Anatomy Final

Crown

* Part of the tooth that is visible, it sits above the gumline

Root of a tooth

* Part of the tooth that rests below the gumline

Cranial nerves

*12 pairs *Arise from the underside of the brain (except first pair which originates from the cerebrum) *Most are mixed - contain sensory and motor *Sensory fibers - in groups called ganglia *Motor fibers - located in the grey matter Olfactory Optic Oculomotor Trochlear Trigeminal Abducens Facial Vestibulochoclear Glossopharyngeal Vagus Accessory Hypoglosseal

Spinal Cord Functions

*2 major functions: 1. Conducting impulses 2. Center for spinal reflexes *Ascending tracts - carry sensory information to brain *Descending tracts - carry motor instructions from brain to muscles and glands

Spinal Cord Structure

*31 segments *Each segment has a pair of spinal nerves *These nerves are part of the PNS *Go to various body parts to connect them to the CNS *Begins at the Foramen Magnum ***Cervical Enlargement - nerves for upper limbs ***Lumbar Enlargement - nerves for lower limbs

Heart chambers

*4 hollow chambers *Upper chambers= atria *Lower chambers= ventricles

Myocardial infarction

*A blockage of blood flow to the heart muscle. *Heart attack

What is hemoglobin? How does it function?

*A protein and the main cytoplasmic component of erythrocytes. Oxygen carrying component of RBC *Functions -Helps maintain homeostatic balance by facilitating cellular respiration. -Delivers oxygen from lungs to the body's tissues. -Pulls carbon dioxide away from tissues. -Keeps blood in balanced pH.

Tetanus

*A tetanus shot must be given directly after exposure to the bacteria to avoid the body contracting tetanus bacteria *Once tetanus is contracted there is no cure

Twitch

*A twitch is the contractile response of a single muscle fiber *Has 3 parts 1. Latent period- time between stimulus and contraction 2. Period of contraction- H Zone shortened while muscle fiber pulls together 3. Period of Relaxation- Pulling force in the muscle fiber relaxes

Tinea Pedis

*AKA Athletes Foot *Caused by a fungus *Itching, redness, peeling skin

Trachea

*AKA Windpipe *Travels from the larynx to the 5th thoracic vertebrae *Lined with ciliated mucosa *The cilia beat continuously and in the opposite direction from incoming air *This allows them to propel mucus with dust particles away from the lungs and throat

Patellar reflex

*AKA knee- jerk reflex *Only two neurons *Helps to maintain upright posture *If knee bends from force of gravity, reflex will be triggered to straighten leg again

Pharynx

*AKA the throat *Common passageway for food and air *Behind the oral cavity, between the nasal cavity and the larynxAir enters the nasopharynx to the oropharynx to the laryngopharynx to the larynx *Food and air travel together through the laryngopharynx -Air to larynx -Food to esophagus Tonsils *Tonsils are lymphatic tissue (fight infections) located in the larynx *Pharyngeal tonsil (adenoid) - located high in nasopharynx *Palatine tonsils - oropharynx at the soft palate *Lingual tonsils - base of tongue

Types of open wounds

*Abrasion *Laceration *Incision *Avulsion *Puncture

Pectoral Girdle

*Acromion process *Head of Humerus *Coracoid Process *Clavicle *Sternum *Scapula *Rib *Humerus *Ulna *Radius

Structure of Actin and Myosin

*Actin - Also have troponin and tropomyosin proteins - These proteins act as binding sites for myosin *Myosin - Has heads that reach out of the filament - Can attach to a binding site on actin to form a cross-bridge

Glucagon

*Acts on liver *Tells it to break down glycogen and convert non carbohydrates into glucose to raise blood sugar level

Myofilaments

*Aka proteins *Myosin- thick *Actin- thin *form dark and light bands *A band = dArk • thick (myosin) *I band = lIght • thIn (actin)

Larynx

*Aka voice box *Enlargement at top of trachea and below the pharynx *Routes air and food into the proper places *Houses vocal cords *It is composed of 8 rigid hyaline cartilages and 1 elastic cartilage *Largest hyaline = thyroid cartilage or Adam's apple *Elastic cartilage = epiglottis Epiglottis *When we are not swallowing, the epiglottis stays open to let in air. *When we swallow, it tips to form a lid over the larynx *If something gets in, a cough reflex is triggered to expel the substance Glottis *A triangular slit that opens during breathing/talking *False Vocal Cords - do not produce sound. Help to close airway during swallowing *True Vocal Cords - produce sound. Change shape of pharynx and oral cavity to make words

Cortex

*Aldosterone -Maintains blood volume and blood pressure through water retention *Cortisol -Decreases protein synthesis, increase fatty acid release, stimulate glucose synthesis *Adrenal androgens -Supplement sex hormones from testis and ovaries

Digestive system basics

*Alimentary Canal AKA Gastrointestinal (GI) Tract *It is: -Continuous -Coiled -Hollow -Muscular Open at both ends -About 30 feet long

Tiny air sacs at ends of alveolar ducts.

*Alveoli -Alveoli are fused together by a "cobweb" of capillaries = this creates the air-blood barrier) -Gas flows past on one side, blood flows past on the other -Gas exchange happens by simple diffusion

Blood pathway

*Aorta 1. Renal Artery 2. Segmental Artery 3. Lobar Artery 4. Interlobar Artery 5. Arcuate Artery 6. Interlobular Artery 7. Afferent Arteriole 8. Glomerulus (Capillary) 9. Efferent Arteriole 10. Peritubular capillaries 11. Interlobular vein 12. Arcuate Vein 13. Interlobar Vein 14. Renal Vein 15. Inferior Vena Cava (Vein)

Artery Overview

*Ascending aorta *Aortic arch *Thoracic aorta *abdominal aorta *Brachiocephalic trunk * Common Carotid artery *Subclavian artery *Axillary artery *Brachial artery *Radial artery *Ulnar artery *Common iliac artery *Femoral artery Anterior tibial artery *Fibular artery

Hair Growth

*At the base of the follicle and hair papilla -Contains blood vessels and nerves -Nourishes hair *Bulb -Contains melanocytes -Contains matrix- epithelial cells responsible for growth *Hair is distributed over the entire skin surface except the palms, soles, lips, nipples and portions of external genitalia

Level of organization

*Atom *Molecule *Macromolecule *Organelle *Cell *Tissue *Organ *Organ system *Organism

Temporal lobe

*Auditory *Olfactory - very deep in temporal lobe *Borders the lateral sulcus *Hold complex memories

Rheumatoid Arthritis

*Autoimmune disease that causes joint stiffness and bone deformity

2 main divisions

*Axial Skeleton *Appendicular Skeleton

Staph Infection

*Bacteria: Staphylococcus Aureus *Causes: boils, impetigo, cellulitis, bacteremia, sepsis

Cerebellum

*Balance and coordination *Located at the back of the brain

Reflex Arc

*Begins with a receptor at the end of an afferent (sensory) neuron *Leads to the reflex center (neurons in the CNS that will process information) *Send information to the efferent (Motor) neuron

Gallstones

*Bile is stored in the liver for too long or too much water is removed making the bile too concentrated *This causes the cholesterol to become crystallized *Gallstones can be very sharp and cause extreme pain as they hit the sides of the organ *Can cause blockage in the ducts which will cause bile to back up into the liver creating jaundice

Neurotransmitters

*Biochemicals that do synaptic transmission *More than 100 identified *Synaptic vesicles- Contain neurotransmitters which will diffuse across the membrane and will be picked up by a receptor on the postsynaptic neuron -Effect will be: 1) Excitatory- stimulating an impulse 2) Inhibitory- preventing and impulse

Urinary Retention

*Bladder is unable to expel contained urine *Can be caused by surgery, hypertrophy of the prostate gland in men *Catheter is inserted into the urethra to drain the urine and prevent bladder trauma

Subdural hematoma

*Blow to the head can break blood vessels *Escaping blood can get into the space beneath the dura mater causing a build up of blood *This build up can increase pressure between the rigid skull and soft brain tissue *Blood has to be evacuated for survival

Pineal Gland imbalance

*Body temperature regulation and sleep disorders -Melatonin affects sleep and body temperature -As melatonin increases, body temperature decreases, making sleep easier -Insomnia - patient will use light therapy and melatonin therapy to assist in regulating levels of melatonin *Can cause issues with cardiovascular disease -Decrease in nighttime melatonin can cause an increase risk of heart disease *Decreased levels cause immune system problems, Alzheimer's disease, migraines

What is the function of the nasal conchae?

*Bones that divide the nasal cavity *Support the mucus membrane *Increase surface area of mucus exposed to air (superior, middle, inferior) *This allows more particles to be trapped and more air to be warmed before reaching the lungs *Superior *Middle *Inferior

Hemisphere dominance

*Both hemispheres participate in basic functions such as receiving, and analyzing sensory information, controlling skeletal muscles, storing memory *In most people one hemisphere is more dominant *In most people the left hemisphere is more dominant for language and analytics, but in some people the right hemisphere is more dominant for those activities or they are equally dominant *Dominant hemisphere -Language-related activities of speech, writing, reading -Complex intellectual functions for analytical and computer skills Non-dominant hemispheres -Spatial awareness -Understanding and interpreting music -Visual experiences -Emotional and intuitive thinking

Esophagus

*Both the throat (pharynx) and stomach are connected by a muscular tube called the esophagus *The esophagus is 9-10 inches (25 centimeters) long *Mucous glands are scattered throughout the esophagus for the purpose of producing mucus to lubricate the inner lining of the passageway. 1. Upper Esophageal Sphincter (UES) - Conscious control -Used when breathing, eating, belching, and vomiting -Keeps food and secretions from going down windpipe - Barrier between esophagus and pharynx 2. Lower Esophageal Sphincter (LES) -A bundle of muscles at the base of the esophagus where it meets the stomach -Prevents acid & stomach contents from traveling backward from the stomach 3. Esophageal Sphincter Muscle Vs. Esophageal Muscle - Esophageal Sphincter Upper: skeletal muscles Lower: smooth muscles - Esophagus Muscle Circular and longitudinal smooth muscle 4. Mucosa Vs. Submucosa - Mucosa- consists of the epithelium and the supporting loose connective tissue (lamina propria) -Submucosa- dense irregular connective tissue/ loose connective tissue that supports the mucosa Joins the mucosa to the underlying smooth muscle (circular fibers within layer of longitudinal muscle) 5. Esophagus Muscle Vs. Stomach Muscle - Esophagus muscle Smooth muscle Two layers: Longitudinal and Circular -Stomach muscle Smooth muscle Three layers: Longitudinal, Circular, and Oblique

Glioma

*Brain tumor of rapidly dividing neuroglia *Can be in any of the glial cells

Arrector Pili Muscle

*Bundle of smooth muscle contracts to make hair stand erect in response to fright or cold *Attaches to each hair follicle *When nervous, cold, upset, etc the muscle will contract and cause the hair to stand on end

Bones of the foot labeled

*Calcaneus (Heel) *Talus *Navicular *Medial, intermediate, lateral cuneiform *Cuboid

Dermatitis

*Caused by exposure to chemicals that cause an allergic reaction. *Itching, redness, swelling

Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)

*Causes kidneys to conserve water *Increases blood pressure

Purpose of the Urinary System

*Cells produce waste that will be toxic if they build up in the body *Kidney assists in maintaining the purity and balance of internal fluids *They eliminate nitrogenous waste (waste containing nitrogen), toxins, drugs

Hair Bulb

*Cells that form the follicle are originated here and migrate downwards *Cells nourished from dermal blood vessels A*s new cells develop, they push older cells upwards *Cells that move away from the nutrient supply become keratinized and die

Renal Medulla

*Center of the kidney, dark reddish-brown

Positive Feedback System

*Change promotes release of hormones *This is called a humoral stimulus

What are hormones?

*Chemical messengers that act on target cells to maintain homeostasis *They are either: 1. Amino-acid based 2. Steroids 3. Prosteglandins

Teeth

*Chewing- Another term for chewing is mastication *Gums- another name for the gums is the Gingival *Periodontal Fiber- The periodontal fiber is the ligament that is attached to each tooth. The purpose of this connective tissue includes attaching the tooth to the alveolar bone where it sits in the mouth.

Short Frenulum

*Children born with an extremely short lingual frenulum *Tongue tied *Distorted speech generally occurs because tongue movement is restricted *Surgery can be completed to cut the frenulum

DiGeorge Syndrome

*Children born without a thymus gland *Chromosomal Abnormality on Chromosome 22 *Little or no immune response *Inability to resist infections due to low T-Lymphocyte production *Lack of cancer cell surveillance *Inability to reject foreign tissues *Can result in heart defects, cleft palate, low calcium in blood leading to fatigue *Chronic and usually life long

Psoriasis

*Chronic Condition *Reddened lesions covered by dry, silvery scales

Cirrhosis

*Chronic inflammation of the liver causing damage to tissue *Will cause the liver to become hard and fibrous *Caused by drinking in excess for many years *Scar tissue replaces healthy liver tissue *Body has trouble absorbing nutrients, producing bile, and removing wastes

Lines air passageways larger than bronchioles.

*Ciliated epithelium

Adrenal Gland

*Closely associated with the kidneys *Each adrenal gland sits on top of each kidney *Has two parts: 1. A central portion (adrenal medulla) 2. Outer part (adrenal cortex)

Kidney Stones AKA renal caliculi

*Composed of uric acid, calcium, phosphate, or magnesium *Forms in the collecting duct and renal pelvis *Stones moving into the ureter can cause extreme pain *This pain begins in the kidney area and will radiate into the abdomen, pelvis, and lower limbs *About 60% pass on their own, others may be surgically removed *Can be genetic or do to a diet high in vitamin D, blockage of the urinary tract, or complication of an infection

Renal pelvis

*Continuous with the ureter leaving the hilus

How Muscles contract

*Contraction = myosin binds to actin and pulls it inward *When this happens, the H zone gets smaller

Body Cavities

*Cranial *Vertebral- Spinal cord and vertebrae *Ventral- Thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities *Thoracic *Abdominopelvic *Oral *Orbital *Nasal *Middle ear

Ossification

*Creating Bone from cartilage *Primary ossification center - Shaft of bone - Diaphysis *Secondary ossification center - Ends of bone - Epiphysis

Diabetes Insipidus

*Damage or tumor to ADH *Too little urine produced throughout the day

Hypoparathyroidism

*Decreased hormone causes decrease osteoclast activity *Bones remain strong but nervous system excites causing tetanic contractions

How does deep breathing affect alveolar ventilation?

*Deep breathing increases alveolar ventilation *Alveolar Ventilation- the total volume of gas entering the lungs per minute.

Basal Nuclei

*Deep in each cerebral hemisphere *Masses of grey matter *There are three *Produce dopamine *Major area of focus in Parkinson's Disease and Huntington's Disease

Insula

*Deep in the lateral sulcus *Covered by parts of the frontal, parietal, and temporal lobes *Circular sulcus separates it from other lobes *Known the least about *Believed to translate sensory information into appropriate emotional response

Reticular layer

*Deepest layer *Dense connective tissue *Highly vascular - lots of blood vessels *Wrinkling is caused by loss of elasticity here *Most glands are located here

Periosteum

*Dense connective tissue encloses full bone except the articular cartilage *Helps to form and repair bone

Dermis

*Derm=skin *Second major skin region *Strong, flexible, connective tissue layer *Rich in nerves, blood vessels, lymphatic vesels *Most hair follicles, sweat glands, and oil glands are found here Cells -Fibroblasts -Macrophages -Mast cells -White blood cells Matrix -Collagen -Elastic fibers -Reticular fibers Layers -Papillary layer -Reticular layer

Contraction of the ______________ and the _________________ muscles causes an increase in the ______________________ of the lungs, which decreases the air _____________________ within the lungs.

*Diaphragm *external intercostal *Volume *Pressure

The exchange of respiratory gases occurs by _____________________. In comparison to the air in the alveoli, blood returning to the lungs has a lower concentration of _______________ and a higher concentration of __________________. Therefore, oxygen diffuses from the __________ into the _____________, and carbon dioxide diffuses from the _______ into the ________________. Blood leaving the lungs is ______________-rich and ______________-poor.

*Diffusion *Oxygen *Carbon dioxide *Lungs (Alveoli) *Blood *Blood *Lungs (Alveoli) *Oxygen rich *Carbon Dioxide poor

CNS- Microglial cells

*Digest debris or bacteria *Respond to immunological conclusions

Triiodothyronine (T3)

*Does the same as thyroxine but is 5x more potent

Heart Sounds

*Due to vibrations in the heart tissues as blood rapidly changes velocity *Described as a "Lub-Dub" sound -The first sound "Lub" occurs as ventricles relax and semilunar valves close -The second sound "Dub" occurs as ventricles contract and AV valves close

Sarcomere

*Each group of striations = SARCOMERE *Within each sarcomere, the striation pattern has two main parts: 1. I Band - thin filaments attached directly to the Z lines 2. A Band - thick filaments that overlap with thin filaments * H Zone - Just the thick filaments (central portion) * M Line - thick center line in the H zone

Sweat Glands

*Eccrine -Most abundant -True sweat -Response to heat and thermoregulation *Apocrine -Secretes during times of stress, pain and emotional stress -Odorous -Absent before puberty -Open into hair follicles

Defecation

*Elimination of indigestible substances from the body

First Degree Burn

*Epidermis *No blisters; dry pink *Sunburn, scald, flash flame *Painful, tender *No scarring

Third Degree Burn

*Epidermis and dermis *Leathery, dry, no elasticity; charred appearance. Can become red, white, or black *Contact with flame, hot surface, hot liquids *Very little or no pain *Grafting *Scarring

Second Degree Burn

*Epidermis and top of dermis *Moist, oozing blisters *Scalds, flash burns, chemicals *Very painful *Minimal to no scarring

Skin Layers

*Epidermis- outer layer -Keratinized stratified squamous epithelium -Avascular- no blood vessels *Dermis- inner layer -Much thicker -Blood vessels, nerve fibers *Hypodermis- underlying layer -Adipose tissue -Insulator

Flops over larynx opening in swallowing.

*Epiglottis -When we are not swallowing, the epiglottis stays open to let in air. -When we swallow, it tips to form a lid over the larynx -If something gets in, a cough reflex is triggered to expel the substance

Medulla

*Epinephrine - adrenaline *Norepinephrine - noradrenaline *Increase heart rate, force cardiac muscle contraction, increase breathing rate *Prepare body for fight or flight response

Insulin

*Exactly opposite of glucagon *Acts on liver *Tells liver to form glycogen from glucose to stop conversion of non carbohydrates into glucose *Helps to decrease blood sugar level

Mechanical digestion

*Examples: - Mixing food in mouth by tongue - Churning food in the stomach - Segmentation in small intestine

Pancreas

*Exocrine (digestive juices out) and *endocrine (hormones in) *Elongated, flattened organ *Posterior to the stomach *Hormone secreting cells of pancreas are grouped into clusters, called islets (islets of Langerhans) *These islets have 2 types of cells: 1. Alpha cells- Secrete glucagon 2. Beta cells- Secrete insulin

How does gas exchange work?

*External Respiration- O2 loaded, CO2 unloaded *Internal Respiration- O2 unloaded, CO2 loaded

Veins

*Far from the heart *Low pressure Thin walls *Lumen of vein is much larger *Have valves to prevent backflow *Controlled by skeletal muscle activity

Structure of a muscle

*Fassicle *Fiber *Myofibril (Actin and myosin) *Perimysium *Epimysium *Endomysium *Tendon

Nephroptosis

*Floating kidney or renal ptosis (to-sis = fallen) *Kidney drops into the pelvis due to adipose tissue not holding it in place *Generally no symptoms, sometimes pain, nausea, chills, hypertension, hematuria *Surgery will be needed to stabilize the kidney

Propulsion

*Food has to be moved *Peristalsis -Involuntary - Alternating waves of contraction and relaxation of muscles -Squeezes food along the tract *Segmentation - Involuntary -Mixes food with digestive juices - Moves food back and forth across the internal wall

UTI

*Frequent, painful, possibly bloody urination with pelvic pain *Bacteria gets inside the urinary tract *Easily taken care of with antibiotics *Patients will sometimes drink cranberry or blueberry juice which will line the cells and not allow bacteria to attach to the cells

Communication between hemispheres

*From the corpus collosum *The dominant hemispheres controls the motor cortex of the nondominant hemisphere *Sensory information coming from the nondominant hemisphere so the information can be used in decision making

The Skull Bones labeled

*Frontal bone *Parietal bone *Sphenoid bone *Orbital bone *Temporal bone *Zygomatic bone *Nasal bone *Maxilla *Mandible

Major Structural areas of the brain

*Frontal lobe *Temporal lobe *Occipital lobe *Cerebellum *Parietal lobe

Physiology

*Function of body parts (what they do and how they do it) *Chemical, physical, electrical processes

Nephron

*Functional unit of the kidneys *Responsible for forming the urine *Each kidney contains about 1 million nephrons *Two main structures -Glomerulus - knot of capillaries -Renal Tubule - Tube that urine moves through

Gerd

*Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease *Acid reflux or heartburn *When stomach acid flows back into the esophagus *This irritates the lining of the esophagus *Treated with diet changes and antacids

Achondroplasia

*Genetic bone disease *Long bones fail to grow

Osteogenesis Imperfecta

*Genetic bone disease *Soft bones do not develop and deposit minerals correctly *Cannot support weight of body

Polycystic Kidney Disease

*Genetic disorder *Numerous cysts filled with fluid grow in the kidney *This can lead to renal failure *People with this disorder have: abdominal pain, high blood pressure, bruise easily, pale skin, infections, hematuria

Skin Derivatives

*Glands *Nails *Hair

Urine Formation

*Glomerular Filtration - begins urine formation. Capillaries in glomerulus filter plasma *As this happens, tubular reabsorption moves substances back into the blood stream (water, electrolytes, glucose) *As this happens, tubular secretion moves substances from the blood stream back into the renal tubule (waste and extra substances)

Glomerulonephritis

*Glomerular capillaries become inflamed *This causes them to become more permeable to proteins which decreases protein in the blood. *Swelling develops

Nephron Components

*Glomerulus *Glomerular Capsule *Proximal Convoluted Tubule *Descending Nephron Loop *Ascending Nephron Loop *Distal Convoluted Tubule *Collecting Duct

Opening between vocal cords.

*Glottis -A triangular slit that opens during breathing/talking -False Vocal Cords - do not produce sound. Help to close airway during swallowing -True Vocal Cords - produce sound. Change shape of pharynx and oral cavity to make words

Femur

*Greater and lesser trochanter

Bone Fracture types

*Greenstick *Fissured *Comminuted *Transverse *Oblique *Spiral

Hair follicle

*Group of epidermal cells from which the hair develops *Contains the hair root *Matrix - germinal layer of cells (actively dividing cells) right above the papilla *A knot of sensory nerve endings (a root hair plexus) wraps around each hair bulb *Bending a hair stimulates these endings, hence our hairs act as sensitive touch receptors

Parts of the digestive system

*Gums *Hard palate *Soft palate *Palatine tonsils *Uvula *Tongue *Lingual frenulum *Teeth *Pharynx *Esophagus *Lower esophageal spinchter *Stomach *Fundus *Small intestine *Duodenum *Jejunum *ileum *Large intestine *Appendix *Colon *Salivary glands *Pancreas *Gallbladder *Liver

Structure of the Cerebrum

*Gyri - Raised ridges *Sulci - deep grooves *Fissures - deepest grooves, less numerous *This allows increased surface area = more neurons

Wrist bones labeled

*Hamate *Pisiform *triquetral *Lunate *Trapezoid *Trapezium *Scaphoid *Capitate

Cardiovascular system

*Has two closed pathways/circuits: 1. Pulmonary 2. Systemic Circuit

Oxygen Supply

*Hemoglobin= carries oxygen in red blood cells to muscle *Myoglobin- Stores oxygen in muscles

Gigantism

*High growth hormone (GH) *Usually the result of a pituitary gland tumor

During breathing, air flows from an area of ___________ pressure to an area of ________________ pressure.

*Higher *Lower

Structure of the heart

*Hollow *Cone-shaped *Muscular pump *In the Mediastinum *Rests on the diaphragm *Average adult - 14 cm x 9 cm *Base of the heart lies beneath the 2nd rib *The apex sits between the 4th and 5th rib

Osteosarcoma

*Homeostatic Imbalance *Cancer of the long bones *Quickly moves to lungs *Happens in children going through quick growth spurts

Pagets disease

*Homeostatic Imbalance *Excessive bone formation and breakdown - usually in spine, pelvis, femur *High ratio of spongy to compact *Unknown cause

Osteomyelitis

*Homeostatic Imbalance *Infection caused by open wound - usually due to fracture

Osteoporosis

*Homeostatic Imbalance *Loss of bone *Spongy bone fractures easily *Caused by low calcium or vitamin D, low estrogen, diabetes

Diabetes Mellitus

*Hyperglycemia *Lack of insulin from non-functioning beta cells *Type I (juvenile onset) or Type II (late onset)

Cushing Syndrome

*Hypersecretion *Alters carbohydrate and protein metabolism and electrolyte balance *Muscular weakness, easy bruising, high blood pressure

Addisons Disease

*Hyposecretion *Dehydration, low blood pressure, increased skin pigmentation

Organs of the endocrine system

*Hypothalamus *Pituitary gland *Pineal gland *Parathyroid gland *Thyroid gland *Thymus *Adrenal gland *Kidney *Pancreas *Ovary/Testis

Hydrocephalus

*Increased amounts of cerebrospinal fluid inside the skull *Symptoms: headache, swelling of optic disc, poor coordination, loss of development, memory loss

Hyperparathyroidism

*Increased hormones secretion causing increased osteoclast activity *Too much bone tissue is reabsorbed causing bones to soften, deform, and fracture easily *Excess calcium in blood may cause kidney stones

Thyroxine (T4)

*Increases rate of energy released from carbohydrates *Increases rate of protein synthesis *Stimulates nervous system

Meningitis

*Inflammation of the mater *Usually due to infection *Neck stiffness, headache, fever, confusion

Pancreatitis

*Inflammation of the pancreas *Can be acute (short and painful) or chronic (last for many years) *Enzymes are released too early. They do not make it to the small intestine and instead begin attacking the pancreas

Main Structures of the Urinary System

*Kidneys *Ureters *Urinary Bladder *Urethra

Chemical digestion

*Large food molecules are broken down to building block form by enzymes *Hydrolysis reactions - a water molecule is added in order to break bonds *Organic molecules: -Carbohydrates- Monosaccharide's: glucose, fructose, galactose -Lipids- Glycerol and fatty acids -Proteins- amino acids

Meninges

*Lies between bones and soft tissues of the CNS *Protects the brain and spinal cord *3 layers: 1. Dura mater- outer 2. Arachnoid mater- middle 3. Pia mater- Inner

Thymus Gland

*Lies posterior to the sternum and between the lungs *Large in young children but shrinks with age *It is pinkish-grey *Acts on the immune system *Has two identical lobes surrounded by a tough, fibrous capsule Secretes hormones called thymosins -Thymosins affect production of lymphocytes (a type of white blood cell)

Lobes of brain

*Lobes are separated by fissures or sulci *Named for the bone they lie over *Lobes: -Frontal -Parietal -Occipital -Temporal

Diencephalon

*Located - between the cerebral hemispheres and above the midbrain *Grey matter *Contains 1. Thalamus - central station for sensory information coming in (except smell) Receives all senses (except smell) and channels it to area for interpretation 2. Hypothalamus - maintains homeostasis by linking nervous system and endocrine system

Pituitary Gland

*Located at the base of the brain *Attached to the hypothalamus *1 centimeter in diameter *Has an anterior pituitary lobe and a posterior pituitary lobe

Pineal Gland

*Located deep between the cerebral hemispheres *Attaches to the thalamus *Pea-sized *Secretes melatonin -This happens in response to light conditions outside -Impulses from the retinas in the eyes send information to the pineal gland -In the dark, there are fewer impulses, which increases the amount of melatonin

Parathyroid glands

*Located on the posterior surface of the thyroid *4 parathyroid glands, two superior, two inferior *They are yellowish-brownish in color, small *Tightly packed cells

Pituitary Dwarfism

*Low growth hormone (GH) *Body parts and mental development normal, just small

Calcitonin

*Lowers blood calcium and phosphate by putting these ions into bone *Increases excretion of calcium and phosphate by kidneys

Steroids

*Made from: cholesterol *Water soluble

Prosteglandins

*Made from: lipids *Act locally on nearby organs

Amino Acid

*Made from: peptides, proteins, amines *Non-steroidal

Negative Feedback System

*Majority are controlled this way *Rising levels of hormones inhibit further hormone release

Neurons

*Masses of nerve cells that transmit info -React to physical and chemical changes -Carry info in the form of impulses -Neurons communicate with other neurons and cells outside of the nervous system

Osteocytes

*Mature bone cells *steocytes are enclosed in tiny chambers called lacunae *Osteocytes form rings called lamellae around a haversian canal which houses blood vessels *Osteocytes are linked by canaliculi

Blood pressure

*Measured in mercury *normal blood pressure= 120/80 *The first number represents the pressure when the heart contracts. It is called the systolic blood pressure. *The second number represents the pressure when the heart relaxes. It is called the diastolic blood pressure.

Adrenal Hormones

*Medulla -Epinephrine -Norepinephrine *Cortex -Aldosterone -Cortisol -Adrenal Androgens

Inside the long bone

*Medullary Cavity -Hollow chamber filled with marrow *Marrow -Red - blood cells -Yellow - fat *Endosteum -Lining of medullary

Melatonin

*Melatonin acts on the "biological clock" or your circadian rhythm *Your circadian rhythm is associated with the day-night cycle *The changing levels of melatonin throughout the day assist the body in distinguishing between day and night (when to be asleep and when to be awake)

Brainstem

*Midbrain - visual reflexes, eye movement *Pons - relay sensory information *Medulla oblongata - heart, respiration, blood pressure

Arachnoid Mater

*Middle Layer *Thin, weblike *The subarachnoid space contains the cerebrospinal fluid

Threshold Stimulus

*Minimal strength required to cause a contraction *Sarcoplasmic Reticulum releases enough calcium ions to activate a cross-bridge from myosin to actin

Osteoarthritis

*Most common form of arthritis *Degenerative condition *Softening, fraying, and breakdown of cartilage

Motor Unit

*Motor Neuron + Muscle Fiber *The more muscle fibers involved in a contraction, the stronger the contraction will be *Once a motor neuron causes an impulse, every fiber in that unit will contract together. *Motor units connect throughout the body and can cause each other to contract.

Broca's Area

*Motor speech area *Base of precentral gyrus (gyrus anterior to central sulcus) *Located on one hemisphere only, usually left *Movement of muscles for speech *Damage = inability to say words properly

Muscle Strain

*Muscle stretched beyond it limits, tearing fibers *Pain, weakness, loss of function *Grade 1, 2, or 3 depending on severity

Muscle Growth and Development

*Musculoskeletal mass doubles by the end of puberty *Both cardiac and skeletal muscle adapt to regular exercise 1. Cardiac- more efficient at pumping blood 2. Skeletal- Posture and strength

Esophageal stricture

*Narrowing of the esophagus *Dysphagia = Difficulty swallowing

Separate oral and nasal cavities

*Nasal Palate -Hard palate- anterior portion supported by bone -Soft palate- posterior portion

What are the paranasal sinuses? What is their function?

*Nasal cavity if surrounded by a ring of sinuses Frontal- Lighten weight of skull Ethmoid- Resonance chambers for speech Maxillary- Produce mucus for the nasal cavity

What is the difference between the nasopharynx, oropharynx, and laryngopharnx?

*Nasopharynx- Lies posterior to the nasal cavity & is continuous with it via the posterior nasal aperture. serves as air passage only -pharyngeal tonsil high on it's posterior wall. *Oropharynx- Passageway for air & food from the level of the soft palate to the epiglottis. *Laryngopharynx- passageway for air and food posterior to the upright epiglottis

Anencephaly

*Neural tube does not close in fetal development *This causes an absence of the frontal lobe and no closure of the dura mater *Sometimes brain stem will not be fully developed

Epilepsy

*Normal neuron activity is disturbed *Can be caused by imbalance of neurotransmitters, impulses moving too fast, fever *Symptoms: strange sensations, emotions, behaviors

Air enters the nasal cavity via that _______________________, and it is ________________, _________________, and __________________ as it flows over the nasal mucous membranes. Mucus and entrapped particles are moved by ___________________ to the ________________ and are swallowed.

*Nostrils *Warmed, filtered and moistened *Cilia *Pharynx

Sebaceous Glands

*Occur over entire body - Except palms and soles *Secrete oily mixture of fatty material and cellular debris (sebum) *Functions of Sebum -Softens and lubricates hair and skin -Skin waterproofing -Collects dirt

Withdrawl reflex

*Occurs when a person touches something painful *Causes muscles to contract to pull away from whatever the stimulus was *It was a protective reflex to avoid excess tissue damage

Twitch facts

*On average we have about half fast-twitch and half slow-twitch However, it is possible to genetically have more of one type. *Example: Olympic sprinters typically have more than 80% fast-twitch, Olympic marathon runner typically have about 90% slow-twitch *No research shows it is possible to change the type of muscle fibers you have

Nose

*Only externally visible part of the respiratory system *Air enters through nostrils (External Nares) ***Nasal cavity- Hollow space behind the nose ***Nasal septum- Midline; divides the nasal cavities Nose Mucosa ***Olfactory Receptors- in superior conchae; sense of smell ***Respiratory Mucosa- Lines nasal cavity; is very sticky; traps bacteria and other foreign debris; the cilia then moves it towards the throat to be swallowed and digested by stomach juices ***Nasal conchae- bones that divide nasal cavity; Supports mucus membrane; increase surface area of mucus exposed to air *This allows more particles to be trapped and more air to be warmed before reaching the lungs Paranasal Sinuses *Nasal cavity is surrounded by a ring of sinuses ***Frontal- Lightens weight of the skull ***Ethmoid- Resonance chambers for speech ***Maxillary- Produce mucus for the nasal cavity Nasal Palate *Separates the nasal cavity and the oral cavity ***Hard palate- anterior portion supported by bone ***Soft palate- Posterior portion

Fracture Terminology

*Open *Closed *Incomplete *Complete *Displaced *Comminuted

Hair Shaft

*Organized into three concentric layers -Medulla - central core -Cortex- Surrounds medulla -Cuticle- Outermost layer *Pigmented by melanocytes at the base of the hair

Bone Formation

*Osteoclasts to Osteoblasts to Osteocytes 1. Osteoclasts break down calcified extracellular matrix 2. This allows osteoblasts to invade the open area to deposit new bone tissue (in place of the calcified cartilage) 3. Osteoblasts ossify into osteocytes 4. Osteocytes are our mature bone cells

Bone Reabsorption

*Osteocytes continue to grow and eventually age *Osteoclasts then reabsorb old osteocytes to make room for new bone cells

Heart covering and wall

*Outer covering- Pericardium; double layered *Wall of heart (3 layers) 1. Epicardium- connective tissue, reduces friction 2. Myocardium- cardiac muscle 3. Endocardium- Elastic and connective fibers; Connects blood vessels

Renal cortex

*Outer region, light in color

Dura mater

*Outermost layer *Connective tissue *Has lots of blood vessels

Hyperthyroidism

*Overactive *Elevated metabolic rate *Restlessness *Goiter - bulge in the neck as gland enlarges *Eye bulge due to swelling of tissues behind them

Acromegaly

*Overproduction of GH in adulthood *Causes enlarged heart and bones, facial features

Hyperinsulinism

*Overproduction of insulin *Anxiety, sweating, elevated body temperature, disorientation

Lungs

*Paired, large, occupy the entire thoracic cavity *Apex of the lung is superior - located just deep to the clavicle *The broad base of the lung - rests on the diaphragm *Each lung is divided into lobes by fissures *Left lung has 2 lobes; Right lung has 3 lobes Pleura *Visceral (Pulmonary) pleura - covers surface of each lung *Parietal pleura - line the walls of the thoracic cavity *They secrete fluid which lubricates lungs so they can move easily Respiratory Zone Structures *After primary bronchi enter the lungs, they divide into smaller and smaller branches until they reach the bronchioles *Bronchioles branch into alveoli (air sacs) *Alveoli are the only site of gas exchange. All other passageways here are just carrying air to or from this spot. Alveoli *Resemble a bunch of grapes *Alveoli are connected to each other by alveolar pores (give air alternate routes) *Alveoli are fused together by a "cobweb" of capillaries = this creates the air-blood barrier) -Gas flows past on one side, blood flows past on the other *Gas exchange happens by simple diffusion *Macrophages wander in and out of the alveoli picking up bacteria and other debris *Surfactant - produced in alveoli to assist with gas exchange

Papillary layer

*Papilla - a projection *Thin superficial layer *Superior surface = dermal papillae -Protrude into epidermal layer -This is where we get our fingerprint

Air-filled cavities in skull bones.

*Paranasal Sinuses -Frontal- Lighten the weight of the skull -Ethmoid- Resonance chambers for speech -Maxillary- Produce mucus for the nasal cavity

Layers of membranes

*Parietal - membrane attached to the wall of a cavity *Visceral - membrane that is deeper, more interior, and covers internal organ

Motor Neuron Disorders

*Parkinsons- loss of dopamine producing brain cells *ALS- disease that attack neurons in charge of controlling voluntary muscles

Autonomic Nervous System

*Part of the PNS but function independently and without effort *Regulates actions of smooth muscle, cardiac muscle and glands *Helps to maintain homeostasis *Respond to emotional stress and prepare the body for physical activity

Appendicular Skeleton

*Pectoral Girdle (shoulders) and attached bones *Pelvic Girdle (hips) and attached bones

Peritonitis

*Peritoneum drapes over all abdominal organs to attach to posterior wall of body. *This drape of tissue can get infected *If not treated it can cause a life-threatening infection throughout the body

Potential space between pleurae.

*Pleura cavity -the thin fluid-filled space between the two pulmonary pleurae (visceral and parietal) of each lung. -They secrete fluid which lubricates lungs so they can move easily

Process

*Presynaptic neuron- sends message *Postsynaptic neuron- receives message *Synaptic transmission- process of messages crossing the synaptic cleft

Bronchi that enter lungs.

*Primary bronchi -Right and left primary bronchi -A division of the trachea -Runs obliquely before it plunges into the lung -The right is wider, shorter, and straighter than the left -The right side is more common for an inhaled foreign object -By the time the air enters here it is warm, cleaned, and humidified

Frontal lobe

*Primary motor area *Anterior to the central sulcus *Neurons form voluntary motor tract *Controls fine motor skills (face, mouth, hand) *Higher intellectual reasoning *Anterior portion of frontal lobe *Hold some complex memories *Language comprehension (word meanings)

Uric Acid

*Product of the metabolism of certain organic bases in nucleic acids *Almost all will be reabsorbed in the glomerular filtrate, small amount will get secreted in urine

Absorption

*Re-uptake of nutrients and water *Carbohydrates -Mouth- salivary amylase -Small intestine *Proteins -Stoman-pepsin -Small intestine *Lipids -Small intestine- bile *Transport of digested end products from lumen of GI tract to blood stream *Mostly happens in the small intestine

Reflex Behavior

*Reflexes- automatic responses to changes *Help to maintain homeostasis by controlling involuntary actions (heart rate, breathing rate, blood pressure, digestion) * Carry out swallowing, sneezing, coughing, vomiting

Abnormalities of the spine

*SCOLIOSIS is a lateral curve in the spine *KYPHOSIS is a hunchback curve *LORDOSIS is a swayback in the lower region. *ANKYLOSIS is severe arthritis in the spine and the vertebrae fuse.

Pelvis labeled

*Sacrum *Iliac crest *Illium *Pubis *Ischium

Salivary glands

*Salivary glands produce saliva, which moistens the mouth to help a person chew and swallow food. Saliva also contains substances (enzymes) that begin the breakdown of food *There are three salivary glands that empty secretions into the mouth: -Parotid -Submandibular -Sublingual 1. What is saliva made of? *Saliva is 98% water, but it contains many important substances, including electrolytes, mucus, antibacterial compounds and various enzymes. 2. What is salivary amylase? Where is it located? What does it digest? *It is an enzyme that acts on starch in food, breaking it down into smaller carbohydrate molecules. *Salivary glands in your mouth make salivary amylase, which begins the digestive process by breaking down starch when you chew your food, converting it into maltose, a smaller carbohydrate. 3. What is the function of saliva? *The digestive functions of saliva include moistening food, and helping to create a food bolus, so it can be swallowed easily. *Cleanses the mouth *Dissolves food chemicals so they can be tasted *Contains enzymes that begin chemical breakdown of starch 4. What stimulates salivary glands to secrete saliva? *Secretion of saliva is under control of the autonomic nervous system, which controls both the volume and type of saliva secreted. 5. How is chemical digestion accomplished? *Chemical digestion involves breaking down the food into simpler nutrients that can be used by the cells. Chemical digestion begins in the mouth when food mixes with saliva. Saliva contains an enzyme (amylase) that begins the breakdown of carbohydrates. *During the chemical digestion of food, enzymes break down large food molecules by the process of hydrolysis

The Physiology of Skeletal Muscle Hypertrophy

*Satellite cells- facilitate growth, maintenance, and repair of damaged skeletal muscle tissue *These cells are located on the outer surface of the muscle fiber and have only one nucleus *Usually dormant but become active when there is trauma, such as from resistance training *Satellite cells then multiply and fuse to muscle fiber to donate nucleus *They repair the damage and create more actin and myosin proteins inside the muscle fiber (not more muscle fibers)

Nails

*Scale-like modification of epidermis made of hard keratin *Protective covering on ends of fingers and toes *Parts of the nail -Free edge -Body -Lunula -Eponchyium (Cuticle) -Root

Skin glands

*Sebaceous glands *Sweat glands -Apocrine sweat gland -Eccrine sweat gland

Spinal Cord

*Slender nerve column that passes from brain into vertebral column *Tapers to a point *Ends near disc that separates 1st and 2nd lumbar vertebrae

Lyssencephaly

*Smooth brain *Gyri and sulci are absent *Associated with intellectual disability, developmental delay, seizures

Parietal lobe

*Somatic sensory area *Posterior to the central sulcus *Interpreting senses *Recognize pain, coldness, light touch *Crossed pathways

Ulcer

*Sore on the lining of your stomach or duodenum *Damage to the mucous that lines the stomach will not allow it to remain protected from the gastric juice and HCL, which in turn eats through the stomach lining

Two hemispheres of the brain

*Split in two *Longitudinal fissure

Skin Cancer

*Squamous Cell Carcinoma *Basal Cell Carcinoma -Most common *Melanoma -A cancer of melanocytes -The most dangerous type of skin cancer

Hair

*Strands of dead keratinized cells produced by hair follicles *Contains hard keratin which is tougher and more durable than soft keratin of the skin *Functions -Protection -Thermoregulation -Sensory

Anatomy

*Structure of body parts (morphology) *Identify the structure *Size, shape, location of a structure

Hypodermis

*Subcutaneous layer *Composed of loose connective tissue - areolar and adipose *Stabilizes skin position -Loosely attached to dermis -Loosely attached to muscle *Contains many fat cells *Provides thermal insulation

Interior chamber and nasal cavities

*Superior *Middle *Inferior

External Heart Anatomy

*Superior vena cava *Aorta *Pulmonary artery *Right Atrium *Right ventricle *Inferior Vena Cava *Pulmonary veins *Pulmonary valve *Tricuspid valve *Left Atrium *Left ventricle *Aortic valve *Mitral valve

Renal Arteries and Veins

*Supply blood to the kidneys *Arteries - attach to the abdominal aorta *Veins - attach to the inferior vena cava

Hormones act on

*Target cells or target organs *In order for a hormone to act on a specific tissue, it must have the specific binding site for the hormone

Impacted teeth

*Teeth that remain embedded in the jawbone *Can exert pressure and cause pain *Wisdom teeth are most commonly impacted *Must be removed surgically

Reproductive Hormones

*Testis *Ovaries

Where on the human body do the base and apex of the heart lie?

*The apex of the heart is directed downward, forward and to the left. It lies at the level of the fifth intercostals space, about 3.5 inches from the midline. The apex beat can be palpated in the region of apex of the heart. *The base of the heart is the portion of the heart opposite the apex. It is superior and medially located. It forms the upper border of the heart, lies just below the second rib, and primarily involves the left atrium, part of the right atrium, and the proximal portions of the great vessels.

Vessels Overview

*The blood vessels have different thickness due to the differences in pressure that occurs in them or their function with respect to exchanging nutrients with the cells *Arteries have thick walls due to the higher pressure found in them. *The outer layer of the artery is the tunica externa. *The middle layer of the artery, the tunica media, is the thickest layer and it is made of smooth muscle and elastic fibers. *The innermost layer of the artery is the tunica intima and it has a special elastic layer called the lamina elastic internal *The area in the artery where the blood flows is called the lumen. *Veins are thinner walled than arteries and they do not have the same elastic fibers in the tunica media arteries. *Capillaries are different from both arteries and veins in that they are composed of only simple squamous epithelium (endothelium). *The thin nature of capillaries allows them to exchange nutrients, water, carbon dioxide and oxygen with the cells.

Synapse

*The connection between 2 neurons *Separated by a gap- Synaptic cleft

Gallbladder

*The gallbladder is a small pouch that sits just under the liver. The gallbladder stores bile produced by the liver. After meals, the gallbladder is empty and flat, like a deflated balloon. Before a meal, the gallbladder may be full of bile and about the size of a small pear. In response to signals, the gallbladder squeezes stored bile into the small intestine through a series of tubes called ducts. Bile helps digest fats, but the gallbladder itself is not essential. Removing the gallbladder in an otherwise healthy individual typically causes no observable problems with health or digestion yet there may be a small risk of diarrhea and fat malabsorption. 1. What color is the galbladder? *Green 2. How is the gallbladder connected to the liver anatomically? What about the pancreas? *Connects at the inferior portion of the liver *The gallbladder is superior to the pancreas 3. How does the gallbladder secrete the substance stored? What food actives this process? *When fatty food enters the bloodstream, hormones prompt the gallbladder to contract and secrete bile into the duodenum 4. How is bile formed? *Bile is formed in the liver and contains bile salts, cholesterol, phospholipids, and electrolytes 5. How is the secretion of bile regulated? *The hormone cholecystokinin (CCK) regulates the secretion of bile in the gallbladder. CCK stimulates contractions in the smooth muscle and causes the organ to relax, which allows the bile to release into the duodenum.

Cardiac Conduction System

*The heart contracts by means of electrical signals *The pacemaker of the heart is found in the right atrium and is known as the Sinoatrial (SA) Node

Overview of Circulation

*The heart has 4 chambers including the superior atria and the inferior ventricles. *There are 2 major circulations in the body. One goes to the lungs and is called the pulmonary circulation. *Deoxygenated blood leaves the right ventricle of the heart and travels through the pulmonary artery to the lungs where the blood is oxygenated. *Blood returns from the lungs to the left atrium by way of the pulmonary veins *The other main circulation in the body is called the systemic circulation where blood travels from the left ventricle of the heart and goes to the other regions of the body. *Arteries are vascular tubes that take blood away from the heart while veins are vessels that return blood to the heart. *The first vessel that leaves the heart is the aorta, which is part of the arterial system. Arteries receive blood from the aorta and take blood throughout the body *They branch and become smaller until they become arterioles. The arterioles are the structures that control blood pressure in the body. As they get smaller they become capillaries. *Capillaries are the site of exchange with the cells of the body. They are the interchange between arteries and veins. *On the return flow the capillaries enlarge and turn into venules which take blood to the veins *Blood from the inferior portion of the heart returns to the heart by way of the inferior vena cava.

Large intestine

*The large intestine is bigger than the small intestine in width, but not in length. *Its function is to absorb water from the remaining indigestible food matter and transmit the useless waste material from the body. *There are 4 parts of the large intestine: the cecum, the appendix, the colon, and the rectum. *The appendix is a trouble spot for the body because it is the ideal place for bacteria to accumulate and multiply. *Villi are not necessary in the large intestine because most nutrient absorption has occurred before the large intestine. *Peristalsis is the major means of propelling food through the digestive tract involuntarily. It involves waves of contraction along the length of the intestine, followed by waves of relaxation. *In the large intestine, "mass movements" are long, slow-moving but powerful contractile waves that move over large areas of the colon three or four times daily and force the contents toward the rectum. *The intestinal flora is the complex community of microorganisms that live in the digestive tract. They are important because they assist in the digestive process, synthesize essential vitamins, prevent constipation, and maintaining immunity. *Fiber in the diet increases the strength of colon contractions and softens the stool, allowing the colon to act as a well-oiled machine.

Liver

*The liver is the largest gland in the body 1. On average, how much does the liver weight? *3.2 pounds 2. Where is it located? *Upper right portion of the abdomen 3. How many lobes does the liver have? - 4 4. What is the purpose of the falciform ligament? - Helps keep the liver attached in place 5. What is the purpose of the liver for the digestive system? - To process the nutrients absorbed from the small intestine. 6. To process the nutrients absorbed from the small intestine. - Biles leaves the liver through the common hepatic duct 7. Where are the liver substances deposited in the digestive system? - They are stored in the gallbladder 8. What is bile made of? - Bile contains bile salts, cholesterol, phospholipids, and electrolytes 9. Bile does not contain enzymes, so how can it emulsify fats?

Connects nasal cavity with larynx.

*The pharynx is a muscular, funnel-shaped tube about 5 inches long that connects the nasal and oral cavities to the larynx. *Behind the oral cavity, between the nasal cavity and the larynx

Pharynx

*The purpose of the Pharynx is to receive food from the mouth. *Peristalsis occurs in the pharynx, which assists in moving the bolus to the esophagus. *It is made up of longitudinal muscle which helps with the wave of peristalsis and it also has a circular muscle layer which constricts the pharynx to push the bolus in one direction. *Stages of swallowing: 1. Oral Phase: Food is chewed and mixed with saliva to form a soft substance called bolus. The tongue then moves this towards the back of the mouth 2. Pharyngeal Phase: The vocal cords close to keep food and liquids from entering the airway. The larynx raises inside the neck and the epiglottis moves to cover it. Breathing is temporarily inhibited during this stage. 3. Esophageal Stage: The bolus moves into the esophagus to push the bolus into the stomach *Swallowing reflex- The swallowing reflex is the act of swallowing induced by the stimulation of the palate, fauces, or posterior pharyngeal wall. It is a defensive mechanism designed to prevent foreign materials from entering the digestive tract.

Nerve pathways

*The route an impulse travels through the nervous system *Reflex arc- simplest nerve pathway because it only includes a few neurons

Sliding Filament Theory

*The theory of how muscle contracts is the sliding filament theory. The contraction of a muscle occurs as the thin filament slide past the thick filaments. The sliding filament theory involves five different molecules and calcium ions. *The 5 molecules are 1. Myosin 2. Actin 3. Tropomyosin 4. Troponin 5. ATP

What does the tricuspid separate? What does the bicuspid separate?

*The tricuspid valve separates the right atrium and right ventricle. It allows blood to flow into the ventricle, but not backwards into the atrium. *The Bicuspid valve separates the left atrium and the left ventricle.

Arteries

*Thicker *Tunica media very heavy *Closer to pumping action of heart *Expand as blood is forced into them *Walls are strong and stretchy

The Cerebral cortex

*Thin layer of gray matter of the cerebrum - outermost portion *Has all the wrinkles

Parathyroid gland secretes the parathyroid hormone (PTH)

*This hormone 1. increases blood calcium concentration 2. Decreases blood phosphate concentration *Acts on the bones, kidneys, and intestine

Electrocardiogram (ECG)

*This is a recording of the electrical changes that occur during a cardiac cycle *Each ECG strip lasts 6 seconds *Parts: 1. P Wave 2. QRS Complex 3. T Wave

Slow-Twitch versus Fast-Twitch Muscle Fibers

*This process happens easier in slow-twitch muscle fibers *Slow-twitch muscle fibers have more satellite cells, they are used more often throughout the day *Fast-twitch require more tension to stimulate satellite cells *Due to recruitment, activating fast-twitch may activate more motor units, activating more satellite cells *Research suggests more exercise = an increase in satellite cells *There are also many growth factors that work in conjunction with each other to make this process happen *These are generally hormones -Insulin-like growth factor -Growth Hormone -Cortisol -testosterone *These hormones stimulate the division and multiplication of satellite cells

Thyroid gland hormones

*Thyroxine (T4) *Triiodothyronine (T3) *Calcitonin

Burns

*Tissue damage and cell death caused by intense heat, electricity, UV radiation (sunburn), or chemicals (acids) *Problems from burns: -Severe dehydration - can cause kidneys to shut down and circulatory shock -Decreased immune system - infection

Lymphoid tissue in upper pharynx.

*Tonsils are lymphatic tissue (fight infections) located in the larynx *Palatine tonsils- Lymphoid tissue at junction of pharynx and oral cavity.

Cartilaginous boxlike structure containing vocal cords.

*Trachea -AKA voice box -Enlargement at top of trachea and below the pharynx -Routes air and food into the proper places -Houses vocal cords

Windpipe extending from larynx to bronchi.

*Trachea -Travels from the larynx to the 5th thoracic vertebrae -Lined with ciliated mucosa -The cilia beat continuously and in the opposite direction from incoming air -This allows them to propel mucus with dust particles away from the lungs and throat

Blood Vessel Tunics

*Tunica Interna - thin endothelium, decreases friction *Tunica Media - bulky, smooth muscle controlled by the sympathetic nervous system. Helps to dilate or constrict to increase or decrease blood pressure *Tunica Externa - support and protect the vessels

Thyroid Gland

*Two large lobes connected by the isthmus *Bilateral, inferior to the larynx, anterior to the trachea *Two large colloid cavities in each lobe are surrounded by follicular cells *Follicular cells -Secrete thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) *Extrafollicular cells -Secrete calcitonin

Overview of the digestive system

*Two main processes: Digestion and absorption *6 essential activities of the GI tract 1. Ingestion 2. Propulsion 3. Mechanical Digestion 4. Chemical Digestion 5. Absorption 6. Defacation

Imetigo

*Type of Staph Infection *Pink, water-filled lesions that develop a yellow crust

Cellulitis

*Type of Staph Infection *Stretched skin, swelling, fever, fatigue, erythema

Urinary Incontinence

*Unable to voluntarily control sphincter *Urination without control or inability to hold in urine

Hypothyroidism

*Underactive *Fatigue *Weight gain *Low body temperature

Urine Composition

*Urine composition is the volumes of water and other solutes that the kidneys must eliminate from the body or retain for homeostasis *Urine composition varies from time to time due to dietary intake and physical activity *Urine is about 95% water, some urea, uric acid, trace amount of amino acids and electrolytes *Volume is usually between .6 and 2.5 liters per day, depending on fluid intake

Structure of a neuron

*Vary in shape and size *3 parts -Cell body -Dendrites -Axons

What is ventilation? What is respiration? Are they the same thing?

*Ventilation- Pulmonary Ventilation AKA BREATHING; Air moves into and out of the lungs *Respiration- 1. Pulmonary Ventilation AKA BREATHING -Air moves into and out of the lungs 2. External Respiration -Oxygen loading, CO2 unloading between the pulmonary blood and alveoli 3. Respiratory Gas Transport -Oxygen and CO2 transported to and from lungs via the bloodstream 4. Internal Respiration -Gas exchange between systemic capillaries for the body *Ventilation: mechanics of breathing *Respiration: exchange of gases

Pia Mater

*Very thin *Many nerves and blood vessels that nourish cells of brain and spinal cord

Membrane covering outer surface of lung.

*Visceral Pleura -1 in image

Occipital lobe

*Vision *Posterior part of each cerebral hemisphere

When the muscles of inspiration relax, the ____________________ of the lungs is decreased, which increases the air ___________________ within the lungs.

*Volume *Pressure

Aneurysm

*Weak or thin spot on a blood vessel that balloons out and fills with blood *Can press on a nerve, leak, and burst *This will cause a hemorrhage

Dislocation

*When a bone is forced out of its joint cavity *Reduction - when its returned to its proper position

Renal Failure

*When the number of nephrons functioning becomes too low to carry out normal kidney function *Can be caused by repeated pressure, chemical poisoning, repeated infections, chronic hypertension *Filtrate formation stops and toxins build up in the blood *Will need an artificial kidney and dialysis

Matrix

*Where bone cells live *Matrix is made up mostly of collagen (for strength and resilience) and inorganic salts (make it hard and resistant to crushing)

Cerebrum

*Wrinkly, large part of the brain *Higher mental functioning *Solving problems

Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy

*X-linked *Progressive wasting of muscle *Most common in boys *Progressive disease diagnosed around 3

Urea

*a by-product of breaking down amino acids *Its plasma concentration reflects the amount of protein in the diet *About 80% of it is reabsorbed, remainder is excreted in the urine

Glomerular filtration

*begins urine formation. Capillaries in glomerulus filter plasma -This filtered fluid (filtrate) moves into the renal tubule to become urine

Support walls of bronchial tree passageways larger than bronchioles.

*cartilagenous rings

Corpus Callosum

*connects the two hemispheres *Allows the two hemispheres to communicate

Oxytocin (OT)

*contracts smooth muscle in uterus *Assist milk-producing glands in breasts

Skin

*cutaneous membrane *Covers 15-20 square feet *Average weight is 9 pounds (7% of body weight) *2 layers (epidermis and dermis)

Renal Capsule

*encloses each kidney (transparent and fibrous)

Aorta

*largest artery of the body *about the size of a garden hose *internal diameter of your thumb

Hilus

*medial indentation(ureters, renal blood vessels, nerves enter here)

Membrane lining inner wall of thorax.

*parietal pleura -2 in image

Kidneys

*remove substances from the blood *Paired *Small *Dar red *kidney-bean shape *Extend from the T12 to L3 *Right kidney slightly lower than the left *12 cm long, 6 cm wide, 3 cm tick *Parts of the Kidney -Hilus -Adrenal gland sits on top of kidneys -Renal Capsule *Adipose Capsule *Regions inside kidney -Renal Cortex -Renal Medulla -Renal Pelvis

Endocrine gland

*secretions inside the body *ductless

Exocrine gland

*secretions outside the body (sweat) *secrete hormone into ducts

Laryngopharyx

*serves as a passageway for food moving from the mouth to the esophagus and for air moving to and from the nasal cavity *3

Adipose capsule

*surrounds the entire outside to hold it in place against the muscles

Glossopharyngeal nerve

-Both -Taste, gag reflex

Trigeminal nerve

-Both -face sensation, mastication

Facial nerve

-Both -taste, facial expressions

Oculomotor nerve

-Motor -Most eye movement (raise eyelids, adjust light coming in, focus)

Hypoglossal

-Motor -Move tongue

Trochlear nerve

-Motor -Moves eye

Abducens nerve

-Motor -abducts the eyes

Accessory Nerve

-Motor -shoulder shrug, neck movement

Two groups

-PNS -CNS

Olfactory nerve

-Sensory -Smell

Optic nerve

-Sensory -Vision

Vestibulocochlear nerve

-Sensory -hearing and balance

Axial Skeleton

-Skull -Ossicles (inner ear) -Hyoid bone -Vertebral column -Thoracic cage (ribs, 12 pairs) -Sternum

Pancreas

-Soft, pink, triangular gland -Extends across abdomen from spleen to duodenum - Lies posterior to the peritoneum= retroperitoneum - Enzymes secreted by pancreas go into duodenum in an alkaline fluid -Endocrine function: produce insulin and glucagon through alpha and beta cells in pancreatic islets 1. Why is the location of the pancreas referred to as retroperitoneal? -It is referred to as retroperitoneum because it is in the space between the peritoneum (membrane that lines the abdominal cavity) and the posterior abdominal wall. 2. What does the pancreas produce for the digestive system? Where is this substance secreted into? - It produces digestive juices that further break down food left in the stomach. It releases directly into the bloodstream. 3. What is the endocrine function of the pancreas? What hormones does it produce? - Islet cells in the Pancreas secrete hormones into the bloodstream. Insulin which lowers blood sugar and Glucagon which raises blood sugar. 4. List the enzymes in pancreatic juice. -Pancreatic amylase- -Digest carbohydrates -Pancreatic Lipase- Digest triglycerides -Trypsin- Digest protein -Chymotrypsin- Digest protein -Carboxypeptidase- Digest protein -Nucleases- Break nucleic acids into nucleotides 5. What are the functions of the enzymes in the pancreatic juices? - Pancreatic enzymes breakdown and digest fats, carbohydrates, nucleic acids and proteins. 6. What regulates secretion of pancreatic juice? - The nervous and endocrine system regulate the release of pancreatic juices 7. What is the purpose of the pancreatic ducts? -The pancreatic ducts transport pancreatic fluids 8. Identify a pancreatic islet under the microscope and show an alpha cell and beta cell. What do each of these cells produce? - Alpha cell produce/secrete glucagon and beta cells produce/secrete insulin

Vagus nerve

-both -speech, swallowing, gag reflex, heart beat

True rubs

1-7

What two questions are looked at when evaluating the p wave?

1. Are they present? 2. Do they occur regularly?

Cardiac Cycle

1. Atria beat in unison = atrial systole 2. Ventricles contract in unison = ventricular systole 3. Then the entire heart relaxes for a brief moment = diastole *The pressure of the blood on each of the chambers causes the blood to flow from one to the next *Pressure within the heart chambers rise and fall with the contraction and relaxation of the atria *When atria fill, pressure is greater in the atria than the ventricle (forces valves to open) *When ventricles contract, pressure inside them rise sharply causing the AV valves to close and the semilunar valves to open

4 major parts of the brain

1. Cerebrum 2. Diencephalon 3. Cerebelum 4. Brain stem

Hormones can cause one or more of the following reactions in the cell

1. Changes in plasma membrane permeability 2. Synthesis of proteins or molecules 3. Activation or inactivation of enzymes 4. Stimulation of mitosis

Bone Tissue

1. Cortical (Compact) -Wall of diaphysis 2. Cancellous (Spongy) -Red marrow, epiphysis

Long Bone

1. Epiphysis 2. Diaphysis 3. Articular Cartilage 4. Periosteum

What are the functions of the respiratory system?

1. Exchange gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide) 2. Produce vocal sounds 3. Sense of smell 4. Regulation of blood pH

Blood Flow Through The Heart

1. From the body blood enters through the superior and inferior vena cava 2. It enters into the right atrium 3. Through the tricuspid valve 4. Into the right ventricle 5. Through the pulmonary valve 6. Into the pulmonary artery 7. Into the lungs 8. Back into the heart via the pulmonary vein 9. Into the left atrium 10. Through the bicuspid valve 11. Into the left ventricle 12. Through the aortic valve 13. Into the aorta 14. Back to the body via the arteries

4 processes in urine formation

1. Glomerular Filtration- H20 and solutes moved from blood into nephron 2. Tubular Reabsorption- Useful substances move from filtrate into blood 3. Tubular Secretion- Wastes and excess substances move from blood into filtrate 4. Water reabsorption- H20 moves from filtrate into blood

Pathway through nephron

1. Glomerulus 2. Proximal Tubule 3. Nephron loop (loop of henle) 4. Distal Tubule 5. Collecting Duct 6. Ureter 7. Bladder

Hair structure

1. Hair shaft 2. Arrector pili 3. Follicle 4. Hair Bulb

Contraction of the heart

1. Impulse is generated in the SA Node 2. The impulse then travels to the atrial syncytium (bundle of fibers) which causes both atria to contract together 3. This causes pressure to rise which forces all blood into the ventricles 4. The impulse then travels to the Atrioventricular (AV) Node into the Purkinje Fibers 5. Purkinje Fibers lead into the ventricular syncytium (bundle of fibers) 6. This causes pressure to rapidly increase in the ventricles to close AV valves and contract

Stomach

1. In what section of the abdominal cavity can we find the stomach? * Region 2 - Epigastric 2. List the steps of the functions of the stomach. *The digestive glands and the intestines must produce various enzymes, including pepsin, and acid. As it secretes acid and enzymes, the stomach muscles contract in a process called peristalsis to mix the food with the acid and enzymes. 3. What are the four parts of the stomach? *Cardia, Fundus, Body, and Pylorus 4. What is the most important digestive enzyme in the stomach? Which cell secretes this? *Pepsin is a protease enzyme that breaks down food proteins into smaller fragments. A Gastric chief cells secretes it. 5. What type of impulses from the brain can cause gastric juices to be secreted? * Parasympathetic impulses stimulate stomach cells mainly in the pyloric region to secrete a peptide hormone called gastrin. 6. How is chime produced? *Chime is a thick semifluid mass of partially digested food and digestive secretions that is formed in the stomach and intestine during digestion 7. Where are the gastric pits located and what is their purpose? *Located in Pylorus and they denote the entrance into the gastric glands. 8. What factors influence how quickly chime leaves the stomach? *The fluidity of the chyme and the type of food in the stomach 9. What motor responses happen each time a person vomits? *he vomit reflex which empties the stomach in reverse of the normal direction. 10. What part of the stomach is the fundus? *The upper part of the stomach next to the cardia.

Four Stages in Skin Healing

1. Inflammation 2. Scab formation 3. Cell division and migration 4. Scar Formation

Bones form by replacing existing connective tissue (hyaline cartilage) in two ways:

1. Intramembranous Bones -Flat bones in skull 2. Endochondral Bones -All other bones in the body

Bone Classifications

1. Long bones -Ulna, radius, femur 2. Short bones -Cube-like - wrist -Sesmoid - under big toe, patella 3. Flat bones -Ribs, scapula, some skull 4. Irregular bones -Connect to many other bones -Vertebrae, face

What is the endocrine system?

1. Made up of glands that produce and secrete hormones (chemical messengers) 2. Regulation of growth, metabolism, sexual development 3. Responds to stress and injury 4. Internal balance of body systems (homeostasis)

Basic Skin Functions

1. Mechanical damage (Bumps) 2. Chemical damage (Acids and bases 3. Bacterial damage 4. UV Radiation 5. Thermal damage and regulation (Hot and cold) 6. Desication 7. Synthesized Vitamin D 8. Aids in excretion of urea and uric acid

Factors that Affect Bone Growth

1. Nutrition- Vitamin D 2. Hormonal Secretions 3. Physical Exercise

What are the different phases of ventilation?

1. Pulmonary Ventilation Aka breathing- Air moves into and out of the lungs 2. External Respiration- Oxygen loading, CO2 unloading between the pulmonary blood and alveoli 3. Respiratory Gas Transport- Oxygen and CO2 transported to and from the lungs via the bloodstream 4. Internal Respiration- Gas exchange between systemic capillaries for the body

Functions of the Urinary System

1. Remove salts and nitrogenous waste 2. Maintain normal concentration of water and electrolytes 3. Maintains pH, controls red blood cells production, controls blood pressure

Nervous system functions

1. Sensory- gathers info (light, sounds, etc) 2. Integrative- info brought together to create a sensation or memory 3. Motor- Responds to these memories, homeostasis

Bone Functions

1. Support and protection 2. Body movement 3. Blood cell formation (bone marrow) - AKA 4. hematopoiesis Storage of inorganic materials

Nose Questions

1. What are the functions of the paranasal sinuses? -Warms air, traps incoming bacteria 2. What are the three main paranasal sinuses? -Increase surface area for more mucous 3. What is the purpose of the nasal palate? -Lighten the weight of the skull -Resonance for speech -Produce mucous

larynx Questions?

1. What is another name for the larynx? -Voice box 2. What is the purpose of the larynx? -Routes air and food into the proper places -Houses vocal cords 3. How many hyaline cartilage are there? What is the largest called? -__8___ rigid hyaline cartilage -Largest? Adam's Apple 4. How many elastic cartilage are there? this is also called the: -1 Elastic cartilage - Epiglottis 5. What is the purpose of the epiglottis? -Purpose? Forms lid over larynx when we swallow so no food gets in 6. How do the vocal cords produce sounds? -Purpose? Opens for breathing and talking -True versus false vocal cords: True: produce sound; False: no sound - Change shape of the pharynx and oral cavity 7. What type of cartilage forms the epiglottis? -Elastic 8. What is the common name for the thyroid cartilage? -Hyaline Cartilage 9. Which pair of folds found in the larynx are true vocal cords (superior or inferior)? -Superior = False -Inferior = True

Pharynx Questions?

1. What is the pharynx also called? -The throat 2. What is the purpose of the pharynx? - Common passageway for food and air 3. What are the three parts of the pharynx? -Nasopharynx -Oropharynx -laryngopharynx 4. At which point do air and food separate in the pharynx and where does each go? -At the laryngopharynx -Air to larynx -Food to esophogus 5. what is the function of the tonsils? -Lymphatic tissue to fight infections 6. name the three main tonsils and where are they located. -Pharyngeal (adenoids) -Palatine -Lingual

Trachea Questions?

1. What is the trachea also called? -Windpipe 2. Where is the trachea located? -Larynx to 5th thoracic vertebrae 3. What is the purpose of the cilia in the trachea? -Beats in opposite direction to propel out dust particles 4. What role is played by the cartilage rings that reinforce the trachea? -Protection so air can move through 5. Why are the cartilage rings incomplete posteriorly? -Allows esophagus to expand when food is swallowed if needed 6. What occurs when the trachealis muscle contracts and why would this happen? -Contraction of the trachealis muscle reduces the diameter of the trachea, causing the air to rush superiorly and with greater force. Helps to clear the mucus from the airway during coughing.

Mouth

1. What process occurs here? - Mouth: ingestion 2. Once food is received into the mouth, what action begins next? - Digestion immediately begins 3. What types of digestion occur here? What are examples of each type of digestion? - Chemical - salivary amylase digests carbohydrates - immediate energy -Mechanical - chewing (mastication) and tongue (moves food around to reach more teeth and saliva. Also assist in pushing food to back of mouth) 4. What connects the midline of the tongue to the floor of the mouth? - Attached to the floor of the mouth by the lingual frenulum - this prevents the tongue from moving too far posteriorly 5. What is the purpose of the tongue? - Mixing food and saliva- helps chew and mix food 6. What are the two functions of the papillae? -Covered in papillae - increase surface area and contain taste buds 7. What important enzyme is present in the mouth and what does it digest? -Salivary amylase- It breaks down starch when you chew your food, and converts it to maltose (a smaller carbohydrate)

Small intestine

1. Where does the small intestine begin and end? - The small intestine begins at the stomach and moves down all the way to the large intestine. During this time, most of digestion is completed. 2. How long does the small intestine tend to be? - This is the largest section of the alimentary canal and in a normal sized human can be about 6 meters or 20 feet long when unraveled. 3. Three parts of the small intestine? -Duodenum- the first part of the small intestine where the food enters after the pyloric sphincter. - Jejunum - the middle part of the small intestine where there is more tissue than the previous part in addition to more villi and folds to increase surface area - Ileum - the last part of the small intestine before the food enters into the large intestine with the most tissue and villi/ folds to have the most surface area out of the three. 4. What is the Pyloric Sphincter? -The Pyloric sphincter, which is also known as the "gatekeeper" controls food movement into the small intestines. 5. Pancreatic and Bile Ducts -Bile is secreted by the liver and gallbladder -It travels through the Pancreatic and Bile Ducts -It then goes into the duodenum which is where the majority of digestion occurs. 6. Increased Absorption in the Small Intestine - There are many ways the small intestine increases absorption: - Villi - Microvilli -Circular folds *These things all increase the surface area in the small intestine 7. What is the purpose of Peyer's patches? Why is this necessary for the indigested food in the small intestine? -A Peyer's patch is a small mass of lymphatic tissue found throughout the ileum region of the small intestine. They are also known as aggregated lymphoid nodules. Peyer's Patches form an important part of the immune system because they monitor intestinal bacteria populations and prevent growth of pathogenic bacteria in the intestines. 8. Why is the adaptation of the circular folds disappearing when food enters necessary for the small intestine to do its job effectively? - The circular folds disappearing are necessary to slow the passage of food along the intestines and afford an increased surface for absorption. The circular folds are covered with small finger-like projections called villi, villi are covered with microvilli which absorb fats and nutrients.

Lung Questions?

1. Where is the location of the lungs? -Entire thoracic cavity except for the mediastinum -Apex below the clavicle -Base on the diaphragm 2. How many lobes are located on each side? -Right 3 lobes; Left 2 lobes 3. What are the two types of pleura and what is their function? -Visceral - covers each lung -Parietal - lubricates for movement 4. What is the purpose of the alveoli? 5. Explain how gas exchange happens. -Air-blood barrier -Gas flows past one side, blood flows past the other -Simple diffusion 6. What is the purpose of macrophages in the lungs? -Pick up any debris missed on the way down 7. what is surfactant? -Lubricant in alveoli that helps with gas exchange

Bronchi questions

1. Which of the main bronchi is larger in diameter? 2. which of the main bronchi is more horizontal? 3. which of the main bronchi is the most common side for lodging of a foreign object that has entered the respiratory passageway? why? -Right is wider, shorter, straighter -Left is thinner, longer, more bend -Right is more common for inhaling a foreign object

Floating ribs

11 and 12

Phalanges (Foot)

14

How many seconds are each recorded interval on an ECG?

3 sec

Metatarsals

5

Tarsals

7

Vertebral Column

7 Cervical 12 Thoracic 5 Lumbar 5 Sacrum

False ribs

8-10

Enamel

A

Nasopharynx

A *Not apart of the digestive system, but it connects the nose to the mouth and allows a person to breathe through their nose. This is where the pharyngeal tonsils are located.

Avulsion

A cut from a very sharp object such as a knife or blade

Incision

A cut from a very sharp object such as a knife or blade

Extrasystole

A premature contraction of the heart that is independent of the normal rhythm of the heart and that arises in response to an impulse in some part of the heart other than the normal impulse from the sinoatrial (SA) node. The extrasystole is followed by a pause, as the heart electrical system "resets" itself and the contraction following the pause is usually more forceful than normal. These more forceful contractions are frequently perceived as palpitations.

Lesion

A single area of altered skin

Heart valves

AV valves *Tricuspid *Mitral (bicuspid) Semilunar valves *Pulmonary *Aortic

Jaundice

Abnormal yellowish skin due to liver disorder

How Many bones are in the human body?

About 206

Superior

Above

Urine=

Amount filtered at the glomerulus -Amount reabsorbed by the tubule +Amount secreted by the tubule =Amount excreted in the urine

Vascular System

Arteries - Away from the heart - feed into: *Arterioles - smaller arteries - feed into: *Capillary beds - drained by: *Venules - which turn into empty: *Veins - carry blood into the heart

Epiphysis

Articulate (forms a joint)

Wheezing, labored breathing due to constriction of bronchioles

Asthma

Atrioventricular valve (AV valve)

Atrioventricular valve (AV valve) Separates atrium and ventricle to allow blood flow in only one direction *Tricuspid valve *Bicuspid (Mitral) valve

Jejunum

B

Dentin

B *Dentin lays under the enamel in the tooth and is considered a hard tissue. The dentin surrounds the pulp and connects to it. The purpose of dentin is to protect the pulp and give our teeth color. Healthy teeth colors can range from an off white color to a light yellow.

Oropharynx

B *serves as a passageway for food moving from the mouth to the esophagus and for air moving to and from the nasal cavity

Posterior

Back

Epiphyseal Disk (Growth Plate)

Band of cartilage between epiphysis (end of long bone) and diaphysis (shaft of long bone)

Why is the QRS complex bigger than the p wave?

Because of its larger tissue mass

Inferior

Below

Hematoma

Black and blue, bruises

Cystitis

Bladder infection

Hematuria

Blood in urine

Osseous

Bone tissue

Central nervous system

Brain and spinal cord

Inflammation of the bronchi

Bronchitis

Ileum

C

Pulp

C *The tooth pulp, otherwise referred to as a nerve, is made up of blood vessels, connective tissue, and nerves. The purpose of the pulp is to form dentin and recognize sensitivity. This is important to the tooth because it will alert the brain that something needs to change.

Glutamic Acid

CNS *Excitatory

GABA

CNS *Inhibitory

Seratonin

CNS *Inhibitory- leads to sleepiness

Endorphines

CNS *Inhibitory- reduces pain

Histamine

CNS *Released by hypothalamus to promote alertness

Norepinephrine

CNS PNS *Sense of feeling good *Excite or inhibit autonomic nervous system

Dopamine

CNS PNS *Sense of good feeling *Excite or inhibit autonomic nervous system

Acetylcholine

CNS PNS *Skeletal muscle actions *Skeletal muscle contraction

The Epidermis

Cells *Keratinicytes -Produce keratin -Dell skin *Melanocytes -Produce melanin -Stratum Basale -Causes keritinizaiton *Langerhans' (dendritic) cells -White blood cells form bone marrow -Ingest foreign substances *Tactile (Merkel) cells -Sensory receptors for touch Layers (Deep to superficial) *Stratum basale -Deepest layer -0% keratinocytes, 10% melanocytes *Stratum spinosum -Langerhans' cells are located here *Stratum granulosum -Very thin -Keritinization begins here *Stratum lucidum (thick skin only) -Clear, flat, dead cells *Stratum corneum -Dead skin

Aortic Valve

Closes off the lower left chamber that holds the oxygen-rich blood before it is pumped out to the body. Opens to allow blood to leave the heart (from the left ventricle to the aorta and on to the body).

Atelectasis

Collapsed lung

Nervous system =

Communication

CNS- Astrocytes

Connect blood vessels to neurons

Diarrhea and constipation

Constipation *Fewer than three bowel movements a week or hard dry bowel movements that are painful *Slow movement of stool through the colon Diarrhea *When secretion of water into the intestinal lumen exceeds absorption *Generally caused by bacterial infection

Cell body

Contains the nucleus and two types of extensions 1. Dendrites 2. Axons *Cytoplasm *Cell membrane *Organelles: mitochondria, lysosomes, golgi apparatus *Neurofibrils - thin filaments *Chromatophilic substances (Nissl bodies) - are like ER, they move ribosomes throughout the cell for protein synthesis *Nucleus

Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)

Controls secretion of adrenal gland hormones

Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH)

Controls secretion of thyroid gland hormones

Integument

Covering

Laceration

Deep cut or tearing of the skin

Fundus

E

Disorder characterized by a reduction of the respiratory surface area and decrease in the expiratory reserve volume

Emphysema

Rupture of alveoli due to exposure to airborne irritants

Emphysema

Volume forcefully exhaled after quiet expiration

Expiratory Reserve Volume

Oxygen and carbon dioxide compete for the same binding site on the hemoglobin molecule

False

Fast Twitch

Fatigable Less myoglobin White fibers Poor blood supply

Slow Twitch

Fatigue-resistant Always oxidative Red fibers Mostly myoglobin Good blood supply

All or none response

Fibers do not contract partially, they either do or don't

Glomerulus

Filtration of water and dissolved substances from plasma

CNS- Ependymal Cells

Form membrane for specialized brain areas and spinal cord

Anterior

Front

Warts

Growths cause by HPV - transmitted through contact

How is oxygen transported throughout the body?

Hemoglobin

Tumors in Adrenal Gland

High blood pressure, elevated blood sugar, increased heart rate

Air flows into the lungs because of the __________________ atmospheric pressure.

Higher

Air flows out of the lungs because of the __________________ air pressure within the lungs.

Higher

Pituitary hormones

Hormones: 1. ACTH 2. GH 3. TSH 4. FSH 5. LH 6. Prolactin 7. Oxytocin 8. ADH Acts on: 1. Adrenal gland 2. Bone 3. Muscle 4. Skin 5. Thyroid 6. Testis/ Ovaries 7. Breasts 8. Kidneys

Articular Cartilage

Hyaline cartilage that covers epiphysis

Medial

Imaginary midline dividing the body into equal right and left halves

Boils/Carbuncles

Infection in the actual hair follicle

Acne

Infection in the sebaceous gland

Urethritis

Infection in the urethra

Arthritis

Inflammation in the joint

Tendonitis

Inflammation or irritation of a tendon

Viral disease characterized by fever, chills, aches, and coldlike symptoms

Influenza

Air flows into the lungs during _______________ and out of the lungs during ____________________.

Inspiration; Expiration

Volume forcefully inhaled after quiet inspiration

Inspiratory reserve volume

Pyelonephritis

Kidney infection

Molars

Located in the back of the arch, has a flat biting surface for biting food.

Canines

Located in the corner of the dental arch, meant for gripping food

Incisors

Located in the front of the mouth, have sharp teeth for chewing and biting.

CMS- Oligodendrocytes

Make myelin sheath around axons in brain and spinal cord

Muscle tone

Muscles sustain some contraction even when at rest. A few fibers at a time are always contracting *Hypertrophy- muscles enlarge (due to working out or certain disorders) *Atrophy- muscle become small and weak due to do disuse

Peripheral Nervous system

Nerves of the body

Neuroglia

Neuron supporting cells 1) CNS *Microglial cells *Oligodendrocytes *Astrocytes *Ependymal cells 2) PNS * Schwann cells

What Organs are involved in the respiratory system?

Nose Pharynx Larynx Trachea Bronchi Lungs

Epitaxis

Nose bleed

Openings allowing air to enter the nose.

Nostrils or external nares

Hyoid Bone

Only unattached bone in the human body

Substance P

PNS *Excitatory- pain perception

Dysuria

Painful urination

Apnea

Pauses in breathing

Acute inflammation of alveoli due to viral or bacterial infection

Pneumonia

PNS- Schwann cells

Produce myelin sheath

Accumulation of fluid in the lungs

Pulmonary Edema

Blockage of artery in lung by a transported blood clot

Pulmonary embolism

Proximal Convoluted Tubule

Reabsorption of glucose, amino acids, creatine, uric acid, phosphate, sulfate, water, electrolytes Secretion of substances such as penicillin, histamine, creatinine, hydrogen

Distal Convoluted Tubule

Reabsorption of hydrogen, potassium, sodium, water

Ascending nephron loop

Reabsorption of sodium, potassium, chloride ions by active transport

Collecting duct

Reabsorption of water by osmosis

Descending nephron loop

Reabsorption of water by osmosis

Glomerular Capsule

Receives glomerular filtrate

Erythema

Reddened skin due to hypertension or inflammation

T Wave

Repolarization of the ventricles

Air that always remains in the lungs

Residual Volume

Which bronchi is more vertical?

Right

Into what chamber does blood drain from the vena cava?

Right Atrium

Primary Bronchi

Right and left primary bronchi A division of the trachea *Runs obliquely before it plunges into the lung *The right is wider, shorter, and straighter than the left *The right side is more common for an inhaled foreign object *By the time the air enters here it is warm, cleaned, and humidified

Asthma

S&S *Airways narrow, swell, produce extra mucus *Difficulty breathing, coughing, wheezing, shortness of breath Etiology *Unknown - probably environmental and inherited factors

Bronchitis

S&S *Cough up thick mucus *Fatigue *Shortness of breath *Chest pain Etiology *Inflammation of lining of bronchial tubes *Acute - from cold or respiratory infection *Chronic - more severe, from smoking

Tuberculosis

S&S *Coughing up blood, chest pain *Unintentional weight loss *Loss of appetite, night sweats, fever *Can affect other parts of the body such as kidneys, spine brain Etiology *Caused by a bacteria *Transmitted through tiny droplets in air via cough or sneeze *Characterized by the growth of nodules in tissues

Pleurisy AKA pleuritis

S&S *Difficulty and painful breathing *Excess fluid in the membranes *Pain in chest Etiology *Inflammation of the pleura *Viral, pneumonia, chest injury

Pneumonia

S&S *Fever *cough *chest pain *shortness of breath Etiology *Infection that inflames the air sacs in one or both lungs *Can be viral, bacterial, fungal

Laryngitis

S&S *Hoarseness (lack of voice) Etiology *Mucus membrane of the larynx becomes inflamed due to infection or irritation *Prevents vocal cords from vibrating freely *Usually viral *Croup (bacterial laryngitis)

Cystic Fibrosis

S&S *In lungs - thick, sticky mucus that traps bacteria Etiology *Recessive genetic trait. *Defect in ion channels

SInusitis

S&S *Inflammation of sinuses *Facial pain, stuffiness, discharge yellow or green, loss of smell *Fever *Bad breath *Dental pain Etiology *Caused by common cold, allergies, deviated septum

Pharyngitis AKA sore throat

S&S *Inflammation of the pharynx *Scratchiness in the throat, difficulty swallowing *Cold or flu symptoms Etiology *Occurs during colder months *Bacterial or viral

Pulmonary embolism

S&S *Shortness of breath *Chest pain *Cough *Fever, pain, rapid heartbeat, dizziness Etiology *Blockage in one of the pulmonary arteries in lungs *Generally caused by blood clots that travel to lungs from legs (DVT)

Rhinitis

S&S *Stuffy or runny nose *Sneezing *Post-nasal drip Etiology *Inflammation of mucous membrane in the nose *Viral, bacterial, irritants, allergies

Pneumothorax

S&S *Sudden chest pain *Shortness of breath Etiology *A puncture in the thoracic wall may admit air into the pleural cavity and create space between the pleura. *Chest injury

Ovaries

Secretes estrogen and progesterone

Testis

Secretes testosterone

Luteinizing Hormone (LH)

Secretion of sex hormones

Pulmonary Circuit

Sends deoxygenated blood to lungs to pick up 02 and drop off CO2

Systemic Circuit

Sends oxygen rich blood to all body cells and removes wastes

Septum

Separates right and left halves so that blood canot mix

Diaphysis

Shaft of bone

Orthopnea

Shortness of breath

Inflammation of nasal membranes

Sinusitis Sinus infection Cold

cyanosis

Skin appears blue due to lack of oxygen

Pallor

Skin is pale due to anemia, low BP, low blood flow to the area

Abrasion

Skin scraped against rough surface

Puncture

Small hole caused by a pointy object

Growth Hormone (GH)

Stimulates increase in size of body cells

Follicle-stimulating Hormone (FSH)

Stimulates production of egg follicles (females) or sperm (males)

Contralateral

Structures on opposite sides

Ipsilateral

Structures on same side

Prolactin

Sustains milk production after birth

Divisions of the Autonomic Nervous System

Sympathetic *Prepares the body for expanding, stressful, or emergecy situations *Flight or response Parasympathetic *Active under ordinary, restful conditions *Counteracts the imbalances of the sympathetic nervous system *Restores the body to a restful state

What muscle does the heart lay on?

The Myocardium

What chamber does the aorta arise from?

The aorta arises from the left ventricle. This blood vessel is the largest artery in the body. The aorta gives rise to other arteries, such as the carotid, coronary and subclavian branches.

Distal

The body part is further away from a point of attachment to the trunk than another body part

What is the purpose of the superior and inferior vena cava?

The inferior vena cava is a vein. It carries deoxygenated blood from the lower half of the body to the right atrium of the heart. The corresponding vein that carries deoxygenated blood from the upper half of the body is the superior vena cava.

Why is the left side of the heart more muscular?

The left ventricle has a thicker muscle wall than the right ventricle. This is because the left ventricle has to pump blood all the way around the body, but the right ventricle only has to pump it to the lungs.

If something gets stuck in one of the bronchi, which one will it generally happen to? Why?

The right side is more common for an inhaled foreign object

Pulmonary valve

The valve is opened by the increased blood pressure of the ventricular systole (contraction of the muscular tissue), pushing blood out of the heart and into the artery. It closes when the pressure drops inside the heart. It is located in the right ventricle of the heart.

Premolars

They have a flatter surface,meant for tearing and crushing food

Complete heart block

Third-degree atrioventricular block (AV block), also known as complete heart block, is a medical condition in which the impulse generated in the sinoatrial node (SA node) in the atrium of the heart does not propagate to the ventricles.

Volume of air exhaled in quiet expiration

Tidal volume

Blood loads or unloads CO2 depending upon the surrounding carbon dioxide concentration

True

Deoxygenated blood carries some oxygen

True

Hemoglobin can carry both O2 and CO2 at the same time

True

Oxygenated blood carries some carbon dioxide

True

Patch Test

Used to detect allergy. Allergens applied to skin directly or injected directly under the first few layers of skin. Redness, itching, swelling indicative of a reaction

Skin Biopsy

Used when abnormal growths appear on skin that could be cancerous. Piece of the area is removed and tested in the lab

Maximum volume forcefully exhaled after maximum forceful inspiration

Vital Capacity

Ingestion

Voluntary action of food being places into the mouth

Skin Culture

When a bacterial, fungal, or viral infection is suspected. May include tissues or fluids in affected area. Sample is then grown on different types of media in the lab to see what microorganism is causing the reaction

Ventricular Fibrilation

a heart rhythm problem that occurs when the heart beats with rapid, erratic electrical impulses. This causes pumping chambers in your heart (the ventricles) to quiver uselessly, instead of pumping blood.

Tricuspid valve

a valve that is situated at the opening of the right atrium of the heart into the right ventricle and that resembles the mitral valve in structure but consists of three triangular membranous flaps—called also right atrioventricular valve.

Anuria

abnormally low urinary ouput

Tachypnea

abnormally rapid breathing

Lysosome

an organelle in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells containing degradative enzymes enclosed in a membrane

What is the purpose of the chordae tendinae?

cord-like tendons that connect the papillary muscles to the tricuspid valve and the mitral valve in the heart.

Hyperventilation

deep, rapid breathing

P Wave

depolarization of the atria

QRS Complex

depolarization of the ventricles

Dyspnea

difficult or labored breathing

Golgi Apparatus

gathers simple molecules and combines them to make molecules that are more complex. It then takes those big molecules, packages them in vesicles, and either stores them for later use or sends them out of the cell. It is also the organelle that builds lysosomes (cell digestion machines).

Tachycardia

heart rate that exceeds the normal resting rate

Hyperpnea

increased depth of breathing

Mitochondria

known as the powerhouses of the cell. They are organelles that act like a digestive system which takes in nutrients, breaks them down, and creates energy rich molecules for the cell. The biochemical processes of the cell are known as cellular respiration.

Axons

longer, one single "fiber," conducts impulse away from the cell body *Starts as a single structure but may branch (a collateral) *Larger axons of PNS are surrounded by myelin sheaths produced by Schwann cells *Insulates cells *Helps to make impulse move faster *With myelin - myelinated - white matter *No myeline - unmyelinated - grey matter *Nodes of Ranvier - small gaps between Schwann Cells

Bicuspid valve

opens to increased pressure as the left atrium fills with blood. Blood flows through into the left ventricle as the heart expands (diastole). It then closes as the heart contracts (systole) and forces blood into the aorta. This process is vital to the heart's function.

Bilateral

paired structures, one on each side of the midline

Rales

rattling sound heard when examining unhealthy lungs

Wernicke's area

sensory speech area. Understanding written or spoken language

Transverse fissure

separates cerebrum from cerebellum

Lateral Fissure

separates the temporal lobe from the Frontal and Parietal lobes

Dendrites

shorter, more numerous, receive information -Short -Highly branched -Main receptive surfaces

Proximal

the body part that is closer to a point of attachment to the trunk than another body part

Lateral

towards the side, away from the midline

Hemoglobin loads or unloads oxygen, depending on the surrounding oxygen concentration

true