions, beliefs, values Perceived: belief that someone shares your attitude, might not be true; works first Actual: actual match in attitudes; much stronger than perceived Attractiveness Matching: most of us find matches who are similar levels of attractiveness Subjective experience: are you having a good time?

Example of direct and indirect rewards from relationships

Direct: attention, support, status, information, access to rewards (BIRG) Indirect: enjoying someone who is competent, funny, or beautiful

Is escaping (loneliness) healthy?

Escaping is not the best thing (unless it's healthy/productive: working out, run, hike)

T/F: dopamine has been strongly implicated in primary enforcement, but not secondary enforcement

F

T/F: learning results from unconscious mental processes *go back in inquizitive to get rest of this*

F: while freud and his followers believed that unconscious mental processes were the primary determinants of behavior, other psychologists later developed theories of behavior and learning that were based on observable events

T or F: any object can be made into a CS when associated with any US, as long as the stimuli are intense enough

F; in the mid 1960s, several challenges to pavlov's theory suggested that some conditioned stimuli were more likely to produce learning than others

True or false: People who are physically attractive are happier and have higher self-esteem than those who are unattractive.

FALSE

True or false: Infants do not discriminate between faces considered attractive and unattractive in their culture.

FALSE; looked at two month olds, showed them an attractive face and a plain face, more likely to gaze longer at an attractive face!

True or false: When it comes to romantic relationships, opposites attract.

FALSE; we like those who are like us! Birds of a feather flock together

what is psychoanalysis? who founded it? major themes?

Freud's theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts; created by Freud; major themes: -unconscious (big features of mind) influences -suppress bad memories/feelings/thoughts -early life=very formative

psychodynamic theory

Freudian theory that unconscious forces determine behavior

Media influences on the bias for beauty?

Graduate student applicant rated higher if they were attractive in a stereotypical film (beauty=good) way higher than plain applicant; primed with what is beautiful is good rated applicants higher Also rated higher with non-stereotypical film but not as high as primed group

Lap Dance Study

Had groups of women following for 2 months; independent variable: where they were on their cycles and whether or nice they were on b.c. (aka if they were ovulating or not); dependent variable: tips earned Results: women who were ovulating and not on b.c. earned much greater tips Explanation: behaving in a more sexualized way that earned them better tips

_ of people over 60 live alone in the US

Half of people over 60 live alone in the US

First Encounters: Liking Others Who Like Us:

Heider (1958): People prefer relationships that are psychologically balanced. That state of balance exists when everything is reciprocated.

Becoming Friends by Chance

Highest friendship intensity in order (initial seat assignment): neighboring seats, same row, no physical relation Proximity effect on attraction More likely to rate them as friends the closer they were

In what country are there high levels of loneliness; _ of people over 60 live alone

In the UK there are high levels of loneliness; a third of people over 60 live alone

difference between inattentional blindness and change blindness

Inattentional blindness is the failure to see a stimulus, such as an object that is present in a visual field. However, change blindness is the failure to notice something different about a visual display

Why are we blinded by beauty?

Inherently rewarding to be in company of people who are aesthetically pleasing; you're seen as more attractive if you're with attractive people

Rorsach Inkblot Test

Inner feeling Test. Ambiguous inkblots; how a person describes the inkblot supposed to reveal unconscious conflicts and other problems; can diagnosis specific psychological disorders

Name and describe the three facets of loneliness

Intimate: missing very deep, intimate, one on one relationship Relational: friendships Collective: not feeling like you're part of a bigger group

Why Don't Opposites Attract?

Is there support for the complementarity hypothesis, which holds that people seek others whose needs "oppose" their own? Seems cute at first then it's annoying, a lot of work, not validating Less work when you're with someone who is compatible with you

Little Albert Experiment

John Watson // bangs metal (CS) behind his head while playing with day (NS) developed in albert's fear of rats (CR)

Implicit association that beautiful children come from a happier and better home, more likely to succeed, etc.; is this true or false? Explain how

Kinda true because they get treated better by people!

Long-term memory task

LTM has unlimited capacity for the amount of information it can store; repeated retrieval encodes information more deeply and permanently task: after two weeks of self-testing, a student recalls info do a cumulative final exam

Ponzo illusion

Mario ponzo 1913; size/distance illusion. the common explanation for this effect is that monocular depth cues make the 2d figure seem 3d. seemingly parallel lines appear to converge in the distance, and here, the two lines drawn to look like railroad tracks receding in the distance trick your mind into thinking they are parallel. therefore, you perceive the two parallel lines in the center as if they are at different distances and thus different in size (line higher on the figure ie farther is larger than line lower on the figure ie closer) when they are actually the same size.

Shyness: consequences

More likely to see themselves negatively because think others are going to judge them so they judge themselves too; look for reasons why others might judge them negatively Tend to expect to fail socially; if something goes wrong, they blame themselves Will fail socially because they don't have the requisite social skills Don't have positive self concept Try to escape shyness by not getting involved socially or through the use of drugs and alcohol

Ovulating women prefer:

More rugged faces and masculine faces

"Doogie mice" created by Joseph Tsien were able to learn novel tasks more quickly and showed increased memory. this is because enhancement in which receptors?

NMDA receptors

CS

NS becomes this after paired w US and UR

How Does it Feel to See a Perfect 10?

People felt worse if its photos of attractive same sex, people felt better if it was opposite sex photos of attractive people

Which students tend to do better academically

People involved on campus do better academically

Matching Hypothesis

People tend to become involved romantically with others who are equivalent in their physical attractiveness. Marital satisfaction is highly correlated to how similar partners are Marital dissatisfaction is highly correlated to differences

Dove Evolution

Photoshop makeup and airbrush!

What is attractive on men for women?

Prominent cheekbones, smaller chins, larger eyes (on men for women!)

reality principle

ego operates on this; involves rational thought and problem solving

Romantic Red: The Color of Attraction?

Red is shortest wavelength, so it's a very stimulating color: stimulating when it comes to attractiveness as well: V-day, hearts, red dress, red lipstick Attractiveness rating for men looking at women against a red background is way higher than for women against a white background; likeability was not impacted by color red

Is Beauty an Objective Quality?

Some argue that certain faces are inherently more attractive than others NOT OBJECTIVE High level of agreement across cultures Physical features are reliably associated with judgments of attractiveness

Shyness: sources

Some is an inborn trait; twin studies: one is shy other is as well Could be a learned reaction to failed interactions with others (evaluated or scrutinized too much)

Can shyness be adaptive?

Sometimes shyness can be adaptive (rat experiment! Philip Zimbardo) but if it's repeated over and over again it can lead to social anxiety

T/F: animals seem to be biologically prepared to fear specific objects that signal potential dangers

T

T/F: certain pairings of stimuli, such as taste and illness, are more likely to become associated because they are evolutionarily adaptive

T

T/F: dopamine appears to be especially important for the craving of a reward, rather than being satisfied by the reward

T

T/F: dopamine determined the value of a reinforcer such as eating food to satisfy hunger: the greater the hunger, the greater the craving for food, and consequently the greater the dopamine release

T

T/F: drugs that block dopamine's effects disrupt operant conditioning

T

T/F: mirror neurons in the brain are activated when we perform the same action that we have watched others perform

T

T/F: mirror neurons in the brain are activated when we watch others perform an action

T

T/F: mirror neurons in the brain help us explain and imitate the behavior of others

T

T/F: mirror neurons in the brain may reflect the neural basis for empathy

T

T/F: the strength of an association between the CS and the US is determined by how well the CS predicts the US

T

social norms

expected standard of conduct; are followed in normative influence

Does the hard-to-get effect exist?

Tendency to prefer people who are highly selective in social choices than people who are readily available is true sometimes; depends on target and situation; study: it will work only if the target is playing hard to get with other people not you! So you feel special Research shows that people are turned off by people who reject them; play hard to get with everyone who isn't who you want

Two basic and necessary factors in the attraction process:

The Proximity Effect and The Mere Exposure Effect

Size constancy

The ability to retain the size of an object regardless of where it is located; "Malik sees his friend as 6 ft tall, though his friend is far away"

Need for Affiliation

The desire to establish social contact with others.

The Mere Exposure Effect

The more we see it the more we like it More effective if we're unaware of seeing that person frequently Have to have either neutral or positive feelings towards them If we feel negatively subsequent interactions will be negative as well In experiment; the one who came every week to class was the one who was liked the most (out of 4 people: one came every day one came frequently one sometimes one never)

autokinetic effect 1930s

The tendency to perceive a stationary point of light in a dark room as moving; occurs because people have no frame of reference and therefore cannot correct for small eye movements conformity participants revised their estimates about how much the light moved until they all agreed w one another: they relied on information provided by others to base their estimates -> informational influence

stimulus generalization

The tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus. (not just afraid of the rat, now feared anything white or fuzzy or furry)

true facts about facial expressions

US congressional candidates whose faces were dated as looking more competent won nearly 70% of the vote in an election eye contact is perceived differently amongst different cultures (native american tribes consider direct eye contact to be disrespectful) by the age of 7, children can make judgments about a face's trustworthiness that match adults' judgments when human babies are less than an hour old, they prefer to look at and will track s picture of a human face rather than a blank outline of a head

Unconditioned response

Unlearned or involuntary response to an unconditioned stimulus

Brain dead:

experienced a complete and irreversible loss of brain function

We are attracted to others with whom _

We are attracted to others with whom a relationship is directly or indirectly rewarding (use cost-benefit analysis subconsciously)

Finding Others: Liking Others Who are Similar

We tend to associate with others who are similar to ourselves. First is the negative screen of dissimilarity the nthe positive screen of similarity dictates if the contact continues or ends

First Encounters: Getting Acquainted

We tend to associate with others who are similar to us Women find similarity better than attractiveness Women are more selective when picking a partner; men are likely to fall in love at first sight, choose faster/more hastily

The Proximity Effect

We tend to become attracted to people we are more familiar with Single best attraction is geographic proximity Very strong but often overlooked because very basic People are friends with people in same general face More likely to make friends and date people who are nearby Doesn't dictate quality of attraction because we can be enemies with people near us as well

Why is research on loneliness with regard to the elderly such a complex issue

With the elderly, research is much more complicated because there are so many other disruptions such as illness, being confined to a home, death of friends; loneliness is a very big issue

What type of men do women look for/want when they're ovulating and when they're not?

Women attracted to healthy males sometimes, more masculine males (super hot) when they're ovulating When they're not ovulating? Want a more supportive male; care less about looks and stuff

flashbulb memory

a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event

hypnosis

a condition in which people appear to be highly suggestible and to behave as if they are in a trance

split brain

a condition that occurs when the corpus callosum is surgically cut and the two hemispheres of the brain do not receive information directly from each other

general adaptation syndrome

a consistent pattern of responses to stress that consists of three stages: alarm resistance and exhaustion

jigsaw classroom

a cooperative learning method used to reduce racial prejudice through interaction in group efforts

Habituation

a decrease in behavioral response after repeated exposure to a stimulus. if something is neither rewarding nor harmful habituation leads us to ignore it. stopped responding because you have learned they are not important ex: owen got glasses a year ago. he eats them daily but has stopped noticing them. ex: meena got a mild sunburn, but a couple of hours later she didn't notice the pain anymore.

Stimulus discrimination

a differentiation between two similar stimuli when only one of them is consistently associated with the US

Change blindness

a failure to notice large changes in one's environment

ingroup

a group that one belongs to and identifies with "us"

oxytocin

a hormone important for mothers in bonding to newborns

cerebellum

a large, convoluted protuberance at the back of the brain stem; essential for coordinated movement and balance

Conditioned response

a learned response to a previously neutral stimulus

Self-fulfilling prophecy:

a man saw an attractive women's picture, told they were talking to her on the phone, when they thought they were talking to an attractive woman, they formed a more positive impression on their quality, judged her as warmer and nicer; same thing for women: attractive man treated better and seen as nicer If you think someone is more attractive you treat them better and thus elicit behavior from them

corpus callosum

a massive bridge of millions of axons that connects the hemispheres and allows information to flow between them

Escapist activity

a mechanism to forget troubles; drinking alcohol, taking drugs, playing video games, watching tv, going on the internet, texting allow us to avoid our problems and not engage with life

cataplexy

a medical condition in which strong emotion or laughter causes a person to suffer sudden physical collapse though remaining conscious.

trait theory

a model of personality that seeks to identify the basic traits necessary to describe personality (ex: studiousness, extrovertness, etc)

biopsychosocial model

a model that sees health and illness as the result of biological (genetic predispositions), behavioral (lifestyle, stress, beliefs about health), and social (cultural influences, family relationships, social support) factors

how has humanistic theory affected contemporary therapy

a modern humanistic theory called motivational interviewing allows a client to address discrepancies between his thoughts and his actions in a warm, supportive environment a modern humanistic theory called motivational interviewing allows a client to address discrepancies between his thoughts and his actions in a warm, supportive environment few therapists still follow the original tenets of humanistic theory strictly contemporary forms of humanistic therapy generally take much more time than the original methods (motivational interviewing takes place over only one or two sessions)

epinephrine

a monoamine neurotransmitter responsible for bursts of energy after an event that is exciting/threatening (adrenaline)

what is stream of consciousness?

a narrative technique that presents thoughts as if they were coming directly from a charcters mind

Shadowing

a participant wears headphones that deliver one message to one ear and a different message to the other; the person is asked to attend to one of the two messages and "shadow" it by repeating it aloud. as a result, the person usually notices the unattended sound but will have little knowledge about the content of the unattended sound developed by a psychologist named E. C. Cherry in 1953

Closure ex:

a person completes figures that have gaps

Anal-retentive personality

a person fixated in the anal stage who is neat, fussy, stingy, and stubborn; may result from overly strict toilet training or excessively rule based child rearing

Proximity ex:

a person groups together objects that are near one another

Similarity ex:

a person groups together objects that look the same

Illusory contours ex:

a person imposes depth cues and contours on 1d objects

exhaustion phase

a person is at risk for illness; prolonged presence of stress hormones has compromised the immune system

Flow activity

a person performs a task out of fascination with it rather than out of desire for a reward; an optimal experience in that the activity is completely absorbing and intrinsically rewarding/satisfying, a focused, active engagement of the consciousness in an enjoyable activity

Continuity ex:

a person sees an object as a whole even when part of it is hidden behind another object

object relations theory

a person's mind and sense of self develop in relation to others in the particular environment; "objects" are real others in the world, and how the person relates to these others shapes her or his personality

Illusion

a thing that is or is likely to be wrongly perceived or interpreted by the senses; ex: the brain perceives objects to be moving when they are stationary; we perceive movies as being in motion rather than a series of pictures

acoustic memory

a very brief sound memory that can be sent to the STM (uses sounds and rhymes to encode and retrieve information)

Change blindness refers to failure to notice a _ change in the environment

a visual change

benefits of using behavioral therapy rather than Ritalin to treat ADHD

after 3 years, advantage of medication therapy was no longer significant those who received behavioral therapy improved over three years while those taking medication improved quickly but then tended to regress over the three years medications important in short term but psychological treatments may produce superior outcomes that last ritalin's side effects include sleep problems, reduced appetite, body twitches, and the temporary suppression of growth, risk of abuse, some children on medication may see their problems as beyond their control; may not feel responsible for their behaviors and may not learn the coping strategies they will need if they discontinue their medication or if it ceases to be effective

Posthypnotic suggestion

after the hypnosis session, the listener will experience a change in memory, perception, or voluntary action; accompanied by the instruction to not remember the suggestion

declarative memory

after you learn it when you see them it's in the same areas used to process input originally

postdecisional dissonance

after you make a decision you justify it to yourself: deciding on what college to choose postdecisional dissonance motivates the person to focus on one school's positive aspects and the other schools' negative aspects

withdrawal from depressants symptoms: (alc/anti anxiety meds)

agitation, insomnia, high blood pressure *heavier*

compliance

agreeing to do things requested by others

antipsychotics

aka neuroleptics used to treat schizophrenia and other disorders that involve psychosis reduce symptoms such as delusions and hallucinations traditional antipsychotics bind to dopamine receptors, thus blocking the effects of dopamine not always effective and can have significant side effects that can be irreversible one side effect: tardive dyskinesia: the involuntary twitching of muscles, especially in the neck and face these drugs are not useful for treating the negative schizophrenia, such as apathy and social withdrawal clozapine, a newer antipsychotic, is significantly different because as well as acting on dopamine receptors, it also acts on serotonin, norepinephrine, acetylcholine, and histamine receptors. it is known as an ~ATYPICAL antipsychotic~ many who don't respond to other medications respond to this one downsides of clozapine: can cause serious problems with white blood cells other ex: risperdal and zyprexa, safer than clozapine other drugs: mood stabilizers; lithium: was most effective for treating bipolar drugs that prevent seizures: anticonvulsants, can stabilize moods in bipolar

Binocular disparity

aka retinal disparity; a depth cue; because of the distance between the two eyes, each eye receives a slightly different retinal image; different but overlapping; the brain uses the disparity between the two retinal images to compute distances to nearby objects; the ability to determine an object's depth based on that object's projections to each eye is called stereoscopic vision

Method of loci + example

aka the memory palace; a mnemonic device that consists of associating items you want to remember with physical locations; ex: keaton increased his recall when learning the structures of the brain by visualizing them as different rooms of a house

Motion aftereffects

aka the waterfall effect, bc if you stare at a waterfall and then looks way, the scenery you are now looking at will seem to move upward for a moment. may occur when you gaze at a moving image for s long time and then look at a stationary scene. you experience a momentary impression that the new scene is moving in the opposite direction from the moving image. "direction-specific neurons become fatigued after you look at something moving in one direction for a while, so when you look away, motion detectors for all other directions are more active"

stages of GAS (General Adaptation Syndrome)

alarm: immediate heightened response to deal with a threat or demand resistance: stress hormones continue to be released to defend against the threat exhaustion: a person is at risk for illness; prolonged presence of stress hormones has compromised the immune system

bobo doll study 60s

albert bandura; exposure to aggression on kids aggressive behaviors 3 conditions: - productive play group - aggressive model - control group key finding: watching aggressive acts did increase level of aggression aggression = very specific imitation, not just general aggression adult male w kid male = 2x amount of aggression relationship = correlationL to exposure and aggression

EEG recordings show r.e.m. waves resemble

alert wakefulness waves (beta)

favoritism

attractiveness rating about letters in alphabet participants rated the letters in their names (first and last initials particularly) as especially attractive

primary appraisal

allows one to determine if there is a threat

foul smelling smoke study how likely to go ask for help within 6 minutes, most to least likely

alone, 3 naive participants, 2 calm confederates

groggy/just before sleep

alpha waves

second order conditioning

already established CS paired with a new CS, newly paired CS becomes second order CS; can now also trigger CR

conformity

altering ones behaviors to match the behaviors or expectations of others

approach things with what? and what does this term mean?

amiable skepticism; wariness of new scientific findings--carefully weighing the evidence in deciding what to believe

2 gluatamate receptors bind

ampa receptor - lets na in nmbda receptor - lets ca in (becomes functional under v specific circumstances when mg blocked

characteristics of sound waves

amplitude: measured in decibels dB (perception of loudness) frequency: measured in hertz (Hz: vibrations per second); perception of pitch

what is behaviorism? relevant people? behavior=conditioned through what? thoughts and feelings are acquired through what?

an approach to psychology that emphasizes observable measurable behavior; Pavlov, Watson, B.F. Skinner; behavior=conditioned through experiences; thoughts and feelings=acquired through reinforcement and punishment

explicit attitude

an attitude that a person is consciously aware of and can report: a person goes out of his way to buy dunkin' donuts coffee

implicit attitude

an attitude, such as prejudice, that one is not aware of having; influence ones feelings and behaviors at an unconscious level: a person does not recall seeing an advertisement for a certain brand of tea, but when shopping, she buys the tea

inclusive fitness

an explanation for altruism that focuses on the adaptive benefit of transmitting genes, such as trough kin selections rather than focusing on individual survival

Sensitization

an increase in behavioral response after exposure to a stimulus. the stimulus that most often lead to this are those threatening or painful. ex: wes liked very scary movies. after an especially scary scene, he felt a tal on his shoulder and nearly jumped out of his seat. ex: lexi was outside when a loud clap of thunder occurred very close by. when her friend called her name immediately afterward, she was quite startled.

sensitization

an increase in the strength of a response with repeated presentation of a stimulus

according to cognitive psychologists, what sorts of cognition would lead to someone having a studious personality?

an internal locus of control, placing a high value on academic success, the expectancy that studying will lead to good grades, a personal construct that the more one studies, the better one does in school

Color constancy:

an object is perceived to be the same color even when there are changes in illumination; "Susie knows her car is red even though it looks dark brown at night"

habituation

an organism's decreasing response to a stimulus with repeated exposure to it

bottom up processing

analysis from parts to whole; needed when there isn't enough context to take a good guess

effects of stress on the immune system

anxious people have vulnerable immune systems, decreases lymphocyte production rendering the body less capable of warding off foreign substances, alc consumption and lack of sleep make people vulnerable to illness or infection, our bodies ability to fight infection is correlated with the number of desirable or undesirable events in our life

network

areas of the brain all synced together

person/situation debate

argument about how personal and environmental factors affect personality

door in the face technique

asking for a large commitment and being refused and then asking for a smaller commitment

what has research found about the five factor theory

big five traits emerge across cultures, though there are some cultural differences in the importance given to certain traits cross-cultural differences: interpersonal relatedness or harmony is not an important trait in western cultures but is in china different personality traits are associated with activity in different brain regions conscientiousness predicts grades in college but not scores on standardized tests, whereas openness to experience predicts scores on standardized tests but not grades: this factors exist at more than a descriptive level vastly different questionnaires assess the factors can predict life satisfaction

projection

billy accused his friend of being an alcoholic when in reality he drank every night

Circadian rhythm

biological patterns that occur at regular intervals as a function of time of day

temperaments

biologically based tendencies to feel or act in certain ways

resistance stage

body prepared for longer sustained defense from the stressor; immunity to infection and disease increases somewhat as the body maximizes its defenses

axons do what in the optic nerve

bundle and exit

parts of us with moderate wellbeing

ca, oregon, pa and ny, southwest (az nm tx) georgia nc

In operant conditioning, an association is made between events that the human or animal _ control

can control; "in operant conditioning, the learner does have some control over the associated events. for example, a rat in a Skinner box decides when to push the lever that it eventually learns will lead to a food reward"

locked-in syndrome

can't communicate verbally; can sometimes like dart eyes to communicate though

In classical conditioning, an association is made between events that the human or animal _ control

cannot control; "in classical conditioning, the learner does not have control over the events being associated by the learning process. for example, in a classic Pavlovian experiment, the dog has no control over when the light comes on, nor does the dog control its salivation"

life experience and personality change

caregivers for spouses with terminal cancer reliably experienced more positive personality changes than control group did college students who traveled abroad also reliably experienced more positive personality changes than control group

effects of using central nervous system stimulants like Ritalin to help treat attention deficit hyperactive disorder in children

cause a small increase in positive behaviors but large decrease in negative behaviors makes children happier, more adept socially, and somewhat more successful academically, although the effects on academic performance are modest children interact more positively with their parents, possibly because they are more likely to comply with request decrease overactivity and distractibility increase arousal in under-active brain increase attention and ability to concentrate

nervous system structure

central and peripheral central: brain and spinal cord peripheral: autonomic and somatic autonomic: sympathetic and parasynthetic somatic: efferent (brain to body and afferent (body to brain) nerves

how much a trait predicts behavior depends on three factors

centrality of the trait aggregation of behaviors over time type of trait being evaluated

Suggestibility

changing memory based on misleading info

what are neurotransmitters?

chemicals that transmit information from one neuron to another

phallic stage desires controversy

children desire an exclusive relationship with the opposite sex parent and consider same sex parent a rival: oedipus complex

Phallic Stage (3-5 years)

children discover pleasure of rubbing genitals although they have no sexual intent per se

Latency Stage (6-puberty)

children suppress minimal urges or channel them into schoolwork or building friendships

how can parents have a positive impact on their children's personalities

choosing a good environment for their child to be raised in, nurturing athletic or artistic talents, providing adequate parenting for the child to become socialized

Two parts of implicit memory

classical conditioning and procedural memory

more disparate (diff) images

closer to you

proximity

closer two images are: more likely we are to group them as apart of the same groups

Selective-listening

cocktail party phenomenon: you can focus on a single conversation in the midst of a chaotic cocktail party however, a particular pertinent stimulus, such as heading your named mentioned in another conversation or hearing a juicy piece of gossip, can capture your attentions because your attention is now divided what you can instant of the new stimulus is less than if you had been giving it your full attention. if you really want to hear the other conversation or piece of gossip you need to focus your attention on it. of course, when you redirect your attention in this way, you probably will not be able to follow what the closer (and therefore probably louder) partygoer is saying. you will lose thread of the original conversation. E. C. Cherry developed selective-listening studies to examine what the mind does with the unattended info when a person pays attention to one task; shadowing!

positive reappraisal

cognitive process in which a person focuses on possible good things in his or her current situation

Schema

cognitive structures that help us perceive, organize, process, and use information (LTM structures)

caps

cognitive-affective personality system: people's personalities often fail to predict their behavior across different circumstances, instead their responses are influenced by how they perceive a given situation, their affective (emotional) responses to the situation, their skills in dealing with challenges, and their anticipation of the outcomes of their behavior; ex: if you tend to be shy and awkward in new social situations, you might walk into a party expecting to be rejected: your expectations will shape your behavior based on your beliefs about the party

psychotherapy types and methods

cognitive: cognitive restructuring and rational-emotive therapy to replace maladaptive thoughts with adaptive ones behavioral: rewards and punishments, token economies, social skills training, and modeling to learn and unlearn behaviors family: systems approach; considers client as part of a larger system in a family where everyone plays a different role psychodynamic: free association and dream analysis humanistic: reflective listening and unconditional positive regard

rating the self across time

college students rated their past selves as having had more negative features than their current selves and their current selves as having more positive features than their past selves

A child in preschool appears to be confusing his colors. When asked to pick up a yellow block, he chooses a blue one. for what condition might his teacher have him tested?

color blindness; if the child is color blind, he would not be able to distinguish yellow from blue, but he could still see red and green

trichromatic theory

color vision results from activity in 3 forms of *cones*: S (blue/violet) M (green/yellow) L (orange/red) these different receptors are receptive to different wavelengths 2 main types of color blindness: determined by relative activity among the 3 types of cone receptors: partial blindness for certain colors ~people may be missing the photopigment sensitive to either L or M wavelengths:red green color blindness; S = blue/yellow color blindness S blue M green L red cones respond maximally to 1 of 3 wavelengths

minimally conscious state

coma

ways to learn greater resilience

coming to understand when particular emotions are adaptive, learning specific techniques for regulating emotions, and working to build healthy social and emotional relationships with others

3 components of hardiness

commitment challenge and control

how does one with a hardy or stress-resistant personality deal with stressful situations?

committed to daily activities & to working through problems, views threats as challenged or opportunities for growth, see themselves as being in control of their lives commitment, challenge, and control

downward comparison

comparing oneself to people who are worse off

type a behavior pattern

competitive, achievement oriented, aggressive, hostile, impatient, time pressed more likely to develop coronary heart disease than type b, specifically hostility

Amex box

crafted in 1940s by Adelbert Ames; these constructions present powerful depth illusions; inside the Ames boxes, rooms play with linear perspective and other distance cues. one such rooms makes a far corner appear the same distance away as a near corner; "linear perspective is manipulated, using crooked windows and floor tiles, to create the illusion that one person (standing near small tiles and windows) is much farther away than another (standing near large tiles and windows)."

our tendency to apply gestalt grouping principles (5!) can be so strong it

creates illusion

rationalization

creating false but plausible excuses to justify unacceptable behavior

what has research found about the five-factor theory

cross-cultural differences: interpersonal relatedness or harmony is not an important trait in western cultures but is in china different personality traits are associated with activity in different brain regions conscientiousness predicts grades in college but not scores on standardized tests, whereas openness to experience predicts scores on standardized tests but not grades: this factors exist at more than a descriptive level vastly different questionnaires assess the factors can predict life satisfaction

daily hassles

crowded living conditions, chronic overwork

denial

dana used her credit card to buy clothes even though her account was overdrawn and she had no money

Temporal lobe

declarative memory

Positive punishment _ the likelihood of behavior through _; ex:

decreases likelihood through adding a stimulus ex: when the lever is pressed, a shock is given

Negative punishment _ the likelihood of behavior through _; ex:

decreases likelihood through removing a stimulus ex: when the lever is pressed, food is removed

reaction formation

defense mechanism in which unacceptable impulses are transformed into their opposite

regions of a neuron

dendrites, cell body, axon, terminal button, synapse

7 defense mechanisms

denial repression projection reaction formation rationalization displacement sublimation

disorders + effective treatments

depression: cognitive restructuring (CBT that identifies and changes negative thoughts is effective in treating depression) schizophrenia: risperdal and zyprexa (atypical antipsychotic medications reduce both the positive and negative symptoms of schizophrenia) phobia: systematic desensitization (works by gradually exposing a client to greater levels of the feared stimulus) OCD: exposure and response prevention (a type of CBT, can help the client extinguish the anxiety provoked by a stimulus and thereby eliminate the compulsive response) bipolar: quetiapine (otherwise known as Seroquel, is an atypical antipsychotic that is effective at stabilizing moods and reducing manic episodes)

Bias:

distortion; influence of current knowledge on memory for past events; remembering past attitudes as similar to current attitudes even though the past attitudes have changed; monique recalled her elementary school friend as shy because she recently learned that her friend has social anxiety

Suggestibility

distortion; the development of biased memories from misleading information; developing false memories for events that did not happen; the teenager is told that. neighbor has a vicious dog, then mistakenly recalls a time when the dog chased him

self reports v cultural stereotypes

do not match

key limitation of correlational research: what is this problem known as/what is it? (there are 2) (ex of each)

doesn't allow cause-effect conclusions because of ~directionality problem~ aka reverse causality: what came first, the chicken or the egg? ~third variable problem~: there's another variable effecting/influencing variable a & b ex: crime rate and number of churches across communities; third variable: size of community (pop)

Implicit memory

doesn't require conscious effort and often cannot be verbally described

shape constancy

door remains rectangular in mind regardless of angle or perspective

stimulants

dopamine

what neurotransmitter is released no matter what drug you're doing

dopamine

repression

dorothy had no memory of her mothers death which occurred when she was 7 years old

emotion focused coping

downplaying or preventing an emotional response to a stressor

freud psychoanalytic view of dreams

dreams act as wish fulfillment

Freud's interpretation of dreams theory

dreams can be used to access unconscious conflicts

classical conditioning contributes to

drug relapse; anna rose childress

drugs do what to our brain rewards system and _

drugs commandeer our brains reward system and drive everything we do

narrative idiographic approach

each person weaves a life story which integrates self knowledge into a coherent while; aka the individual creates personal myths that bind together past events and future possibilities into one life story

what is true about the difference in how people from eastern and western cultures make attributions to explain others behavior

eastern cultures tend to be more holistic in how they perceive the world: they see the forest rather than the individual trees people in eastern cultures use much more information when making attributions than do people in western cultures and they are more likely to believe that human behavior is the outcome of both personal and situational factors; more likely to take situational forces into account easterners, like westerners, tend to favor personal information over situational information she making attributions about others thus, in interpreting behavior, cultures tend not to differ in whether they emphasize personal factors instead cultures differ in how much they emphasize the situation

secure attachment

easy to get close to others without the fear of being abandoned

in a scripted research study, airline workers were held hostage by 'terrorists' and randomly assigned to use either emotion-based coping or problem-based coping to the stressful situation. which group experienced less stress

emotion based group bc they assumed any resistance they offered would just put them in greater danger. their best coping strategy was to remain calm; problem focused coping would've been ineffective in this scripted situation

cognitive-social theories of personality

emphasize how personal beliefs, expectancies, and interpretations of social situations shape behavior and personality

order of info retention

encoding, storing, retrieval

reinforcement

encourages future behavior

how can parents have a positive impact on their children's personalities

encouraging the child to pursue activities he enjoys choosing a good environment to raise the child in providing adequate parenting for the child to become socialized

diff between endocrine system and pituitary gland

endo: all over body pit: part of brain connected to hypothalamus

opiates (narcotics)

endorphins

high levels of epinephrine

energy burst epinephrine aka adrenaline provides a burst of energy to respond to events

libido

energy that promotes pleasure seeking

what's the other %

environmental/experience

how to control for situation related confounds?

environmental/task control

Low levels of GABA have been linked to

epileptic seizures gaba has inhibitory effects; without it, too much excitation in the brain can result in seizures

Two parts of explicit memory

episodic memory and semantic memory

high levels of endorphins leads to

euphoria and insensitivity to pain endorphins are released to reduce pain and increase pleasure

true statements about ingroup favoritism

even when people know they were placed in groups using the minimal group paradigm, by flipping a coin, they will still treat their ingroup preferentially people will try to prevent members of an outgroup from receiving resources people will distribute more resources to members of their ingroup women show a much greater automatic ingroup bias toward other women than men do toward other men

contemporary psychodynamic therapies

examines a patients needs, defenses, and motives as a way of understanding why the client is distressed explore's clients avoidance of distressing thoughts, looking for recurring themes and patterns in thoughts and feelings, discussing early traumatic experiences, focusing on interpersonal relations and childhood attachments, emphasizing the relationship with the therapist, exploring fantasies, dreams, and daydreams newer: fewer sessions focusing more on current relationships than on early-childhood experiences helps with depression, EDs, and substance abuse

reuptake

excess neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by the sending neuron

most neurotransmitters are:

excitatory (depolarizes ion)

trait approach to personality

focuses on how individuals differ in personality dispositions such as sociability cheerfulness and aggressiveness

Concentration meditation

focusing on one thing, such as your breathing pattern, a mental image, or a specific phrase (a mantra)

obedience

following the orders of a person in authority

US

food UR would be salivating

groupthink

for the sake of cordiality, the group may end up making a bad decision. extreme form of group polarization

transcience

forgetting what occurs with the passage of time

On average, across the globe: love relationships last _ years

four years

Hertz =

frequency measurement

what can we expect from a couple who has been married for two years

frequency of sex declines by half (from first year to second) less passion for their partners passionate to compassionate love if it doesn't turn into compassionate love through companionate forms of satisfaction such as friendship social support and intimacy the loss of passion leads to dissatisfaction and eventual dissolution of relationship desire to have sex decreases as passion decreases

Leslie means to say "if it's not one thing, it's another," but instead she says, "if it's not one thing, it's your mother." this type of error is called a

freudian slip

how do you form memories

fronts lobe lateral part: external stimuli midline: infernal info (default mode network) amydala: fear stimulates hippocampus; more likely to remember; adds emotional response to memory hippocampus: processor; helps other parts of brain form connections cerebellum and basal ganglia = create automatic motor circuits

results from twin and adoption personality studies

identical twins raised apart have similar personalities the correlations of personality traits between identical twins are higher than for fraternal weak correlation between personality traits of siblings unlike those of identical twins there appears to be little biological parental influence on adopted children's personalities biological children's personalities are not significantly similar to those of their birth parents adopted children's personalities are not similar to those of the parents who adopt and raise them

secondary appraisal

if a threat is detected, one decides how to deal with it

Problem with shyness

if it isn't addressed early in life, it leads to loneliness!

REM dreams

illogical, bizarre, and highly visual experiences when asleep; may involve intense emotions, visual and auditory hallucinations (but rarely taste, smell, or pain) and an uncritical acceptance of illogical events

Stroboscopic movement

illusion of movement created by a rapid succession of stationary images; i.e. movies "when slightly different images are presented in rapid succession, the brain interprets this as motion"

visual input

images from the left side go to the brain's right hem and vise versa

fundamental attribution error

in explaining other people's behavior, the tendency to overemphasize personality traits and underestimate situational errors

figure and ground

in identifying either figure, the brain assigns the rest of the scene to the background; visual perception is dynamic and ongoing

cultural differences in self construals

in individualist cultures the most important elements of a person's self construal tend to reside within that person in collectivist cultures he most important elements tend to reside in areas where the person's sense of self is connected with others

amygdala and stereotypes

in one brain imaging study, the amygdala became activated when white participants were briefly shown pictures of black faces, indicating that the participants immediate responses to black faces were negative, however if the faces were presented longer the frontal lobes became active and the amygdala response decreased. thus, the frontal lobes appear to have overridden the immediate reaction

case study? can employ what method? examples?

in-depth, long-term study of interesting person/group; can employ any data collection method; ex: "supermemorists", people with brain damage, extreme child neglect

Insomnia

inability to fall asleep or the inability to stay asleep for a full night's rest

absentmindness

inability to recall something due to not paying attention

discrimination

inappropriate and unjustified treatment of people as a result of prejudice

self-regulatory capacities

individuals relative ability to set personal goals, evaluate their progress, and adjust their behavior accoddingly

narcissism

inflated self-esteem

activity in medial prefrontal cortex is associated with

ingroup bias that emerges after assignment through the minimal group paradigm

minimal group paradigm

ingroups and outgroups can be created from the most minimal conditions such as flipping a coin

social identity theory

ingroups consist of individuals who perceive themselves to be members of the same social category

primary motor cortex?

initiaties voluntary movement in the body and triggers muscle movement (broca -> plans articulation) -> mainly hands and mouth muscles ; rest is gross rather refined

where is cochlea/what does it look like

inner ear; coiled like a snail shell

Beauty is related to _

integrity, concern for others, and other collectivistic qualities

idiographic approach

intensive studies of individuals; person centered approaches to assessing personality; they focus on individual lives and how various characteristics are integrated into unique persons ex: narrative, interviews, biographical info

ivan pavlov 1800s

interested in digestion; used dogs as research subjects; led to subject of classical conditioning (on accident); conditioned stimulus leads to conditioned response

rotter's other theiry

internal locus of control v external

sociometer

internal monitor of social acceptance or rejection high probability of rejection / low self esteem " " " acceptance / high self esteem

types of cognitive therapies

interpersonal: focuses on relationships client clients use cognitive and psychodynamic techniques to gain insight into their relationships with other people. rational-emotive: introduced by Albert Ellis in 1962; the therapist acts as a teacher, explaining the client's errors in in thinking and demonstrating more-adaptive ways to think cognitive restructuring: introduced by Aaron T. Beck in 1964; a clinician helps the client replace maladaptive thought patterns with patterns that are more in touch with reality mindfulness-based: this approach makes use of Eastern mindfulness practices to help a client avoid relapse following treatment; clinicians help clients become aware of negative thought processes and disengage from ruminative thinking using meditation

fixed interval

interval of time that must pass before reinforcement becomes possible is always the same; scalloping shape; laziness after last reward

small/no rewards lead to what type of motivation?

intrinsic motivation

t cells

involved in attaching the intruders directly and also with increasing the strength of the immune response

oxytocin

involved in attachments between mothers and children, released when people feel empathy towards others, involved in feelings of love

sensation closer? further?

larger; smaller

Mnemonics + example

learning aids, strategies, and devices that improve recall through the use of retrieval cues; ex: bill made up a silly sentence, where each word started with the same letter as a word he was trying to remember, to remind him of the order of operations in math

Stimulus generalization

learning that occurs when stimuli that are similar but not identical to the CA produce the CR

Vicarious conditioning

learning the consequences of an action by watching others being rewarded or punished for performing the action

what is functionalism who's apart of it? examples of what it consists of:

less "what is consciousness?" more "what does consciousness do?" established by William James; evolutionary influence: -consciousness is constantly changing to help us adapt to the environment: the "stream of consciousness" ex: the visual stream thought purpose of mind was to help us survive, thrive, and reproduce emphasis on adaptive value in evolutionary state

light passes through what

light passes through layers of cells in the retina (light -> nerve impulses so higher brain pathways -> back of eyeball

monocular depth cues

linear perspective (straight out, not converging lines) texture gradient (further away, less texture occlusion (blocking -> things closer are able to block bigger things farther) position to horizon (closer to horizon = farther from you) familiar size (can assume distance based on the size based on how big or small you know it is

Retina

located at the back of the eye; light is focused on the retina; it contains sensory receptors that process visual information and sends it to the brain; light enters (2) the lens after the cornea (1) focuses the incoming light. there, the light is bent farther inward and focused to form an image on (3) the retina, the thin inner surface of the back of the eyeball. if you shine a light in someone's eyes so that you can see the person's retina, you are in fact looking at the only pet of the brain that is visible from outside the skull. the retina contains the sensory receptors that transduce light into neural signals and is the one part of the CNS that is located where we can see it.

Primary visual cortex

located in the occipital lobes; processes visual information

Temporal lobe =

location of primary auditory cortex

julian rotter

locus of control: theory that people's psychological adjustment depends upon whether they see their personal fates as being within or outside their control

what is gestalt psychology? who founded it?

looking it at the whole picture rather than little parts; opposite of structuralist; "big picture more important than the sum of its parts"; a theory based on the idea that the whole of personal experience is different from simply the sum of its constituent elements; founded by Max Wertheimer

ways depression is expressed by men as opposed to by women

men's reluctance to admit to depression and even greater reluctance to seek appropriate therapy have been described as "a conspiracy of silence that has long surrounded depression in men" public statements from well-respected men such as Mike Wallace, a journalist and tv news anchor, and the late William Styron, a pulitzer prize winning author about their battles with depression may help break the silence surrounding depression in men and increase the number of men seeking psychotherapy men mask depression with alcohol, isolation, and irritability

concentrative meditation

mental exercise based on attending to a single object or thought

visual memory

mental representations of stimuli as pictures (relies on how a word or object looks for encoding and retrieval)

self schemas

mental representations that people form of themselves; each person processes information about themselves deeply thoroughly and automatically; cocktail party affect

stereotype

mental shortcut for categorizing people

what drug is double whammy of dopamine

meth

where is eardrum

middle ear; vestibular system is in this

dualism? and who proposed this?

mind and body are interactive with one another but separate; mind (or soul) is in the pineal gland; influences the brain (body) via "animal spirits" ; proposed by Rene Descartes

contemporary mind v body debate:

mind as a level of analysis -- the mind is the brain at work

mind-body problem?

mind= soul body=brain

components of dialectical behavior therapy

mindfulness training based on eastern meditative practices combines elements of behavioral and cognitive treatments radical acceptance: the creator of it, Linehan, learned to manage her own borderline personality disorder by accepting herself rather than striving for an impossible ideal both individuals and group sessions the responsibilities of the client and the therapist are made explicit three stages: 1. therapist targets person's most extreme and dysfunctional behaviors (self harming, threats of suicide, attempts); the focus is on replacing these behaviors with more-appropriate ones; person taught to control attention so that the person focuses on the present; strategies for controlling attention are based on mindfulness meditation 2. the therapist helps the person explore past traumatic experiences that may be at the root of emotional problems 3. the therapist helps the person develop self-respect and independent problem solving; this stage is crucial because those with borderline personality disorder depend heavily on others for support and validation; these individuals must be able to generate the appropriate attitudes and necessary skills themselves, or they are likely to revert to their previous behavior patterns

behavioral therapies use classical and operant conditioning to improve a client's behavior; name the types of behavioral therapies

modeling; ex: teach the client to imitate and rehearse an appropriate behavior in therapy and then apply it to real-world situations systematic desensitization; ex: help the client remain relaxed while he gradually imagines or encounters increasingly anxiety-producing stimuli exposure therapy; ex: bring the client into contact with the anxiety-producing stimulus to help overcome fear or anxiety

default mode network

more active at rest; internal thought; detached from environment; task negative; mind wandering; spaced out on midline of brain (where mohawk is)

attention network

more active during tasks; task positive; engaged attention; lateral activity

low balling strategy

once someone has committed to the initial option, then deciding to do so by spending a bit more money does not seem like such a big decision

reciprocal helping

one animal helps another because the other may return the favor in the future "you scratch my back and i'll scratch yours"

couples attributional style

one partner explains the others behavior happy couples make partner enhancing attributions; they overlook bad behavior or respond constructively unhappy couples make distress-maintaining attributions: they view each other in the most negative ways possible

Consciousness

one's subjective experience of the world, resulting from brain activity

according to cognitive-social theories of personality, how might someone's interpretations of social situations shape her behavior and personality?

observing another person being praised for wearing nice clothes can cause one to have expectations about consequences of looking nice someone's behavior upon arriving at a party is determined by her perception of the situation her emotional response her skills and her expectation of the outcome people's personalities often fail to predict their behavior across different circumstances ones ability to set and follow goals is an essential aspect of personality

according to cognitive-social theories of personality, how night someone's interpretations of social situations shape her behavior and personality

observing another person being praised for wearing nice clothes can cause one to have expectations about consequences of looking nice someone's behavior upon arriving at a party is determined by her perception of the situation her emotional response her skills and her expectation of the outcome people's personalities often fail to predict their behavior across different circumstances ones ability to set and follow goals is an essential aspect of personality

when did cognitive revolution occur? a return to studying what? mind as a what? what anology?

occurred late 50s early 60s; a return to studying mental processes; mind as an informative processors; computer analogy

primacy effect

occurs because first items get most rehearsal / extra rehearsal = transferred to LTM amnesia makes primacy effect go away bc no LTM

recency effect

occurs because info is still fresh in STM a delay after the last words in recall gets rid of this

enzyme deactivation

occurs when an enzyme destroys the neurotransmitter in the synapse

Freudian slip

occurs when an unconscious thought is suddenly expressed at an inappropriate time or in an inappropriate social context

autoreception

occurs when auto-receptors monitor how much neurotransmitter has been released into the synapse and when an excess is detected, the auto-receptors signal the presynaptic neuron to stop releasing the neurotransmitter

reuptake

occurs when the neurotransmitter is taken back into the presynaptic terminal buttons

Non-REM dreams

often very dull; may concern mundane activities such as deciding what clothes to wear or taking notes in class

low balling strategy

once a person has committed to purchase an item, he is likely to buy it even if the price is increased

BF Skinner

operant conditioning; operant chamber (40s-80s) used rats/pigeons: explore around box, hit plays that caused food pellet to come down -> faster and faster

order of psychosexual stages

oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital

stages of Freud's theory of psychosexual development

oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital

alarm stage of GAS

organism recognizes stress, begins to respond: prepares body to fight or flee; release of cortisol and epinephrine; brief reduction in stress resistance

neutral stimulus

originally has no meaning (novel!); paired with US and UR to make it a CS

buffering hypothesis

other people can provide direct emotional support in helping individuals cope with stressful events

what did hans selye find about how our bodies respond to stress

our bodies eventually break down in response to long term stress (exhaustion phase) our immediate reaction to stress is a fight or flight response (alarm stage) in the short term, stress boosts our immune system

where is ear canal located

outer ear

cerebral cortex

outer layer of brain tissue, which forms the convoluted surface of the brain; the site of all thoughts, perceptions, and complex behaviors

REM sleep is also known as

paradoxical sleep bc of the paradox of a sleeping with an active brain

unconditional positive regard

parents should accept and prize their children no matter how the children behave

low levels of dopamine

parkinson's disease dopamine regulated voluntary movements

hippocampus

part of limbic system (connected w thalamus hypothalamus amygdaloid pituitary gland) cells connect to areas where memories are stored

contralateral neglect

patients fail to be aware of items to one side of space (video of lady who can't draw part of daisy)

kin selection

people are altruistic towards those with whom they share genes; occurs among insects ants and bees

door in the face

people are more likely to agree to a small request after they have refused a large request

pratfall effect

people are seen as more attractive if they have small flaws that they feel a bit embarrassed about

personality represents behavior that emerges from the interaction of what three factors

people's interpretations of their social worlds, their beliefs about how they will affect their social situations, and their beliefs about how they will be affected by their social situations

interdependent self-construal

people's self concepts are determined to a large extent by their social roles and personal relationships easterners japan pakistan china some regions of africa collectivist society

reflected appraisal

people's self-esteem is based on how they believe others perceive them

color constancy

perceiving color correctly despite varying light (subconsciously subtracting lighting conditions to see true color)

size constancy

perceiving objects as sand size in spite of variation in size on retina

Psychological reactance:

perhaps desire/romance might be sparked if there is someone we can't have; forbidden relationships; freedom to choose is being taken away so you want it more

What statements about persistence are true?

persistence is the continual recurrence of unwanted memories (not any memories) -PTSD is an example of persistence -it may be associated with activation of the amygdala, leading to stronger memories -drugs and extinction can be used during reconsolidation to reduce persistence

humanistic theories

personal growth and self understanding; emphasizes experiences, beliefs, and inherent goodness

george kelly 1955 personal constructs

personal theories of how the world works

personal constructs

personal theories of how the world works; people view the world as if they are scientists--constantly testing their theories by observing ongoing events and then revising those theories based on what they observe; personal constructs develop through experiences and represent each individual's interpretations and explanations for events in their social worlds

a person's characteristic thoughts, emotional responses, and behaviors make up his

personality

biological trait theory eysenck

personality is composed of traits that occur in three dimensions: extraversion/introversion, emotionally stable/neurotic, and high constraint/low constraint (originally called psychoticism)

projective measures

personality tests that examine unconscious processes by having people interpret ambiguous stimuli

how has evolution played a role in the development of personality traits

personality traits provide information regarding mate selection groups whose members possess diverse skills have a selective advantage over groups whose members have a limited number of skills it had been evolutionarily adaptive for nonhuman animals to have distinct personality traits the human genome (personality traits) continues to be shaped by evolution

raymond cattell

personality traits; developed a theory of personality based on identifying different traits; his theory is the forerunner to the 5 factor theory

Episodic memory

personally experienced events

what is cognitive psychology?

perspective that focuses on the mental processes involved in perception, learning, memory, and thinking

how to control for person related confounds?

random asssignment

what factors would make two people more likely to develop attraction and friendship

physically attractive, admirable personality traits, similar attitudes values interests backgrounds and personalities, they come into contact frequently (proximity), familiarity, if they are both kind & trustworthy

Frequency = (one word)

pitch

frequency

pitch Hz

Oral Stage (0-18 months)

pleasure on the mouth - suckling, biting, chewing

erogenous zones

pleasure sensitive areas of the body: mouth anus or genitals

what are the factors that lead to overall well-being according to psychologist martin seligman

pleasure, engagement, meaning, good relationships, and a history of accomplishment

relationship between trust and health

positive correctional; the more people reported being distrustful of others the more they reported being in fair or poor health

3 components of happiness // seligman

positive emotion and pleasure, engagement in life, meaningful life

broaden and build theory

positive emotions prompt people to consider novel solutions to their problems

thin slices of behavior

powerful cues for impression formation; based solely on behaviors (nonverbal behavior)

frontal lobe: parts?

prefrontal cortex, primary motor cortex, broca's area,

inferiority complex adler

primary conflict as based on fears of inadequacy (phallic stage)

rem

rapid eye movement sleep; dreams; reduced/inhibited muscle tone; lower activity in prefrontal cortex; higher activity in sensory/association areas & amygdala; highly responsive to external stimuli

5 defense mechanisms

reaction formation projection rationalization denial repression

Thalamus

receives the numeral impulses and send the information to the relevant part of the brain

Festinger's Cognitive Dissonance Theory

reconcile cognitive discrepancies; boring task; 20$ or 1$; lie

accommodation

process by which (happy) couples overlook bad behavior or respond constructively

b cells

produce antibodies, protein molecules that attach themselves to foreign agents and mark them for destruction

CR

product of classical conditioning; NS becomes CS and leads to this

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

projective test requiring examinees to tell a story in response to ambiguous pictures; schemes are assumed to reflect the storytellers personal motives

plasticity

property of the brain that allows it to change as a result of experience or injury

Place coding

proposed by Hermann con Helmholtz; a mechanism for encoding high-frequency auditory stimuli in which the frequency of the sound wave is encoded by the location of the hair cells along the basilar membrane

Activation synthesis theory

proposed by John Alan Hobson and Robert McCarley in 1977; a theory of dreaming; proposes that the brain tries to make sense of random brain activity that occurs during sleep by synthesizing the activity with stored memories (dreams are caused by random neural firings combined w memories)

altruism

providing help when it is needed, without any apparent reward for doing so

goals of each therapy

psychodynamic: helps client become aware of unconscious conflicts and defense mechanisms behavioral: helps client eliminate harmful behaviors and replace them with beneficial ones cognitive: helps client eliminate harmful thoughts and replace them with positive ones humanistic: helps client fulfill potential for personal growth group: provide support while also improving social skills in a cost-effective manner family: helps family relationships

sigmund freud

psychosexual development

any formal treatment for psychological disorders aimed at understanding the client's problems and working toward a solution is known as

psychotherapy

controlling amount of light

pupil; by contracting or dilating (sympathetic NS) determines how much light enters the eye

The evidence suggests that subliminal messages have minimal effects on

purchasing behavior

Right after breaking up with her boyfriend, Matt, Emily could only think of the times they fought. But whenever Emily talked about Matt to her friends after the breakup, they consistently recalled his warmth and generosity. With each time she talked about Matt, Emily noticed her memory of him gradually become more positive. What concept explains this change in memory retrieval?

reconsolidation; our memories begin as versions of what we have experienced. then they actually might change when we use them, such as when they are changed by our mood, knowledge about the world, or beliefs.

opponent process theory

red v green yellow v blue stare at red image for a while, green after image; vise versus and with blue/yellow one type of ganglion cell receives excitatory input from L (red) cones but is inhibited by M (green) cones; cells of this type create the perception that red and green are opponents neurons simultaneously send excitatory APs while inhibiting 'opp color' cells

Neuroticism (emotional stability)

refers to degree of emotional stability, impulse control, and anxiety (worried v calm insecure v secure self pitying v self satisfied)

denial

refusing to believe or even perceive painful realities

partial reinforcement

reinforced intermittently

Fixed ratio schedule

reinforcement is provided after a certain number of responses have been made

Variable ratio schedule

reinforcement occurs after an unpredictable number of responses ex: randomly awards extra credit for doing hw, not every time, not fixed number of times, but arbitrarily

variable ratio

reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses; MOST MOTIVATING!!!; slot machine

Variable interval schedule

reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals

variable interval

reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals; consistently but not a whole lot of effort

Serial position effect

related to working and LTM (remembering first and last words but not so much middle)

sympathetic nervous system responses to stress

release of epinephrine and norepinephrine, increased heart rate, bp, and respiration

endocrine system

releases hormones; all over body a communication system that uses hormones to influence thoughts, behaviors, and actions

Maintenance rehearsal

repeating stimuli in their original form to retain them in short-term memory (rote repetition)

maintenance rehearsal

repetitive review of information with little or no interpretation (uses repetition to keep information current in short term or working memory)

what describes temperament as opposed to personality traits

represents the innate biological structure of personality general tendencies to feel or act in a certain way stable from the time we are babies

Explicit memory (declarative memory)

requires conscious effort and often can be verbally described

once a neurotransmitter has finished binding with the post synaptic receptor site, how does the transmission end?

reuptake enzyme deactivation or autoreception

three major events that terminate the neurotransmitter's influence in the synapse

reuptake, enzyme deactivation, autoreception

Visual signals entering the left visual field of both eyes are sent to what side of the primary motor cortex for processing

right

which ear hears speech better

right ear; faster at understanding language "right ear advantage" (left gem=specialization for language)

activation-synthesis theory

robert mccarley; random brain activity occurs during sleep and that this neural firing can activate mechanisms that normally interpret sensory input. the sleeping mind tries to make sense of the resulting sensory activity by synthesizing it with *stored memories*; dreaming serves a physiological purpose; source of dreams emotional content: limbus regions (hypothalamus, amygdala, thalamus, hippocampus, basal ganglia); after the fact "synthesis" of meaning

transduction of signals

rods and cones convert light waves into signals. those signals are processed by ganglion cells, which generate APs that are sent to the brain by the optic nerve

What sensory receptors enable people to see in the dark?

rods; they are activated in low illumination to facilitate vision in the dark

low levels of serotonin

sadness, anxiety, aggression serotonin helps to regulate mood

UR

salivating UR would be food

perception closer? farther?

same size *because of perceptual constancies!*

SAD

seasonal affective disorder; depressive episodes are more likely to occur during winter

What isn't a prediction of the rescorla-wagner model

second-order conditioning may become associated with a response by way of a primary conditioned stimulus

A stimulus, like money, that had become associated with a need or reward (like power) and, when presented after a response, increases the likelihood the response will be repeated, is called a _

secondary reinforcer

temporal v place coding

see other def

gestalt principles of perceptual organization

seeing the whole "the forest for the trees" (the brain uses innate principles to organize sensory information into organized whiles) "an object exists as a unit, nor as a collection of features"

nomothetic approach

seeks broad, general principles of personality; approaches assessing personality that focus on how common characteristics vary from person to person

inattentional blindness

selective attention can be so effective that we miss salient features in our environment

three types of long term memory

semantic episodic procedural

pituitary gland

sends hormonal signals to other endocrine glands, controlling heir release of hormone part of brain connected to base of hypothalamus (releasing hormones like hunger/thirst/reproductive hormones/stress)

Rods: what are they; specialization; how many per retina; where are they in retina

sensory cells in the retina that are activated in dim light; they do not support color vision, and they are poor at fine detail; 120 million per retina; concentrated at retina's edges; none are in fovea

Cones: what are they; specialization; how many per retina; where are they in retina

sensory cells in the retina that are activated under brighter conditions; seeing in color and detail; 6 million per retina; spread throughout remainder of the retina (concentrated at fovea) diminish near the jurisdiction edge

Main steps in memory

sensory input -> 1 encoding -> 2 storage -> 3 retrieval

Sensory memory task

sensory memory is fleeting and temporary and has no capacity for storing info task: a person drives by a store and glances at the clothes for sale in the window

thalamus

sensory relay station

Hallucinogens

serotonin

Short-term memory task

short-term memory is where sensory info goes when we pay attention to it task: while looking idly out the car window, a man sees an interesting bird and begins to pay attention

similar stimuli

similar (emotional!!!) response

Restorative theory

sleep allows the body, including the brain, to rest and repair itself

unconscious strategies that help people maintain a positive sense of self

social comparisons; when people evaluate their own actions abilities and beliefs by contrasting them with other people's; like to compare themselves with others to see where they stand self serving bias; students who do extremely well on exams explain their performance by referring to their skills or hard work but those who do poorly describe the test as an arbitrary examination of trivial details

Zajonc's model of social facilitation

social facilitation can enhance or impair performance; the mere presence of others leads to increased arousal. the arousal favors the dominant response. if the required response is easy or well learned performance is enhanced while if the required response is novel or not well learned the performance suffers

prefrontal cortex:

social hierarchy and interest, personality, emotional regulation, behavioral inhibition, decision making, reasoning, problem solving, attention and memory (governing of memory processes/receiving information; executive functions -> helps you access info; not where it's stored) focusing outward v inward (how you are/what you're thinking/how you're responding)

stanley milgram

social psychologist who researched obedience to authority; demonstrated that average people will obey even hideous orders given by an authority figure

depolarization

sodium rushes into neuron through membrane, potassium ruses out; results in a change in charge

Selective attention

some stimuli more readily capture attention because they provide important information about potential threats in an environment (can evoke emotions or produce pain); an object produces stronger attentions response when it is viewed as socially relevant

stressor

something that is perceived as threatening or demanding

zone of confusion

sound arrived at both ears at the same time

the brain stem performs what

sound localization

how does hearing work

sound waves push on the ear drum, eardrum pushed 3 bones (ossicles: hammer, anvil, stirrup) -> concentrates sound waves -> stirrup is pushing and vibrating membrane that is flowing w fluid inside cochlea which enacts hearing

factors affecting the persuasiveness of a message

source (who delivers message) content (what the message says) receiver (who processed the message) attractive and credible: most persuasive

Hippocampus

spatial memory

enzyme deactivation

specialized enzymes break apart the neurotransmitters into their chemical components

what are receptors

specialized protein molecules located on the postsynaptic membrane that specifically respond to the chemical structure of the neurotransmitter available in the synapse

lymphocytes

specialized white blood cells that are responsible for immune defenses (b cells t cells killer cells)

two types of phobias

specific phobias and social phobias; 12/13% of population diagnosed with both

second stage of visual processing

star occurs in ganglion cells (cells that make up optic nerve, which carries info to the brain)

name all steps of scientific method

step 1: frame a research question step 2: literature review step 3: form a testable hypothesis step 4: design a study step 5: conduct the study step 6: analyze the results step 7: report the results

bis: behavioral inhibition system

stop system; sensitivity to punishment or rejection increase in anxiety negative affect linked to neuroticism; brain system that inhibits behavior that might lead to danger or pain

nondeclarative memory

stored in motor circuits; cerebellum: highly processed motor skills habits classical conditioning basal ganglia: refine / make more precise ; habit forming / OCD / addiction

resistance phase

stress hormones continue to be released to defend against the threat

eustress

stress of a positive nature

structuralist would ask _, while functionalist would ask _:

structuralist would ask "how does it work?", while functionalist would ask "why does it work?":

true statements regarding prejudice

study participants were more likely to misidentifying tools as guns after seeing black faces; stereotypes affect our perception our tendency to sort people into in-groups and out-groups may help explain why we hold prejudices and practice discrimination VR simulation: blacks more likely to be incorrectly shot computer simulations can train policemen not to expect black people to be holding guns modern racism often leaks out more through indifference to the concerns of minority group members than through overt negativity; subtle an example of modern racism is the belief that admitting lots of asians to top-tier schools is negatively affecting the student culture at those schools

withdrawal from pain killing narcotics: (heroin/pain pills)

subjective pain, gastrointestinal distress, restlessness, sweating *heavier*

Advertisers have long been accused of using

subliminal cues to persuade people to purchase products

working self concept

subset of self knowledge that is brought to mind in a particular context; immediate experience of the self; limited to the amount of personal information that can be processed cognitively at any given time; your descriptions of yourself vary depending on your environment ex: at a party you see yourself as awkward or outgoing rather than hardworking

modern racism

subtle forms of prejudice that coexist with the rejection of racist beliefs; often leaks out more through indifference to the concerns of minority group members than through overt negativity arises in part because the equal treatment of minorities can challenge traditions associated with the majority: people who say that gays shouldn't face discrimination but are reluctant to support gay marriage because it threatens the traditional definition of marriage as being between a man and a woman

glial cells

supportive regarding neurons -> forms myelin (present on most axons; fatty insulator) which makes axons more efficient at transmitting axon potentials -makes up myelin sheath

bystander intervention effdct

the failure to offer help by those who observe someone in need when other people are present

Encoding specificity principle + example

the idea that any stimulus that is encoded along with an experience can later trigger a memory for the experience; ex: hearing the movie's soundtrack helped susan recall the details from a particular scene in the film

mere exposure effect

the idea that greater exposure to a stimulus leads to greater liking for it

social identity theory

the idea that i groups consist of individuals who perceive themselves to be members of the same social category and experience pride through their group membership

foot in the door effect

the idea that if people agree to s small request they become more likely to comply with s large and undesirable request

elaboration likelihood model

the idea that persuasive messages lead to attitude changes in two ways: via the central route (people are paying attention to the arguments considering all the information and using rational cognitive processes -> leads to strong attitudes that last over time and that people actively defend) or via the peripheral route (when people are either not motivated to process information or are unable to process it -> minimally processing it)

social facilitation

the idea that the presence of others generally enhances performance can occur in horses dogs rats birds fish cockroaches

Modeling

the imitation of behavior through observational learning; ex: a child eating her peas with a fork after watching her mother do so

group polarization

the initial attitudes of group members determine whether the group becomes riskier or more cautious; if most of the group members are some-what cautious, then the group becomes even more cautious

what is cognitive neuroscience?

the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity (including perception, thinking, memory, and language) linked with cognition.

superego

the internalization of societal and parental standards of conduct

elaborative rehearsal

the linking of new information to material that is already known (encodes information by making meaningful connections to info already stored in LTM)

matching principle

the most successful romantic couples also tend to be the most physically similar

what is structuralism? who's apart of it? (2 people) examples of what it consists of:

the study of the elements of consciousness. The idea is that conscious experience can be broken down into basic conscious elements, much as a physical phenomenon can be viewed as consisting of chemical structures, that can in turn be broken down into basic elements; established by Wilhelm Wundt; psychophysics, reaction time, "self observation" studies; Wundt and Titchener used method of introspection to identify the elements of consciousness

definition of psychological science

the study, through research, of mind, brain, and behavior

blocking

the temporary inability to remember something that is known

actor/observer bias

the tendency for actors to make external attributions and observers to make internal attributions

foot in the door technique

the tendency for people who have agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request

group think

the tendency of group members to make bad decisions when the group is under pressure, facing external threats, and is biased

suggestibility

the tendency to incorporate misleading information from external sources into personal recollections

social loafing

the tendency to not work as hard in a group than when working alone

outgroup homogeneity effect

the tendency to view outgroup members as less varied than ingroup members

exhaustion stage

the third stage of the GAS, characterized by weakened resistance and possible deterioration; various physiological and immune systems fail

what do research findings reveal about animal personality traits compared to human personality traits

the traits of control and carefulness is only found in chimpanzees and in humans the traits of extraversion and emotionality are found in nonhuman and human species

according to caps theory, what will determine how people respond to situations?

their skills, emotional response to situation, perception of the situation, anticipation of how the situation will go

interactionists

theorists who believe that behavior is determined jointly by situations and underlying dispositions

situationism

theory that behaviors are determined more by situations than by personality traits

results from twin and adoption personality studies

there appears to be little parental influence on adopted children's personalities identical twins raised apart have similar personality traits small correlations in personality between biological siblings or between children and their biological parents (still higher than for adopted children) personalities of adopted children bear no significant relationship to those of the adoptive parent higher correlation between identical twins than fraternal correlations of personality traits between identical twins are much higher than those between siblings indicating a genetic component to personality traits

why is it so difficult to treat antisocial personality disorder

these individuals lie without thinking twice about it, care little for other people's feelings, and live for the present without consideration of the future in addition, they are narcissistic and like themselves the way they are psychotropic medications have not been effective in treating this disorder (though stimulants, anti-anxiety drugs, and lithium can control some symptoms, overall medication is not a very effective way to treat APD) people with APD will receive reinforcement for antisocial behavior in the real world (for this reason, therapy is most effective in a residential treatment center or correctional facility)

Stage 1

theta waves

how are psychotropic medications used to treat disorders/3 categories

they change brain neurochemistry ex: inhibit action potentials or alter synaptic transmission to increase or decrease the action of particular neurotransmitters 1. anti-anxiety 2. antidepressants 3. antipsychotics sometimes drugs from one category are used to treat a disorder from another category because (1) comorbidity and (2) in most cases there is insufficient evidence about why a particular drug is effective in reducing symptoms of a psychological disorder many questions remain about how brain chemistry is related to psychological disorders, and many drug treatments have been based on trial-and-error clinical studies in which different drugs have been used to see if they reduce symptoms

how are resilient people different in their response to stress from people low in resilience

they experience positive emotions even when under stress anxiety related brain region are not easily activated they use emotional resources flexibly in times of stress

true statements about stereotypes

they occur automatically as cognitive processes, stereotypes are inherently neutral, though they can contain positive or negative information when people encounter someone who doesn't fit a stereotype, they put that person in a special category rather than alter the stereotype stereotypes helps us avoid having to size everyone up with illusory correlations we see relationships that do not exist, which we use to confirm our preexisting stereotypes

autoreception

this monitoring device tells the presynaptic neuron to stop releasing the neurotransmitter

cognitive theories

thought processes; emphasizes the roles of thought processes, interpretations of events, beliefs, and expectations

big data

thumbs up reinforcer thumbs down punished strongest predictor of decreasing posts: no response; extinction through ignoring

withdrawal from stimulants symptoms: (caffeine/coke)

tired, poor concentration, low mood *lighter*

2 reasons for stereotyping

to streamline the formation of impressions and to deal with the limitations inherent in mental processing

anal stage (2-3)

toilet training, learning how to control bowels

depth perception

top down bottom up: how knowledge, expectations, or past experiences shape the interpretation of sensory information. that is, context affects perception: what we expect to see influenced what we perceive

seeing the gestalt involves what processing

top-down processing: driven by cognition, expectation, past experience; processing of jumbled letters we form into words and sentences

highly evaluative traits vazire

traits people care about people are biased when judging themselves traits that are easy to observe but also are highly meaningful such as creativity are more likely to be judged accurately by friends than by the person with the trait

anti-anxiety drugs

tranquilizers; used for short-term treatment of anxiety; one class is benzodiazepines (xanax and ativan) which increase the activity of GABA, the most persuasive neurotransmitter benzodiazepines reduce anxiety and promote relaxation but also induce drowsiness and are highly addictive and should therefore be used sparingly

What is TM

transcendental meditation; perhaps the best-known meditation procedure; one method of meditation meant to expand the mind, bring about feelings of inner peace, and help people deal with the stresses and tensions in their lives

Rods and cones

transducer light wavelengths (located in the fovea, near the center of the retina)

memory failure processes

transience blocking absentmindedness

two driving forces of group formation

transitivity and reciprocity

two historic theories of color perception

trichromatic and opponent process theory

Strategies for overcoming loneliness

trying harder, making an effort, finding groups where you feel like you can feel comfortable

binocular depth cues

two eyes see the world differently because two different vantage points; reconciling two different images from the retinas in the cortex

actor/observer discrepancy

two tendencies: when interpreting their own behavior people tend to focus on situations when interpreting others behavior people tend to focus on dispositions

rods and cones

two types of photoreceptors; in the retina within the rods and cones, light-sensitive chemicals initiate the transduction of light waves into electrical neural impulses

Automatic processing

type of consciousness needed to perform quick, automatic behaviors or habits ex: driving, walking, understanding the meanings of words on a page

chunking

type of visual encoding & linguistic coding

humanist theorists emphasize

unconditional positive regard

carl rogers

unconditional positive regard; rogers advocated for an accepting and supportive therapeutic environment to deal with the client's problems as the client understood them

Subliminal perception

unconscious cues that can influence cognition; occur when stimuli get processed by sensory systems but, because of their short durations or subtle forms, do not reach consciousness

psychodynamic theories

unconscious forces; emphasizes the roles of unconscious wishes desires and conflicts

View of freud and his followers

unconscious mental processes are the primary determinants of behavior, not the environment

defense mechanisms

unconscious mental strategies that the mind uses to protect itself from distress/anxiety

discrimination

unfair treatment based on prejudice against a certain group

unhappy couples and attributions

unhappy couples attribute good outcomes to situations and bad outcomes to each other

Illusory depth cues

we sometimes perceive contours and cues to depth even when they do not exist (pic on page 190 in textbook: a) contours are implied b) cues to depth are implied; the triangle is an illusion created by our visual system. it also appears brighter than the surrounding area, as would be expected if it were closer to us

illusory

we sometimes perceive contours and cues to depth even when they don't exist

cognitive dissonance

unpleasant mental experience of tension resulting from two conflicting thoughts or beliefs: a person knows that soda is bad for her, so she makes up a reason to justify buying it; attitudes and actions do not match

method of loci

use of familiar locations as cues to recall items that have been associated with them

antidepressants

used to treat depression and anxiety disorders monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibitors were the first antidepressants discovered MAO is an enzyme that breaks down serotonin in the synapse MAO inhibitors therefore stop this process and result in more serotonin being available in the synapse these drugs also raise levels of dopamine and norepinephrine second category of antidepressant is the tricyclic antidepressants, which inhibit the reuptake of certain neurotransmitters, resulting in more of each neurotransmitter being available i the synapse more recently, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) have been introduced; the best-known is prozac. these drugs inhibit the reuptake of serotonin, but they act on other neurotransmitters to a lesser extent

Vestibular sense:

uses information from receptors in the semicircular canals of the inner ear. these canals contain a liquid that moves when the head moves, bending hair cells at the ends of the canal. the bending generates nerve impulses that inform us of the head's rotation. in this way, the vestibular sense is responsible for our sense of balance. it explains why inner-ear infections or standing up quickly can make us dizzy. the experience of being seasick or carsick results in part from conflicting signals arriving from the visual system and the vestibular system.

4 types of PARTIAL reinforcement schedules

variable ratio variable interval fixed ratio fixed interval

the logic of regression:

variable x predicts variable y

highest cultures with aggression v lowest

venezuela el salvador jamaica south africa congo (south and central american + african) austria germany sweden japan (european + asian + north american)

self esteem across lifespan

very high in early childhood low points seen in late teens and early twenties especially for females low self esteem experienced towards end of people's lives and leaks typically when people in their late 60s

vicarious learning

vicarious reinforcement; you start doing more frequently bc someone else rewarded vicarious punishment; you see someone else get punished so you don't do it or stop doing it

occipital lobe

visual processing area located above cerebellum analyzes visual input; v basic visual analysis two parts: dorsal and ventral stream

shaping behavior

wait for them, raise bar, wait again, etc dog video about retrieval

Lightness constancy

we know an object is the same even though it looks different as a result of light's reflection; "Varun, looking at his glass table, knows the sides in the shade and the sun are the same, even though the side in the sun looks brighter"

closure

we tend to complete figures that have gaps

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) 1930s 1990s

widely used structured personality test designed to assess symptoms of mental disorders; 567 true false items to assess emotions thoughts and behaviors has 10 scales that measure psychological problems like paranoia depression mania hysteria

Kitty Genovese

woman whose murder in front of witnesses led to research on bystander effect; 38 witnesses failed to help her when she was stabbed repeatedly and raped

depression in women

women are twice as likely to be diagnosed with depressive disorders as men some portion relates to high rates of domestic and other violence against women, reduced economic resources, and inequities at work women are the primary consumers of psychotherapy WOC, lesbians, and women with disabilities are often stereotyped in ways that signal disregard for the choices they have made and the challenges they face; all of these factors can interfere with the therapeutic process

Prefrontal cortex

working memory

Working memory task

working memory involves rehearsing something to transfer it from working memory to long-term memory, or to maintain it in working memory long enough to write it down task: a person repeats a phone number until he enters it into his contact list

Misatrribution

wrong source

Posing time poses a threat:

you can't have me after closing time; sparks desire because threat of not being allowed to have them, ends freedom

Mindfulness meditation

you let your thoughts flow freely, paying attention to them but trying not to react to them

Forms of popular meditation in the west

zen, yoga, TM