Amendments 11-27

Amendment 26

Voting Age Set to 18 Years

Amendment 15

No denial of vote because of race, color, previous condition of servitude The 15th Amendment is one that is considered to be one of the Reconstruction Amendments. It has close ties to the Fourteenth Amendment, which provides for a general definition of a citizen and enumerates certain rights. The 15th Amendment provides for protection to citizens by preventing the government-Federal, state, and local-from denying any citizen the right to vote based on race, color, or if they were bound to slavery in an earlier time. The 15th Amendment was ratified on February 3rd, 1870, but certain states, such as Virginia, Mississippi, and Georgia, were required to ratify the Amendment in order to be recognized for representation in Congress. Though the 15th Amendment was a revolutionary one in the sense that it would extend the rights of African-American citizens, its passage into law did not mean that the general population would thoroughly enforce the new legislation. The original draft of the 15th Amendment also included that the right to hold office would not be denied to any citizen based on race, color, or prior slave status. However, this provision would eventually be removed from the draft in order to ratify the 15th Amendment by the necessary 3/4 votes. The protection guaranteed by the 15th Amendment can be argued to have been implemented to extend voting rights to African-Americans, for politicians were not necessarily or explicitly concerned with the rights of Irish and Chinese immigrants. That is not to say that the voting rights for African-Americans, though included into law, were observed in all the states. In many of the Southern states, groups such as the Ku Klux Klan would employ violence and intimidation to deter many Black voters from exercising their rights. In many instances, many Blacks and even White Republicans were killed as a result, and many times with the help of law enforcement, either directly or by willingly not intervening. Other ways in which many of the Southern states employed tactics to prevent African-Americans from reaching the voting polls were by imposing and administering literacy tests and poll taxes. Some states would go so far as making the locations to register to vote extremely hard to find or not easily available or accessible to Blacks. Even though there was opposition to the inclusion and enforcement of the 15th Amendment by many, it was still a step forward in ensuring equal rights for all men under the United States Constitution. The first African-American to vote under the protection of the Fifteenth Amendment was Thomas Mundy Peterson, who cast his vote in Perth Amboy, New Jersey in a school board election. The passage of the 15th Amendment also allowed for what at the time were radical programs to be created. Many states would implement public education systems, as well as laws preventing the prohibition of interracial marriage. Furthermore, between the years of 1865 and 1880, more blacks were elected to hold a public office than any other period in the United States. It is important to note, however, that no African-American governors were elected by any state.

Amendment 25

Presidential succession, vice presidential vacancy, and presidential disability The 25th Amendment would again address certain procedures regarding the offices of the President and the Vice-President. Most specifically, it entails procedures regarding the succession to the Presidency, as well as determining the process to fill a vacancy in the Vice President office. Further provisions also include procedures to be taken if the President is rendered incapacitated due to disabilities. The 25th Amendment addresses an important issue that had already been a concern in previous legislation in the United States Constitution, and furthermore, actual events occurring in both the office of the President and Vice-President where confusion as to how to proceed. Though the Constitution addressed Presidential office procedures in Article II, the text proved to be ambiguous because it did not explicitly state whether the Vice President is to take the Presidential office, rather than just the position of "Acting President." Furthermore, it did not address what procedures were to take place if the President died, resigned, or was removed from office. The 25th Amendment was ratified by the states on July 6th, 1965. The 25th Amendment proves to be one of the most important Constitutional Amendments because it sets forth precedence in the extenuating circumstance that the President is removed from office regardless of the reason. Prior to the 25th Amendment, there was confusion regarding the procedures and who would then replace the President and to what extent that person would assume the Presidential office. The first occurrence of this kind of situation resulted when President William Henry Harrison died while in office. Vice President John Tyler then assumed the role of President, rather than just acquiring the position's powers and responsibilities. Tyler refused to be recognized as "Acting President" and would finally take the oath of office, making him the tenth United States President. This would become known as the "Tyler Precedent", which would informally establish that the Vice President would take the office of President in the event that the elected President died while in office. However, no formal legislation existed establishing such a procedure. A similar event would again occur while President Woodrow Wilson was in office and suffered a stroke. No individual formally assumed the Presidential office during that time. Furthermore, the office of Vice President has been vacated sixteen times, with no one assuming the role. The extenuating circumstances led to the clear need for Constitutional Amendments that would create guidelines and procedures if such events were to occur, as well delineating the exact position that the person assuming the Presidential role would have. Two proposals were sent to Congress for the new Amendment that would provide for these guidelines: the Keating-Kefauver proposal and the Bayh-Celler proposal. The Keating-Kefauver proposal would delegate to Congress the power to determine when a President would be considered disabled, and thus, unable to carry out the responsibilities of the position. Concerns would arise dealing with the possible abuse of authority by Congress by giving them such power, and thus, this proposal was be rejected. The Bayh-Celler proposal, which is the one on which the 25th Amendment is ultimately based, stated that the Vice President would become "Acting President" in the case the President would become disabled. It also included procedures regarding the vacancy of the Vice President office in such a situation. The 25th Amendment would be divided into four distinct sections, each addressing particular procedures regarding events in which the President elect would no longer be able to carry out the duties of the office. Section 1 would include the "Tyler Precedent" as the accepted procedure under law, in which the Vice President would assume the Presidential Office if the President were to die, be removed from office, or resign. Section 2 states that in the case that the Vice President office is vacated, the President would appoint the person to fill that position in concurrence with a majority vote by both Houses of Congress. Section 3 deals with the situation in which the President becomes disabled. The President must provide a written declaration to the President pro tempore of the Senate and the Speaker of the House of Representatives stating that he is unable to carry out his responsibilities. The Vice President would then serve as "Acting President" until yet another written declaration is issued by the President stating that he/she is able to resume the duties of the position. Section 4 is the only provision that has not been implemented. This provision gives the authority to the Vice President to declare the President as disabled by submitting a written declaration to the President pro tempore of the Senate and the Speaker of the House of Representatives. This is only to occur if the President him/herself cannot provide for a written declaration due to the disability. However, if the President is not disabled to that extent, a written declaration stating that he/she is able to resume the office would reinstate him as President. If the Vice President and the Cabinet are still dissatisfied with the condition of the President, yet another declaration can be submitted. At this juncture, Congress must meet within 48 hours if not in session. Congress must then render a two-thirds vote regarding whether or not the President is capable of carrying out the responsibilities of the office. A period of 21 days is allotted to reach such a decision. If no decision is met, the President would still remain in office. Otherwise, the Vice President would continue as "Acting President."

Amendment 14

Rights of Citizens The Fourteenth Amendment is another of the Reconstruction Amendments which were adopted after the Civil War. The 14th Amendment was proposed on June 13, 1866. It was finally ratified by three-fourths of the States on July 9th, 1868. The Fourteenth Amendment has been commonly argued as the most important piece of legislation in the Constitution, and quite possibly, the most important of all laws in the United States. Its original purpose was to simply define what United States citizenship was and provide for an outline of all the rights that were to be recognized by law and not infringed upon by any body of Government, as well as other individuals. For the first time in the United States, citizenship rights were granted to others who were not white male property owners. It was also a result from the Dred Scott v. Sandford case, which ruled that all slaves and their descendants did not possess Constitutional rights. Needless to say, the 14th Amendment would overrule that judgment. The Fourteenth Amendment also came into fruition as a contingency to the 13th Amendment, in order to protect the civil and human rights of recently freed slaves. The Fourteenth Amendment would prohibit any person from being deprived of his/her life, property, or liberty without due process of the law or equal protection under law. The Fourteenth Amendment would include five distinct sections. The First Section would provide for the equal protection of rights and laws to any citizen of the United States, and no person or governmental faction would have any authority on infringing such liberties and rights. The Second Section details the representation of the States in regards to elections of the President and Vice-President, as well as Congress Representatives, State Officers, and members of the Legislature. It also provided for the basic qualifications for a voter including that they must be males over the age of 21, residents of that particular state, and citizens of the United States. Those excluded for consideration would be if they were held guilty of a crime, such as a rebellion. This section also required that Representatives of the states be in direct correlation to the number of inhabitants within its borders, excluding non-taxpaying Indians. The Third Section prescribes the details of those eligible for office or positions in Congress, the military, and civil offices, as well as the President and Vice-President. Any person that had previous taken an oath as a member of such offices or positions that had in any way rebelled against the Government or aided enemies of the State would not be eligible for such considerations. However, Congress may issue an exception by a two-thirds vote of each House. The Fourth Section addresses the idea of compensation of pensions or bounties and other costs incurred by the Civil War. The public debt of the United States, as authorized by law, would be compensated as necessary. However, neither the United States nor any state could collect damages incurred in the Civil War that relate to the loss or emancipation of a slave. These claims would be held illegal under this provision and would not be recognized under law. The last Section simply provide for the authorization of Congress to employ the provisions of Fourteenth Amendment, as allowed by law.

Amendment 24

Abolition of Poll Tax in National Elections The 24th Amendment is one that arose due to yet another Amendment to the United States Constitution, the Fifteenth Amendment. The 15th Amendment granted men the right to vote, prohibiting the Government from using "race, color, or previous condition of servitude" as a means to deny such a right. As a result, those with racist and prejudice sentiments against African-Americans were finding ways to circumvent the provisions found in the 15th Amendment by placing literacy tests, threats of violence, intimidation, and poll taxes. All of these methods were implemented as a way to deter African-Americans from reaching the polls to exercise their right to vote. The 24th Amendment specifically deals with the poll tax. It prohibits Congress and the states from implementing a poll tax or any other kind of tax. The states ratified the amendment on January 23rd, 1964. The 24th Amendment states, "The right of citizens of the United States to vote in any primary or other election for President or Vice President...shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or any State by reason of failure to pay any poll tax or other tax". Poll taxes began to be implemented, particularly in the southern states, to prevent African-Americans from voting in elections. Just one of the methods used to prevent African-Americans from reaching the polls, it was not considered to be in violation of the Fifteenth Amendment because it did not directly use race as a condition to pay the poll tax. As a consequence, many poor whites also were affected by the poll taxes. Poll taxes also would accumulate if they were not paid from election to election, further restricting the ability of African-Americans to vote because of the lack of economic means. Poll taxes began to appear in the South in the 1890s and were largely unregulated due to the fact that there were no Federal law enforcement officials to protect the rights of African-Americans to vote. All of the states of the Confederacy had poll taxes in place by 1902. The poll taxes themselves were at one point ruled not to be unconstitutional in the Breedlove v. Suttles case because it did not violate the provisions set forth by either the Fourteenth Amendment or the Fifteenth Amendment. However, it is the Breedlove case that managed to raise awareness of the unfairness of poll taxes and created the movement for a Constitutional Amendment banning them in 1939. However, it would be the Smith v. Allwright case that would make a more definitive move toward the banning of the poll tax. The Smith case would ban the "white primary", which would prohibit any person who was not white from voting. The poll tax would still be implemented simply because, at the time, it was still not considered to be in violation of Constitutional rights. However, it would not be until President John F. Kennedy took office that the poll tax repeal would be brought back as a public concern and finally passed as the 24th Amendment.

Amendment 13

Abolition of slavery The Thirteenth Amendment is arguably one the most important Amendments to the United States Constitution and the impact it had on the history of the United States. It would become a change to the landscape of America and secured a more appropriate application of human and equal rights to its citizens. The 13th Amendment is the provision that officially called for the abolishing of slavery and the prohibition of such practice, including involuntary servitude. Involuntary servitude would only be acceptable as a form of punishment for a crime. The 13th Amendment was adopted on December 6th, 1865, but was introduced for approval earlier the same year. The Thirteenth Amendment is divided into two sections and was the first of what are now referred to as the Reconstruction Amendments. The Thirteenth Amendment is as follows: ● Section 1: Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States. ● Section 2: Congress shall have the power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. The 13th Amendment would prove to be an important part of United States history, not only affecting the future of further generations, but as well as the times in which it was enacted, providing for the spark of the Civil War. Prior to the 13th Amendment, all legislation regarding slavery related to its protection as an accepted practice. As a country, the United States had stopped importing slaves, but on the domestic front, little was done to abolish the practice of slavery. However, the movement toward abolishing slavery had begun as early as 1839 by a proposal submitted by John Quincy Adams. More proposals were to follow, but it would not be until 1863 when James Mitchell Ashley submitted his proposal. Others would follow, as drafted by James F. Wilson and John B. Henderson. The combination of these three proposals would become the original Amendment proposal presented to the Senate. In the same year, Abraham Lincoln would issue the Emancipation Proclamation, which would mark the beginning of the movement to abolish slavery. The Thirteenth Amendment would provide for several clauses for consideration, such as involuntary servitude. Involuntary servitude would be classified when the master subjects a servant to the following conditions: ● Threats of or actual use of physical force; ● Threats of or actual state-imposed coercion; ● Fraud or deceit involving a minor, an immigrant, or a mentally incompetent individual. Any of these conditions, combined with the imposing of a person to labor or service against his/her will, would be in violation of the 13th Amendment. The ban on involuntary servitude was first tried by the U.S Supreme Court in 1911 in the Baily v. Alabama case, in which the decision was upheld. The concept of peonage is also related to involuntary servitude. This refers to a person bound to involuntary servitude, in which the service constitutes the payment of a debt. However, if peonage is to be found to violate the same conditions prohibited under the Thirteenth Amendment for involuntary servitude, it is also considered unconstitutional.

Amendment 18

Alcohol is prohibited The Eighteenth Amendment is the only Amendment to ever have been repealed from the United States Constitution-via the inclusion of the Twenty-First Amendment. The 18th Amendment called for the banning of the manufacture, sale, or transportation of alcoholic beverages. Known as national Prohibition, the Eighteenth Amendment banned "intoxicating liquors" with the exception of those used for religious rites. It is also the first Amendment to impose a date by which it was to be ratified. If the deadline was not met, the Amendment would be discarded. The ratification of the 18th Amendment was completed on January 16th, 1919 and would take effect on January 17th, 1920. It is important to note that the 18th Amendment did not prohibit the consumption of alcohol, but rather simply the sale, manufacture, and transportation of alcoholic beverages. A result of the Temperance Movement, the concept of Prohibition had already been implemented by many states prior to the ratification of the Eighteenth Amendment. Therefore, the 18th Amendment was quickly ratified into law. The Temperance Movement would prove to become a powerful collection of individuals and factions that would garner a certain political power, which many politicians were afraid to confront. Church groups, the business elite, feminists, and political reformers were moving toward a dry society and began to call for a nation-wide law banning alcoholic substances. Initially, Senators were against a Prohibition movement, but were also reluctant to vehemently vote against it. That is why a deadline was included within the proposal for the Eighteenth Amendment, calling for the ratification to be completed within seven years. However, this provision would not prove to be effective, for forty-four states approved the 18th Amendment in just over a year's time from its introduction. The reluctance of the political powers also was reflected in imposing the effect of the Eighteenth Amendment a year from the completion of the ratification process. They did so in order to provide the liquor industry some time to adjust to what would essentially decimate the industry for the following ten years. The implications of the 18th Amendment proved to be more negative than positive, for the effects took a turn for the worse rather than providing for a "dry" utopia. It was during the Prohibition Era that gave rise to organized crime in the United States, where criminals began to find illegal means to provide for the demand for alcohol. The creation of the mafia and mobsters led to a period of violence that would make the Government evaluate which was the greatest of two evils: alcohol or organized crime factions. The Volstead Act, a bill that was introduced to provide for definition of terms used in the Eighteenth Amendment was passed on January 17th, 1920, after Congress overrode the veto by President Wilson. The Volstead Act defined an intoxicating liquor as any beverage containing more than 0.5 percent alcohol. Beer and wine would also be banned as a result, which led to much controversy as well. Further provisions would be enacted as a result of the Eighteenth Amendment, such as the restriction of medicinal liquor prescriptions, allowing searches without warrants in automobiles, and wiretapping of telephones for surveillance of illegal alcohol activity. It was not until 1933, when the overall effects of the 18th Amendment would prove to be more negative than positive, that the 21st Amendment repealed the Eighteenth Amendment completely and removed from Constitutional law.

Amendment 21

Amendment 18 Repealed The 21st Amendment is the only one introduced that would completely repeal another Amendment, the 18th Amendment. The Eighteenth Amendment implemented a national ban on alcoholic or "intoxicating" substances, which was commonly referred to as Prohibition. The 21st Amendment would call for the prohibition repeal, which would no longer prohibit the sale, manufacture, or transportation of alcoholic beverages. The 21st Amendment was ratified on December 5th, 1933 and was the only Amendment to be ratified by state ratifying conventions rather by state legislature, which would mark the prohibition repeal. It is clear that the 21st Amendment was a result of the failed prohibition of alcohol in the United States. Though consumption generally declined, organized crime and crime rates soared to levels never experienced by Americans before. Prohibition only applied to the sale, manufacture, and transportation of alcoholic beverages, but not actual consumption. Even though this would make alcohol extremely difficult to obtain, there would be those that would find illegal means to get their hands on alcohol and ample opportunity existed to derive a profit from such practice. Bootleggers, speakeasies, and the rise of organized crime all were birthed as a reaction to the 18th Amendment. Criminals, such as notorious Chicago gangster Al Capone, would become millionaires and a general lawlessness would proliferate in the United States. Many would simply ignore the provisions set forth by Prohibition. Corruption was common among law enforcement and drinking would become a symbol of rebelliousness, which heightened its appeal. It became apparent that Prohibition, though a noble attempt and experiment, generally brought on more negative impacts than any positive gains to be brought from reducing the consumption of alcohol. The apparent need to reverse Prohibition became the general sentiment of the country. However, its overturning would prove to be more complicated because of the political power the Temperance Movement had garnered through lobbying. Congress would then have to employ one of two methods for ratifying Constitutional Amendments, which had never been used before. Normally, ratification by State legislature was the avenue taken for Amendment ratification, requiring the approval of three-fourths of the states. The other method, as provided by the United States Constitution, is by State conventions. State conventions abide by a loose ratification process, which is similar to that of the "one-state, one-vote" national referendum. The 21sth Amendment would be the only Amendment to the United States Constitution to be ratified using this method. The overturning of Prohibition would, therefore, delegate responsibility of regulating alcohol laws to the states. Even though the 21st Amendment was approved, several states continued to follow the doctrine of Prohibition. For example, Missouri would remain alcohol-free until 1966, while Kansas did not allow public bars until 1987. Some states go as far as allowing counties and/or municipalities to impose their own regulations regarding alcoholic beverages. The interpretation of the provisions in the second section of the 21st Amendment allowed for the states to maintain the right to control alcoholic beverages.

Amendment 12

Election of President and Vice President The Twelfth Constitutional Amendment provides for one of the most important provisions in the United States Constitution and is one of the Amendments that would change how the United States Government would be shaped and select its leaders. The Twelfth Amendment was introduced by Congress on December 9th, 1803, and ratified by the states on June 15th, 1804. This Constitutional Amendment would provide for the process in which the President and Vice-President of the United States would be elected, creating what is now known as the Electoral College. Though there was already a procedure in place to elect the President and Vice-President, the original proved to have some fallacies which were made apparent in the 1796 and 1800 elections. Prior to the inclusion of the Twelfth Amendment, the procedure called for each elector to cast two votes, and those two votes could not be for two people within the State of residency of said elector. If one person received the majority of votes, that person would win the election. If more than one would receive the majority of votes, it would be up to the House of Representatives to choose one of those individuals to become President. If no majority could be determined, the House would choose from five individuals with the most electoral votes. The Vice-President would be chosen by appointing the person with the second highest number of electoral votes with the position. The majority of votes was not required for becoming Vice-President. If there was a tie for second place, the Senate would appoint the Vice-President, with each member casting a vote. However, it was never included in the Constitution whether or not the current Vice-President could cast a vote that could render a tie-breaking decision. Under this system, the 1796 election resulted in having a President, John Adams, a member of the Federalist Party, and Thomas Jefferson, a member of the Democratic-Republican Party, being elected Vice-President. This occurred because members of the Federalist Party decided to use their second vote and disperse them among various candidates, which allowed for Jefferson to garner the second most electoral votes, and thus, being appointed to the position. In having two different party members elected to the President and Vice-President positions, the inherent differences in political agendas and philosophies would ultimately clash, thus making it extremely difficult to work together. The 1800 election posed another problem with the original procedure, where a tie could potentially always occur if the Electoral College voted in accordance to their political party affiliation. This would result in the House of Representatives undertaking multiple ballots to determine a President. With the introduction of the Twelfth Amendment to the Constitution, a new system would be implemented regarding the casting of votes. The actual structure of the Electoral College would not change, however. Instead of casting two votes for a Presidential candidate, the new Amendment required two distinct votes: one for President and the other for Vice President. A majority of electoral votes was still required to be elected to either office or position. In the event that there was no majority, the House of Representatives would choose a President under the guidelines of the original procedure. The only difference under the Twelfth Constitutional Amendment is that the House would choose among three of the people receiving the most electoral votes, rather than the five prescribed in the original process. The Senate would choose a Vice President in the case of no majority, among the two having the most votes. If in the case that there are multiple individuals in a tie for second place, they would also be considered. A new procedure introduced by the new Amendment was the requirement of a two-thirds quorum for balloting procedures. It also provided that if no decision could be reached for a President by March 4th, the first day of the Presidential term, then the elected Vice-President would act as the President. However, the Presidency term date would be eventually revised and changed to January 20th. If no President or Vice-President were to be elected upon that date, Congress would appoint a President who would meet the necessary qualifications to take that position.

Amendment 16

Income tax The Sixteenth Amendment provided for a uniform law regarding the collection of income tax on the national level. The introduction and passage of the Sixteenth Amendment would prove to be crucial, impacting the financial growth and economic standing of the United States. The main concept of the Sixteenth Amendment is that under the new legislation, Congress would not need to apportion an income tax among the states or have it based upon the numbers produced by the Census. The Sixteenth Amendment would revise the previous Constitutional provisions regarding direct taxes and except income taxes on rent, interests, and dividends from those requirements as a result of the Pollock v. Farmers' Loan & Trust Co. in 1895. The Sixteenth Amendment would be ratified on February 3rd, 1913. The Sixteenth Amendment reads, "The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes on incomes, from whatever source derived, without apportionment among the several States, and without regard to any census or enumeration." The new legislation created for Congress' right to impose a Federal income tax, which was the subject of much change and, at times, confusion prior to the ratification of the Sixteenth Amendment. The first income tax was imposed as a result of the Civil War, which was introduced in 1861. It consisted of a three-percent flat tax on incomes greater than $800. This would be changed a year later to introduce a graduated tax ranging from three to five percent on incomes over $600. All income taxes were considered to be indirect taxes and were imposed according to geographic uniformity. Direct taxes were required to be apportioned according to the population of the states. Prior to the Sixteenth Amendment, the income tax system was an issue of dispute between farmers and those involved in industrial professions. The argument was that the low prices set upon for their farm products and the requirement to pay high prices for manufactured goods and products was unfair. Many farmers would form coalitions and organizations to introduce their tax platforms, consisting of a graduated income. The Pollock v. Farmers' Loan & Trust Co. case would declare that some income taxes were unconstitutional because they were not apportioned direct taxes. The case would determine that the source of income would be used in order to classify whether the income was direct or indirect, and thus, allowing for the definition of what kind of income tax would be levied. Income taxes on wages were not to be apportioned by the population numbers, while those on interests, dividends and rent were. The growing dispute prior to the case reflected the sentiment of the Government protecting industrial and financial markets by protecting the economic elite created by Industrialization. The Sixteenth Amendment would finally address and solve the dispute as to how income was to be taxed and under what determinations such income tax is to be considered to be properly enacted and enforced.

Amendment 22

Limit on presidential terms Similar to the 20th Amendment, the 22nd Amendment outlines the term length of the President, specifically addressing the issue of how many terms an elected President may seek. Congress passed the 22nd Amendment on March 21st, 1947, and the Amendment process was completed when it was ratified on February 27th, 1951 by the necessary number of states. The 22nd Amendment strictly limits that the Presidential Office shall not be held by a person more than two times. The provision also holds that any person holding the position of President for more than two years of any given term cannot be elected to the office of President more than once. The 22nd Amendment has roots as far back as the first President of the United States, George Washington. Washington limited his Presidency to only two terms, as well as did Thomas Jefferson. However, prior to the 22nd Amendment, there was no actual legislation in place restricting the amount of terms for which a President could be eligible. The Fathers of the Constitution simply implemented that a term would last four years. Their belief was a reliance on the people and the Electoral College and belief that a third term would be prevented based on these factors. The restriction of two terms of Presidency simply became a respected standard and was adhered to until Franklin D. Roosevelt chose to run for a third term in 1940. Roosevelt even became elected for a fourth term in 1944, but died in office in 1945. Many cite the United States' future involvement in World War II as a reason that FDR was elected for a third term. However, Roosevelt was not the only one to seek a third term, but rather the only President to have served more than two terms. Ulysses S. Grant and Theodore Roosevelt both sought the office of President for more than two terms, but were unsuccessful. The 22nd Amendment first applied to Dwight D. Eisenhower and he believed that running for a third term would essentially undermine the power that the Presidential Office would have in the world of politics. However, many have tried to repeal the Twenty-Second Amendment and have managed to introduce into the Amendment process certain bills and proposals either completely removing the two-term limit, or revising it to bar more than two consecutive terms. Since the ratification of the 22nd Amendment, there have only been three presidents who were eligible for a second term. Jimmy Carter and George H.W. Bush only served one term, and current President Barack Obama is also eligible, this current term being only his first. Under the 22nd Amendment, the only President that would have been eligible to serve more than two terms would be Lyndon B. Johnson. LBJ became President as a result of the assassination of John F. Kennedy, and served the remainder of his term which totaled fourteen months. Under the 22nd Amendment provisions, he did not exceed the two year restriction and would have been eligible to run and be elected in 1968. He was elected in 1964 as President after serving the remainder of JFK's term.

Amendment 17

Popular election of U.S. Senators. The 17th Amendment to the United States Constitution is one that determines the manner or system in which United States Senators are to be appointed. It also provided for a term length for Senators, as well as procedures to be considered in the event that a State has a vacancy in the Senate. The 17th Amendment was proposed in May 13th, 1912, with Connecticut being the last state needed to complete the ratification process for Constitutional Amendments on April 8th, 1913. From that date forward, all United States Senators would be appointed through a direct election by popular vote. The 17th Amendment proposes that the Senate will be composed of two Senators from each state. Each Senator is to hold the position for a term of six years. Each Senator of a state will have one vote. In the case that a vacancy in the Senate in any state arises, the governor or executive authority of that state has the right to fill the vacancy by appointing a replacement through a popular vote. Prior to the 17th Amendment, a governor had the authority to appoint a replacement of his choosing on an immediate basis. The appointed official would have to meet the requirements for such office and would only serve until the next legislature would meet. One of the reasons that the 17th Amendment was adopted as one of the Constitutional Amendments is in direct relation to vacancies in the Senate existing for long periods of time. The election of Senators would often be deadlocked due to different parties holding control over the different Houses and their political interests would be a matter of conflict. Prior to the popular vote election system, Senators would be appointed, and thus, several situations arose where officials would be appointed through the influence of outside factors, such as industries and financial interest groups, and investigations of bribery and corruption were a concern. Therefore, it became more apparent that Senators should be elected by the general populace of the State. Before it became one of the Constitutional Amendments, the concept of Senator elections through a popular vote was being implemented by certain states. The "Oregon System" referred to the practice of states using their primary elections as a way to elect the citizen's choice for a Senator position. More and more states would adopt this system as their choice for the election of Senators. However, investigations regarding the election of an Illinois Senator through unlawful practices made it clear that only Constitutional Amendments would solve this growing concern. By 1910, almost two-thirds of the United States had implemented the practice of Senatorial elections through popular vote which, under Article V of the United States Constitution, allows for creation of a convention to proposed Amendments, pressuring Congress to propose an Amendment. Although the 17th Amendment has proven to be one of the more successful Constitutional Amendments, it has been much disputed in recent years, with some factions even calling for its total repeal. Some politicians believe that the 17th Amendment gives too much power and authority to the United States Congress, allowing for special interests groups to influence the direct election of Senators. Another key reason many oppose the 17th Amendment is due to the fact that 46 of the 50 states allow for the governor to appoint a replacement in the Senate due to a vacancy. Even though the replacement is subject to be removed because an election is to be held, some may hold the position until the next general election is to be held. As of 2009, a bill was proposed to amend the power of governors to appoint Senators by repealing the clause entirely.

Amendment 23

Presidential Vote for District of Columbia The 23rd Amendment of the United States Constitution would finally provide citizens of the District of Columbia the right to vote for the President and Vice President offices. Prior to the 23rd Amendment, citizens of Washington, D.C. were not granted the right to vote on the basis that the Capitol is not considered a State of the United States. Under Article I of the United States Constitution, power was granted to Congress to accept land from the states for the purpose of creating the seat of Government. The District of Columbia was founded in accordance with the provision, as the states of Maryland and Virginia would provide for such land. Washington, D.C. would, therefore, be controlled by Congress. The 23rd Amendment was proposed by Congress on June 17th, 1960, and finally ratified by the necessary number of states on March 29th, 1961. Washington D.C. citizens would ultimately be able to exercise their new right to vote in a Presidential election in 1964. Under the provisions included in the 23rd Amendment, the District of Columbia would be restricted to having a number of electors that would reflect the number of electors in the least populated State of the United States. The electors would be appointed by the State and would be considered as electors appointed by a State. The electors would be bound to observe and follow the provisions contained within the Twelfth Amendment. Currently, the State with the least population numbers is Wyoming. Even without the clause entitling Washington D.C. the number of electors of the least populated state, the number of electors would still be three because of D.C.'s currently population. Even though the District of Columbia did not obtain the right to vote in Presidential Elections until 1961, they were provided the right to vote for a mayor and city council in the 1820s. All of the officials were directly appointed by the President of the United States until 1874, when Congress assumed control over the City's government, as it had done ever since the District's creation for the exception of the years 1871 until 1874. The 23rd Amendment provides citizens of D.C. the right to vote for a President and Vice President, but currently still do not have the right to vote for members of the House of Representatives or Senate to Congress. This issue has been a concern and Amendments regarding the right to vote for members of Congress has been introduced, but was not able to obtain the necessary ratification of the required states. However, Congress did allow for a member of House of Representatives from the District of Columbia to be included, but does not have the power of voting. This representative is elected by the residents of Washington, D.C.

Amendment 20

Presidential, Congressional Terms sets terms and sessions of executive and legislative branches; "lame duck" The Twentieth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution addresses the terms of elected Federal officials, including the President, Vice-President, and members of Congress. Specifically, it defines the actual dates on which those terms begin and end. The 20th Amendment also provides for guidelines to be followed in the scenario that there is no President-elect. The Twentieth Amendment was ratified into the U.S. Constitution on January 23, 1933. Of the Amendments to the Constitution, it is of particular interest that the terms of elected Federal officials remained unchanged or unrevised until 1933, when the Twentieth Amendment was ratified. It provides for important provisions that, at first glance, seem to have been crucial enough to be addressed in earlier times. The Twentieth Amendment is divided into six sections, with the first four containing the substance of the proposed changes in legislature. The first section details that the terms of the President and Vice President are to end at noon on January 20th, and at noon on January 3rd for Senators and Representatives. The terms for the President and Vice President are a length of four years, while members of Congress retain their positions for a period of six years. The Second Section mandates that Congress is to meet at least once a year, with the one meeting being on noon of the 3rd of January, which would be the first meeting with new Congress members in the event of the start of a new term. The situation arising of no President-elect is addressed in Section Three of the Twentieth Amendment to the Constitution. If the President-elect dies before the term begins on the specified date, the Vice President-elect is to become President. This situation also applies if the President-elect has been chosen by the beginning of the term or if the President fails to qualify. In the extenuating circumstance that both the President and Vice President-elect fail to qualify, Congress is allowed by law to declare who is to become President until a President or Vice President qualifies for office. In the case that a person from the House of Representatives dies who has the responsibility to choose a President, and similarly for the person in the Senate choosing a Vice President, then Congress is allowed by law to undertake such responsibilities. Finally, Sections Five and Six provide for a date on which the first two sections are to be enacted, 15th of October after the ratification of the Twentieth Amendment. The Amendment itself would have a period of seven years in which must be ratified; otherwise, it would be discarded. The Amendments to the Constitution regarding the terms of elected Federal officials changed the date on which a term was to begin, which was originally March 4th, four months after the actual elections were held. The implemented date was a consideration for the new officials in providing for ample time to move to the nation's capital. However, in modern times, this lapse in time would prove to be a hindrance rather than a positive consideration. Furthermore, Congressmen who were elected prior to the Twentieth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution would not actually enter office until over a year after their election. The lapse in time would produce what are referred to "lame duck" sessions held by Congress, which were unproductive and obsolete. Particularly importance instances which marked the need for the Twentieth Amendment were the secession of the Southern states and the Great Depression, in which the new elected officials would have to wait four months before they could address these serious concerns.

Amendment 11

Suits against states The Eleventh Amendment was the first to revise the Constitution after the ratification of the first ten in the Bill of Rights. The Eleventh Amendment was passed by Congress on March 4th, 1794, and ratified by a 3/4 state majority on February 7, 1795-New Jersey and Pennsylvania being the only two states not to ratify the Eleventh Amendment. The Eleventh Amendment states, "The Judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted against or of the United States by Citizens of another State, or by Citizens or Subjects of any Foreign State." In other words, the Federal courts are limited and restricted from hearing lawsuits against any state's government that are brought by citizens of another state or foreign country. An example of this would be the State of New York enacting the Eleventh Amendment to protect itself from being sued in a Federal court by people living in the state, as well as residents of other states, or a foreign country. The Eleventh Amendment resulted due to Chisholm v. Georgia, in which Alexander Chisholm sued the State of Georgia for a debt that was owed to Captain Robert Farquhar. Farquhar was a merchant in South Carolina who sold supplies to the State of Georgia on credit. After the war, Georgia decided that it would not pay its debt on the basis that Farquhar was allegedly a British loyalist. Farquhar left Chisolm as the executor of his estate upon his death, which enabled him to bring suit against Georgia. The lawsuit was heard by the Supreme Court and rendered a decision in Chisolm's favor. The verdict would be the subject of much controversy and disapproval by the many states, most obviously and notably, the State of Georgia. The resentment was such that the State of Georgia passed a law stating that anyone that would adhere to the verdict given in the Chisholm case would be liable to hanging. The Eleventh Amendment was drafted and proposed, and quickly ratified into law, which reversed the original decision by the Supreme Court judicial branch. The protection of the State from being sued in a Federal court became known as Sovereign Immunity. Originally, the Eleventh Amendment only barred citizens of other states suing a state in a judicial branch jurisdiction, but it was extended to include residents of the same state as well through the Hans v. Louisiana case. Even though Sovereign Immunity is granted by the Eleventh Amendment, there are four exceptions in which the Supreme Court and Federal judicial branch may hear a lawsuit levied against a state. The Eleventh Amendment does not protect a state's political subdivisions, such as counties, cities, or municipalities, which are all liable to be sued in a Federal judicial branch jurisdiction. Also, under the Eleventh Amendment states have the right to waive their Sovereign Immunity and allow a suit in a Federal court. In certain cases, Congress allows for a state to be sued and heard in a Federal court under the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. The last exception relates to the citizens seeking an injunction against state officials in a Federal court, if they are in violation of a Federal law. The litigation remedy applies strictly to only injunction relief, but not monetary damages that would be furnished by the State's Treasury Department.

Amendment 19

Women's suffrage The Nineteenth Amendment is another Amendment to the United States Constitution that was implemented in order to provide for a guarantee of civil rights to all citizens of the United States. In the vein of the Fifteenth Amendment, the Nineteenth Amendment would call for the prohibition of the state and Federal governments to deny a citizen the right to vote due the citizen's sex. It would take fifty years for women to obtain that right which was granted to free men in 1870 by virtue of the Fifteenth Amendment. The 19th Amendment was ratified on August 18th, 1920. The Nineteenth Amendment states, "The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of sex. Congress shall have power to enforce this Article by appropriate legislation." Though the Women's Rights Movement for Suffrage was already underway in previous years, it would not be until the adoption of the 19th Amendment in which they would ultimately reach success. Women suffrage can be traced back to 1848 to the "Declaration of Sentiments" delivered in Seneca Falls, NY, which would be the first Woman's Rights Convention held in the United States. Women suffragists sought their inclusion in recognition of voting rights provided by the Fifteenth Amendment, but evidently did not make a strong enough case for universal suffrage. It would be in 1878, where the Constitutional Amendment, including what is now Section I of the Nineteenth Amendment, would be proposed. Congress would hear the inclusion of this Amendment in every session for the next 41 years until it was finally approved. However, it is not to say that certain states did not grant women the right vote. The inclusion of Wyoming as a state in 1890 in turn made the new State of Wyoming the first state allowing women the vote. Other states, such as Colorado, Utah, and Idaho would also follow suit in years to come. On the national level, support for women suffrage would arrive at its most successful step to date on January 9th, 1918, when President Woodrow Wilson announced his support for what would eventually become the 19th Amendment. The bill was voted on the following day, in which the House of Representatives managed to pass the Amendment, but the Senate would eventually vote on it in October of the same year and fail to pass it by three votes. It would finally get voted on once again in 1920, when Harry Burns would provide the necessary vote for the State of Tennessee to become the 36th State necessary to pass the Nineteenth Amendment into law. It was quite the controversial move on Burns' part, considering that it was primarily the southern states of the U.S. that were most adamantly opposed to the 19th Amendment. However, the Nineteenth Amendment and its ratification would prove to be one of the most important changes in the history of the United States, further expanding the protection of civil rights for all citizens.